SUHAIL Q.

MIR
[email protected]

MSc. IT
Directorate of Information Technology & Support Systems
University of Kashmir
 What is a SET
A SET is a collection of Objects.
Examples:

• A = Students in DM class
• V = {a, e, i, o, u}. The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet
• B = {2,4,6,8} , even numbers lesser than 10
-
• ℤ = -ve integers
• {a, 2, Fred, New Jersey} is the set containing the four
elements a, 2, Fred, and New Jersey.
 Elements of a SET

The Individual Objects Inside the set are referred to as the elements of the SET

1. A = Students in DM class notation

UBAID ∈ A
2. V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
3. B = {2,4,6,8} , even numbers lesser than 10
4. ℤ = integers This symbol means “Element of”

u∈V 2∈B
-3 ∈ ℤ
notation
The notation {a, b, c, d} represents the set with the 6∈ℤ
four elements a, b, c, and d. This way of describing a
set is known as the Roster Method.
 Elements that do not belong to a SET

The Individual Objects that do not belong to a SET

1. A = Students in DM class Suhail ∉ A

2. V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
3. B = {2,4,6,8} , even numbers lesser than 10
4. ℤ = integers Not an Element of

p∉V 5∉B ∏∉ℤ

⅜∉ℤ
 Elements of a SET

Basic Properties: Distinct and Unordered

Order and Repetition do not matter

For example if {2,4,6,8} is a set

{2,4,6,8} = {4,8,2,6}, Elements in the set = 4 (Unordered )

{2,4,6,8} = {4,4,4,8,8,2,6,6,6,6,6,6}, Elements in the set = 4 (Distinct )

 SUBSETS
It is common to encounter situations where the elements of one set
are also the elements of a second set.

The set A is a subset of B, if and only if every element of A is also an

element of B, and B is a superset of A.

We use the notation A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.

If we want to stress that B is a superset of A, we use the equivalent

notation B ⊇ A
 SUBSET EXAMPLES
Example 1 Example 2
A⊆B
B = {2,4,6,8} B = {ℤ}
A = {4,6} A = {-1,-6,0,2,6,9}
Smaller Set Larger Set
A ⊆ B, B ⊇ A A ⊆ B
Example 3 Example 4 Example 5
B = {ℤ} B = {2,4,6,8} B = {ℤ}
-
A = {ℤ } A = {2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,6} A = {EVEN INTEGERS}
A⊆B A ⊆ B, B ⊇ A A⊆B
 SUBSET EXAMPLES

Not a SUBSET

A B Example 1 Example 2
B = {2,4,6,8} B = {ℤ}
A = {1,6} A = {⅜,∏,5,6,7}
A⊈B A⊈B
 SUBSET EXAMPLES
Example 1 Example 2
B = {2,4,6,8} B = {ℤ}
A = {2,6} A = {⅜,∏,5,6,7}
A⊆B A⊈B

if x ∈ A then x ∈ B. if x ∈ A then x ∉ B.

X=6 X= ⅜
 USING THE QUANTIFIERS
Example 1 Example 2
B = {2,4,6,8} B = {ℤ}
A = {2,6} A = {⅜,∏,5,6,7}
A⊆B A⊈B

if x ∈ A then x ∈ B If x ∈ A then x ∉ B.

∀x ∈ A , x ∈ B ∃x ∈ A , x ∉ B
(For ALL X in A, X is also in B) There EXISTS an X in A that does not belong to B
0R 0R
(For EVERY ELEMENT of X in A, X is also in B) there exists an element X in A that does
not belong to B
 USING THE QUANTIFIERS
Example 1 Example 2
B = {2,4,6,8} A = {ℤ}
A = {2,6} B= {0,5,6,7}
B ⊇ A (superset notion) A ⊇ B (superset notion)

if x ∈ A then x ∈ B If x ∈ B then x ∈ A.

Write the Statements Using the Quantifiers

 SET ROSTER & SET BUILDER NOTATIONS.

{0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18}, Set of +ve integers less than 20

{0,2,4,6,8,……}, Set of +ve even integers.

{ …….-8,-6,-4,-2,0,2,4,6,8,……}, Set of even integers.

This representation will work well as long the pattern is clearly
established
 SET ROSTER & SET BUILDER NOTATIONS.

Some well known sets in SET ROSTER form in DM

N or ℕ= {0, 1, 2, 3,…}, the set of all natural numbers

R = {...8, √-16,- π /2,- 1,3/4 , √2, e, π (pi),20,…}, the set of all real numbers.

R+ = {1, 3/4 , √2, e, π (pi),20,…} the set of all positive real numbers

C = the set of all complex numbers.

 SET BUILDER NOTATIONS.

General Form: {x ∣ P(x) }

Variable Short hand for x has property P and it is TRUE

“SUCH THAT”
 SET BUILDER NOTATIONS.

{x ∣ P(x) }
TRUE

Example 1: the set of all even positive integers less than 20.
= {x ∣ x is an even positive integer less than 20}
= {x ∣ x is even and x < 20 and x ∈ ℤ+ }
= {x ∈ ℤ+ ∣ x is even and x < 20}

Example 2: number whose square root is an integer

= {x ∣ √x ∈ ℤ }
 SET BUILDER NOTATIONS.

{x ∣ P(x) }
TRUE

Example 3: the set Q+ of all positive rational numbers (made by

dividing two integers) can be written as:

Q+ = {x ∈ R ∣ x = p/q, for some positive integers p and q}.

 SET BUILDER NOTATIONS.

What is This Statement ?

∀S,T: S = T ↔ [∀x (x∈S ↔ x∈T)]

∀x (x∈S , x∈T), what does this mean ?

 SET BUILDER NOTATIONS.
set equality in terms of ∈ relation

∀S,T: S = T ↔ [∀x (x∈S ↔ x∈T)]

P Q

S T S↔T
S=T↔ ∀x P(x) 1 1 TRUE
1 0 FALSE
0 1 FALSE
0 0 TRUE

P Q
 THE EMPTY SET.
∅ (“null”, “the empty set”) is the unique set that contains no
elements whatsoever.
The empty set can also be denoted by {}

∅ = { }= {x | False},
singleton set (set with one element).

¬∃x: x∈∅.
{ } ≠ {∅} = { { } } {∅} it isn’t empty because it has ∅ as a member!
1 ≠ {1} ≠ { {1} }
 CARDINALITY
|S| (read “the cardinality of S”) is a measure of how
many different elements S has.
Example:
Let A be the set of odd positive integers less than 10. Then |A| = 5.
|∅|=0, | {2, 5, 3} | = 3, | {a, b} | = 2,

|{∅} | = 1, | { {1, 2, 3}, {4, 5} } | = 2, | {2,2,2,2,5} | = 2

If |S| ∈ N, then we say S is finite.

Otherwise, we say S is infinite.
 THE POWER SET
The objects that are elements of a set may
themselves be sets.
Example:
Let S = {x | x ⊆ {1, 2, 3}}

then P(S) = { ∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3} }
Note that for finite S, |P(S)| = 2|S|
P(∅) = {∅}
P({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}
every nonempty set S is guaranteed to have at least two
∅ ⊆ S, S ⊆ S subsets, theempty set and the set S itself, that is
 THE POWER SET
Example:
Let S = {x | x ⊆ {a,b,c}} Note that for finite S, |P(S)| = 2|S|
Find its P(S) = { }

Example:
Let S = {x | x ⊆ {red, blue}}
Find its P(S) = { }
 VENN DIAGRAMS.
Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams.

In Venn diagrams the universal set U, which contains all the objects
under consideration, is represented by a rectangle. (Note that the
universal set varies depending on which objects are of interest.) Inside
this rectangle, circles or other geometrical figures are used to represent
sets. Sometimes points are used to represent the particular elements of
the set. Venn diagrams are often used to indicate the relationships
between sets.
 VENN DIAGRAMS.
Examples 1:
Draw a Venn diagram that represents V, the set of vowels in the English
alphabet.

U = { English Alphabet }
V = {a,e,i,o,u}

V⊆U OR
 VENN DIAGRAMS.
Example 2
ℤ = {set of integers}, A = {-1,-6,0,2,6,9}
A⊆ℤ

ℤ ℤ
. -1 . -6
A .2 A .0
.9 .6
Example 3
 ORDERED ELEMENTS (N-TUPLES).
These are like sets, except that duplicates matter, and the order
makes a difference.

The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2,…, an) is the ordered collection that has a1 as
its first element, a2 as its second element,…, and an as its nth element.
We say that two ordered n-tuples are equal if and only if each
corresponding pair of their elements is equal. In other words, (a1, a2,…,
an) = (b1, b2,…, bn) if and only if ai = bi, for i = 1, 2,…, n. In particular,
ordered 2-tuples are called ordered pairs. The ordered pairs (a, b) and
(c, d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.
Note that (1, 2) ≠ (2, 1) ≠ (2, 1, 1).
 CARTESIAN PRODUCT (SETS).
For sets A and B, their Cartesian product denoted by A × B, is the
set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a∈A and b∈B.
Hence,
A × B = { (a, b) | a∈A ∧ b∈B }.

{a, b} × {1, 2}
= { (a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2) }

Note that for finite A, B, |A × B| = |A||B|.

 CARTESIAN PRODUCT (SETS).

Note that the Cartesian product is not commutative: i.e.,

¬∀A,B (A × B = B × A).

Cartesian product of A ={a, b} and B = {1, 2} ?

A × B ={a, b} × {1, 2}
= { (a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2) }

B × A = {1, 2} × {a, b}
= { (1, a), (2, a), (1, b), (2, b) }
 CARTESIAN PRODUCT (SETS).
The Cartesian product of the sets A , A ,…, A , denoted by A × A ×⋯× A , is the
1 2 n 1 2 n

set of ordered n-tuples (a , a ,…, a ), where a belongs to A for i = 1, 2,…, n. In

1 2 n i i

other words, A × A ×⋯× A = {(a , a ,…, a ) ∣ a ∈ A for i = 1, 2,…, n}.

1 2 n 1 2 n i i

Q1. What is the Cartesian product A × B × C, where A = {0, 1}, B = {1, 2},
and C = {0, 1, 2}?

Q2. Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {x, y}, and C = {0, 1}. Find

a) A × B × C. b) C × B × A.
c) C × A × B. d) B × B × B.
 MORE EXERCISES
Q1. What is the cardinality and power sets of each of these
sets?
1. {∅, {∅}}, 2. {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}}

Q2. Find A^2 if (A × A )

a) A = {0, 1, 3}.
b) A = {1, 2, a, b}.

Q3. Explain why (A × B) × (C × D) and A × (B × C) × D are

not the same.
Q2. Find A^3 if (A × A × A )
a) A = {a}. b) A = {0, a}.