Experiment # 4

Study of jet Engine.

Objective:
 We are to study the jet propulsion
 Rocket propulsion
 Turbo jet engine
 Parts of jet engine
 Working of jet engine
 Thermodynamics of jet engine
 Merits and de-merit
 Applications of jet engine

Theory:
First of all we will study what is propulsion.

- Propulsion:

Propulsion is a means of creating force leading to movement.

propulsion system has a source of mechanical power (some type of engine or motor, muscles),
and some means of using this power to generate force, such as wheel and axles, propellers, a
propulsive nozzle, wings, fins or legs.

Other components such as clutches, gearboxes and so forth may be needed to connect the
power source to the force generating component.

The term propulsion is derived from two Latin words:

pro meaning before or forwards and pellere meaning
to drive.
We have many types of propulsions:

1. Air propulsion:

An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and

some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.

An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion
system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the
thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to
accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the thrust and the drag, called the excess
thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.

Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For
these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage.
Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high
thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a
small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of
gas by a large amount. Because of the
aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it
is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass
by a small amount. That is why we find high
bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes and
airliners.

Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental

high speed aircraft, require very high excess
thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the
high drag associated with high speeds. For these
airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as
very high thrust. Modern military aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low bypass
turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.

2. Ground propulsion:

Ground propulsion is any

mechanism for propelling solid bodies
along the ground, usually for the purposes
of transportation. The propulsion system
often consists of a combination of an
engine or motor, a gearbox and wheel and
axles in standard applications.
 3. Maglev:

Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) is a system of transportation that uses

magnetic levitation to suspend, guide and propel vehicles with magnets rather than using mechanical
methods, such as wheels, axles and bearings. With maglev a vehicle is levitated a short distance away from
a guide way using magnets to create both lift and thrust. Maglev vehicles are claimed to move more
smoothly and quietly and to require less maintenance than wheeled mass transit systems. It is claimed
that non-reliance on friction also means that
acceleration and deceleration can far surpass
that of existing forms of transport. The power
needed for levitation is not a particularly large
percentage of the overall energy consumption;
most of the power used is needed to overcome
air resistance (drag), as with any other high-
speed form of transport.

4. Marine:

Marine propulsion is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust to move

a ship or boat across water. While paddles and sails are still used on some smaller boats, most
modern ships are propelled by mechanical systems consisting a motor or engine turning a
propeller, or less frequently, in jet drives, an impeller. Marine engineering is the discipline
concerned with the design of marine propulsion systems.

Steam engines were the first mechanical engines used in marine propulsion, but have mostly
been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine
engines on faster ships. Nuclear
reactors producing steam are used to
propel warships and icebreakers, and
there have been attempts to utilize
them to power commercial vessels.
Electric motors have been used on
submarines and electric boats and
have been proposed for energy-
efficient propulsion.[2] Recent
development in liquefied natural gas (LNG) fueled engines are gaining recognition for their low
emissions and cost advantages.

5. Space:

Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial

satellites. There are many different methods. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and
spacecraft propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft today are
propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the
vehicle at very high speed through a supersonic de
Laval nozzle. This sort of engine is called a rocket
engine.

All current spacecraft use chemical rockets

(bipropellant or solid-fuel) for launch, though some
(such as the Pegasus rocket and Spaceship One) have
used air-breathing engines on their first stage. Most
satellites have simple reliable chemical thrusters (often
monopropellant rockets) or resist jet rockets for orbital
station-keeping and some use momentum wheels for
attitude control. Soviet bloc satellites have used electric
propulsion for decades, and newer Western geo-
orbiting spacecraft are starting to use them for north-
south station keeping and orbit raising. Interplanetary
vehicles mostly use chemical rockets as well, although a
few have used ion thrusters and Hall Effect thrusters
(two different types of electric propulsion) to great
success.

We will study here Air propulsion.

Air propulsion is of two types:

- Jet Propulsion

- Rocket Propulsion

 Jet Propulsion:
 Jet propulsion is thrust produced by passing a jet of matter (typically air
or water) in the opposite direction to the direction of motion. By conservation of momentum,
the moving body is propelled in the opposite direction to the jet.

A number of animals, including cephalopods, sea hares, arthropods, and fish have convergent
evolved jet propulsion mechanisms. This is most commonly used in the jet engine, but is also
the means of propulsion utilized by NASA to power various space craft.

 Rocket propulsion:

Rocket propulsion is thrust produced by passing a jet of matter (typically air or water) in the
opposite direction to the direction of motion. By conservation of momentum, the moving body
is propelled in the opposite direction to the rocket.
Jet propulsion is a case of jet engines, so we will discuss jet engines here. Jet engines are of four
types.

 Turbo jet engine

 Turbo fan engine

 Turbo propeller engine

 Ram jet engine

Our main focus is on turbo jet engine so we will discuss it in more detail in here. But first we will
discuss jet engine.

Jet Engine:

A jet engine is a reaction engine discharging a fast moving jet that generates thrust
by jet propulsion in accordance with Newton's laws of motion. This broad definition of jet
engines includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets, ramjets, and pulse jets. In general, jet engines
are combustion engines but non-combusting forms also exist.

In common parlance, the term jet engine loosely refers to an internal combustion air breathing
jet engine (a duct engine). These typically consist of an engine with a rotary (rotating) air
compressor powered by a turbine ("Brayton cycle"), with the leftover power providing thrust
via a propelling nozzle. Jet aircraft use these types of engines for long-distance travel. Early jet
aircraft used turbojet engines which were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Modern
subsonic jet aircraft usually use high-bypass turbofan engines. These engines offer high speed
and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aero engines over long distance.

 Turbo Jet Engine:

The turbojet is a kind of general-purpose air breathing jet engine.

Turbojets consist of an air inlet, an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine (that
drives the air compressor) and a nozzle. The air is compressed into the chamber, heated and
expanded by the fuel combustion and then allowed to expand out through the turbine into the
nozzle where it is accelerated to high speed to provide propulsion.[1]

Compared to turbofans, turbojets are quite inefficient if flown below about Mach 2 and are very
noisy. Turbojet efficiency only comes into play at supersonic Mach numbers and high altitudes
where small frontal area is optimal, and large fan blades are inefficient. Few aircraft cruise in
this expensive regime, so most modern aircraft use turbofans instead for fuel economy and low
altitude performance. However, turbojets are still common in medium range cruise missiles,
due to their high exhaust speed, small frontal area, and relative simplicity.

 Components of Turbo jet engine:

1. Air Intake:
 Preceding the compressor is the air intake (or inlet). It is designed to be as
efficient as possible at recovering the ram pressure of the air stream tube approaching
the intake. The air leaving the intake then enters the compressor. The stators (stationary
blades) guide the airflow of the compressed gases.

2. Compressor:

The compressor is driven by the turbine. The compressor rotates at a very high
speed, adding energy to the airflow and at the same time squeezing (compressing) it into a
smaller space. Compressing the air increases its pressure and temperature.

In most turbojet-powered aircraft, bleed air is extracted from the compressor section at various
stages to perform a variety of jobs including air conditioning/pressurization, engine inlet anti-
icing and turbine cooling. Bleeding air off decreases the overall efficiency of the engine, but the
usefulness of the compressed air outweighs the loss in efficiency.

Several types of compressors are used in turbojets and gas turbines in general: axial,
centrifugal, axial-centrifugal, double-centrifugal, etc.

Early turbojet compressors had overall pressure ratios as low as 5:1 (as do a lot of simple
auxiliary power units and small propulsion turbojets today). Aerodynamic improvements, plus
splitting the compression system into two separate
units and/or incorporating variable compressor
geometry, enabled later turbojets to have overall
pressure ratios of 15:1 or more. For comparison,
modern civil turbofan engines have overall pressure
ratios of 44:1 or more.

After leaving the compressor section, the

compressed air enters the combustion chamber.

3. Combustion Chamber:

The burning process in the combustor is significantly different from that

in a piston engine. In a piston engine the burning gases are confined to a small volume and, as
the fuel burns, the pressure increases dramatically. In a turbojet the air and fuel mixture passes
unconfined through the combustion chamber. As the mixture burns its temperature increases
dramatically, but the pressure actually decreases a few percent.

The fuel-air mixture must be brought almost to a stop so that a stable flame can be maintained.
This occurs just after the start of the combustion chamber. The aft part of this flame front is
allowed to progress rearward. This ensures that all of the fuel is burned, as the flame becomes
hotter when it leans out, and because of the shape of the combustion chamber the flow is
accelerated rearwards. Some pressure drop is required, as it is the reason why the expanding
gases travel out the rear of the engine rather than out the front. Less than 25% of the air is
involved in combustion, in some engines as little as 12%, the rest acting as a reservoir to absorb
the heating effects of the burning fuel.

Another difference between piston

engines and jet engines is that the peak
flame temperature in a piston engine is
experienced only momentarily in a small
portion of the full cycle. The combustor
in a jet engine is exposed to the peak
flame temperature continuously and
operates at a pressure high enough that a
stoichiometric fuel-air ratio would melt
the can and everything downstream.
Instead, jet engines run a very lean
mixture, so lean that it would not
normally support combustion. A central
core of the flow (primary airflow) is mixed with enough fuel to burn readily. The cans are
carefully shaped to maintain a layer of fresh unburned air between the metal surfaces and the
central core. This unburned air (secondary airflow) mixes into the burned gases to bring the
temperature down to something a turbine can tolerate.

4. Turbine:

Hot gases leaving the combustor are allowed to expand through the turbine.
Turbines are usually made up of metals such as Inconel or Nimonic to resist the high
temperature, and frequently have built-in cooling channels.

In the first stage the turbine is largely an impulse turbine (similar to a peloton wheel) and rotates
because of the impact of the hot gas stream. Later stages are convergent ducts that accelerate the
gas rearward and gain energy from that process. Pressure drops, and energy is transferred into
the shaft. The turbine's rotational energy is used primarily to drive the compressor. Some shaft
power is extracted to drive accessories, like fuel, oil, and hydraulic pumps. Because of its
significantly higher entry temperature, the turbine pressure ratio is much lower than that of the
compressor. In a turbojet almost two-thirds of all the power generated by burning fuel is used by
the compressor to compress the air for the engine.

5. Nozzle:

After the turbine, the gases are allowed to expand through the exhaust nozzle to
atmospheric pressure, producing a high velocity jet in the exhaust plume. In a convergent
nozzle, the ducting narrows progressively to a throat. The nozzle pressure ratio on a turbojet is
usually high enough for the expanding gases to reach Mach 1.0 and choke the throat. Normally,
the flow will go supersonic in the exhaust plume outside the engine.

If, however, a convergent-divergent de Laval nozzle is fitted, the divergent (increasing flow
area) section allows the gases to reach supersonic velocity within the nozzle itself. This is
slightly more efficient on thrust than using a convergent nozzle. There is, however, the added
weight and complexity since the convergent-divergent nozzle must be fully variable in its shape
to cope with changes in gas flow caused by engine throttling.

6. Thrust augmentation:

Thrust can be increased by injecting additional fluids. It is then called wet thrust.

Early and no afterburning engines use water injection to temporarily increase thrust. Water is
injected at the compressor air inlet or the diffuser to cool the compressing air which permits an
increase in pressure for a higher burning. A 10-30% additional thrust can be gained. Examples
being the Pratt & Whitney J-57 and derivatives still in use today.

7. After burner:

An afterburner or "reheat jet pipe" is a device added to the rear of the jet
engine. It provides a means of spraying fuel directly into the hot exhaust, where it ignites and
boosts available thrust significantly; a drawback is its very high fuel consumption rate.
Afterburners are used almost exclusively on supersonic aircraft – most of these are military
aircraft. The two supersonic civilian transports, Concorde and the TU-144, also used
afterburners but these two have now been retired from service. Scaled Composites White
Knight, a carrier aircraft for the experimental Spaceship One suborbital spacecraft, also uses an
afterburner.
  Working of turbo jet engine:

All jet engines, which are also called gas turbines, work on the same
principle. The engine sucks air in at the front with a fan. A compressor raises the pressure of the
air. The compressor is made up of fans with many blades and attached to a shaft. The blades
compress the air. The compressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an electric spark lights the
mixture. The burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle, at the back of the engine.
As the jets of gas shoot backward, the engine and the aircraft are thrust forward.

The air goes through the core of the engine as well as around the core. This causes some of the
air to be very hot and some to be cooler. The cooler air then mixes with the hot air at the
engine exit area.

A jet engine operates on the application of Sir Isaac Newton's third law of physics: for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is called thrust. This law is demonstrated in
simple terms by releasing an inflated balloon and watching the escaping air propel the balloon
in the opposite direction. In the basic turbojet engine, air enters the front intake and is
compressed, then forced into combustion chambers where fuel is sprayed into it and the
mixture is ignited. Gases which form expand rapidly and are exhausted through the rear of the
combustion chambers. These gases exert equal force in all directions, providing forward thrust
as they escape to the rear. As the gases leave the engine, they pass through a fan-like set of
blades (turbine) which rotates the turbine shaft. This shaft, in turn, rotates the compressor,
thereby bringing in a fresh supply of air through the intake. Engine thrust may be increased by
the addition of an afterburner section in which extra fuel is sprayed into the exhausting gases
which burn to give the added thrust. At approximately 400 mph, one pound of thrust equals

one horsepower, but at higher speeds this ratio increases and a pound of thrust is greater than
one horsepower. At speeds of less than 400 mph, this ratio decreases.
  Thermodynamics of turbo jet engine:

Jet engines are based on the Brayton cycle. All jet engines and gas
turbines are heat engines that convert thermal energy into useful work. The useful work may
be in the form of mechanical power, as from a shaft which may be used to drive a propeller, a
vehicle, a pump, an electric generator, or any other mechanical device. In Jet engine
applications the work is in producing compressed air and combustion products which are then
accelerated to provide reaction propulsion.

The Brayton cycle is the fundamental constant pressure gas heating cycle used by gas turbines.
It consists of

1-2: Isentropic compression

2-3: Isobaric heating

3-4: Isentropic expansion

4-1: Isobaric cooling (absent in open cycle gas turbines)

The p,h,S and T diagrams for the cycle are shown as the
following.

Diagram for the process

P-V diagram for the process

T-s diagram for the process

h-s diagram for the process

 P-h diagram for the process

We will also discuss the remaining types of engines.

 Turbo Fan engine:

A turbofan engine is a gas turbine engine that is very similar to a turbojet.

Like a turbojet, it uses the gas generator core (compressor, combustor, and turbine) to convert
internal energy in fuel to kinetic energy in the exhaust. Turbofans differ from turbojets in that
they have an additional component, a fan. Like the compressor, the fan is powered by the
turbine section of the engine. Unlike the turbojet, some of the flow accelerated by the fan
bypasses the gas generator core of the engine and is
exhausted through a nozzle. The bypassed flow is at
lower velocities, but a higher mass, making thrust
produced by the fan more efficient than thrust
produced by the core. Turbofans are generally more
efficient than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but they
have a larger frontal area which generates more drag.

There are two general types of turbofan engines, low

bypass and high bypass. Low bypass turbofans have a
bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less, meaning that for
each kilogram of air that passes through the core of
the engine, two kilograms or less of air bypass the
core. Low bypass turbofans often used a mixed
exhaust nozzle meaning that the bypassed flow and the core flow exit from the same nozzle. [12]
High bypass turbofans have larger bypass ratios, sometimes on the order of 5:1 or 6:1. These
turbofans can produce much more thrust than low bypass turbofans or turbojets because of
the large mass of air that the fan can accelerate, and are often more fuel efficient than low
bypass turbofans or turbojets.

 Turbo Propeller engine:

 Turboprop engines are jet engine derivatives, still gas turbines that extract work
from the hot-exhaust jet to turn a rotating shaft, which is then used to produce thrust by some
other means. While not strictly jet engines in that they rely on an auxiliary mechanism to
produce thrust, turboprops are very similar to other turbine-based jet engines, and are often
described as such.

In turboprop engines, a portion of the engines' thrust is produced by spinning a propeller,

rather than relying solely on high-speed jet exhaust. As their jet thrust is augmented by a
propeller, turboprops are occasionally referred to as a type of hybrid jet engine. While many
turboprops generate the majority of their thrust with the propeller, the hot-jet exhaust is an
important design point, and maximum thrust is obtained by matching thrust contributions of
the propeller to the hot jet.[13] Turboprops generally have better performance than turbojets or
turbofans at low speeds where propeller efficiency is high, but become increasingly noisy and
inefficient at high speeds.[14]

Turbo shaft engines are very similar to turboprops, differing in that nearly all energy in the
exhaust is extracted to spin the rotating shaft, which is used to power machinery rather than a
propeller, they therefore generate little to no jet thrust and are often used to power
helicopters.

 Ram Jet engine:

 Ram powered jet engines are air breathing engines similar to gas turbine
engines and they both follow the Brayton cycle. Gas turbine and ram powered engines differ,
however, in how they compress the incoming airflow. Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or
centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed
through the inlet or diffuser.[16] Ram powered engines are considered the most simple type of
air breathing jet engine because they can contain no moving parts.

Ramjets are the most basic type of ram powered jet engines. They consist of
three sections; an inlet to compress incoming air, a combustor to inject and combust fuel, and a
nozzle to expel the hot gases and produce thrust. Ramjets require a relatively high speed to

efficiently compress the oncoming air, so ramjets cannot operate at a standstill and they are
most efficient at supersonic speeds. A key trait of ramjet engines is that combustion is done at
subsonic speeds. The supersonic incoming air is dramatically slowed through the inlet, where it
is then combusted at the much slower, subsonic, speeds. The faster the incoming air is,
however, the less efficient it becomes to slow it to subsonic speeds. Therefore ramjet engines
are limited to approximately Mach 5.

 Merits and De-merits:

 Merits:

1. They have a good thrust to weigh ratio.

2. Very high power-to-weight ratio.
3. Compact than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.
4. Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
 5. Low operating pressures.
6. High operation speeds.
7. Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

 De-merits:
1. Cost
2. Longer startup than reciprocating engines
3. Less responsive to changes in power demand compared to reciprocating
engines.
4. They are very noisy due to high engine works.
5. Dangerous to operate due to high temperature.
6. They have low efficiency.

 Applications of Jet Engines:

1. Jet engines power aircraft, cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles.

2. In the form of rocket engines they power fireworks, model rocketry, spaceflight, and
military missiles.
3. Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly drag racers, with the all-time
record held by a rocket car. A turbofan powered car ThrustSSC currently holds the land
speed record.
4. These are used in electrical power generation, for powering water, natural gas, or oil
pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives.

Nothing is true Everything is

Permitted