Airport Practice Note 11 Airfield Lighting Essentials

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS
AIRPORT PRACTICE NOTE 11

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the following for their support in
providing core material, specifications, editing support
and assisting with general document preparation:
Bob Potter, Electrical and Visual Design;
Steve Henstock, Valupa P/L;
Meryl Ellsmore, MJE Secretarial Services; and
Perth Airport for apron floodlighting case study.
This airport practice note is intended as an information document for airport members, providing useful information regarding disability
access at Australian aerodromes. The airport practice note is for general information purposes only and is not intended to be prescriptive or
be an exhaustive set of information on matters that should be taken into account regarding disability access at airports. Before making any
commitment of a financial nature or otherwise, airports should consider their own specific needs and circumstances and seek advice from
appropriately qualified advisers. No material contained within this guideline should be construed or relied upon as providing recommendations
in relation to any particular development or planning outcome or decision.
The Australian Airports Association and the authors of this airport practice note do not give any warranty or representation as to the accuracy,
reliability or completeness of information which is contained herein. Except insofar as any liability under statute cannot be excluded, the
Australian Airports Association Ltd and the authors of the airport practice note and their employees do not accept any liability for any error or
omission in this publication or for any resulting loss or damage suffered by the user or any other person. The Australian Airports Association
and the authors of this airport practice note, and their employees, do not guarantee that the publication is wholly appropriate for your
particular purposes and, to the extent allowed by law, disclaim all liability for any loss or other consequence which may arise from you relying
on any information from these publications.
ii AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS VERSION 1.0 - PUBLISHED NOVEMBER 2016

ABOUT THE AUSTRALIAN AIRPORTS
ASSOCIATION
The Australian Airports Association (AAA) is the The AAA is the leading advocate for appropriate
national industry voice for airports in Australia. national policy relating to airport activities and
The AAA represents the interests of more than operates to ensure regular transport passengers,
260 airports and aerodromes Australia wide – from freight, and the community enjoy the full benefits
local country community landing strips to major of a progressive and sustainable airport industry.
international gateway airports.
These airport practice notes are prepared on
There are a further 130 corporate partners behalf of industry to promote ‘best practice’ across
representing aviation stakeholders and Airport operations.
organisations that provide goods and services to
the airport sector. The AAA facilitates co-operation If you have any questions regarding this document
among all member airports and their many and please contact the AAA on 02 6230 1110.
varied partners in Australian aviation, while not
contributing to an air transport system that is safe,
secure, environmentally responsible and efficient
for the benefit of all Australians and visitors.
The AAA facilitates co-operation among all

member airports and their many and varied
partners in Australian aviation while not
contributing to an air transport system that is safe,
secure, environmentally responsible and efficient
for the benefit of all Australians and visitors.
This Airport Practice Note has been

prepared with the assistance of:
Airport Light Consultant,

Hank Steuten
E: [email protected]
AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 1

CONTENTS
ABOUT THE AUSTRALIAN AIRPORTS ASSOCIATION 01
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 05
1.1 Background 05
1.2 The history of airfield lighting 05
1.3 Terms and definitions 06
CHAPTER 2 ILLUMINATION THEORY 12

2.1 Lighting 12
2.2 Colour chromaticity diagram 13
2.3 Measurement standards 15
2.4 Types of light sources 17
2.5 LED FAQs 17
CHAPTER 3 CATEGORIES OF AIRFIELD LIGHTING SYSTEMS 19

3.1 Non RPT Airfield Lighting 19
3.2 Airfield Lighting (Single Stage and Three Stage Systems) for certified or registered aerodromes 19
3.3 CAT I/II and III Airfield Lighting Overview 20
CHAPTER 4 AIRFIELD LIGHTING SERIES CIRCUITS 23

4.1 The theory of operation 23
4.2 Parallel circuits 23
4.3 Series circuits 24
4.4 Maintenance 26
4.5 Troubleshooting 26
CHAPTER 5 TRANSFORMERS AND CONSTANT CURRENT REGULATORS 27

5.1 Series isolating transformers 27
5.2 Mains isolating transforers 28
5.3 Constant current regulators 30
5.4 Silicon controlled rectifier 30
5.4 Maintenance 33
5.5 Troubleshooting 33
CHAPTER 6 CABLE AND CONNECTIONS 34

6.1 Types of airfield lighting cable 34
6.2 Cable joints 35
6.3 Connector kits 37
CHAPTER 7 TAXIWAY LIGHTING 38

7.1 Overview 38
7.2 Configuration 39
7.3 Maintenance 42
2 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

CHAPTER 8 RUNWAY LIGHTING 44
8.1 Overview 44
8.3 Characteristic 45
8.4 Displaced thresholds and stopways 46
8.5 Temporary displaced threshold 49
8.6 Stopway (runway end) lights 49
8.5 Maintenance 49
9 APPROACH LIGHTING 50
9.1 Introduction 50
9.3 Light direction and elevation angles 50
9.4 Colour and light intensity 50
9.5 Light pattern 51
9.6 Maintenance 51
CHAPTER 10 PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATOR (PAPI) 53

10.1 Standard reference 53
10.2 Background 53
10.4 Characteristics 58
10.5 Installation 59
10.6 Maintenance 61
CHAPTER 11 MOVEMENT AREA GUIDANCE SIGNS (MAG’s) 63

11.1 Types of MAGS 63
11.2 Maintenance 63
CHAPTER 12 MOUNTING FOR ELEVATED AND INSET LIGHTS

12.1 Mountings for elevated lights 64
12.2 Mounting for inset lights 65
CHAPTER 13 ILLUMINATED WIND INDICATORS (IWI’s) 66

13.1 Control 66
13.2 Maintenance 66
CHAPTER 14 ROTATING BEACONS & OBSTRUCTION LIGHTS 68

14.1 Rotating beacons 68
14.2 Obstruction lighting 68
CHAPTER 15 CONTROL AND MONITORING SYSTEMS 72

15.1 Airport requirements 72
15.2 Intensity settings 76

CHAPTER 16 PILOT ACTIVATED AIRPORT LIGHTING CONTROL (PAALC) AND AERODROME FREQUENCY
RESPONSE UNIT (AFRU) 77
16.1 System overview 77
16.2 Maintenance 68
CHAPTER 17 POWER SUPPLY FOR AFL SYSTEMS 79

17.1 Mains supply 79
17.2 Standby power 79
CHAPTER 18 PORTABLE AND TEMPORARY LIGHTS 80

18.1 Types of portable lights 80
CHAPTER 19 SERVICEABILITY 81
19.1 Record Keeping 81
19.2 Commissioning records 81
19.3 Lamp position identification 81
19.4 Information recording and storage 81
19.5 Maintenance and record keeping 81
19.6 Effective staff training and participation 81
19.7 Serviceability records 82
19.8 Serviceability standards 82
CHAPTER 20 SAFETY AND BEST PRACTICES 83

20.1 Safety considerations 83
20.2 Induced voltages 84
20.3 Safety practices 85
20.4 Personal safety precautions 86
20.5 Electrocution 86
20.6 Test equipment 89
CHAPTER 21 CASE STUDIES 90

CS1. Sample Runway Layout Design Estimates 91
CS2. Sample Maximum Power Requirement Estimate 93
CS3. Led Vs Halogen Lamp Comparison Cost Estimate 94
CS4. Afl Cabling Systems – Standards Compliance For Depth Of Cable 97
CS5. Serviceability Check List 102
5.1 Basic Airport 102
5.2 Intermediate Airport 103
CS6. Commissioning checklist 104
6.1 Airfield lighting 104
6.2 PAPI 107
6.3 Apron floodlighting Commissioning Methodology 110

1. INTRODUCTION
Background The history of airfield lighting

The aim of this practice note is to firstly provide a basic The development of airfield lighting followed shortly
overview of Airfield Lighting (AFL) systems. It does not behind the invention of the aircraft.
go into depth on technical matters. It is intended as an
introduction for people working on airports who have To compete with other forms of transport and manage
not received specialist training on AFL systems. It is emergency needs, night flying eventually became
hoped that this document will help people gain a basic imperative.
knowledge of systems components, how they operate Early lighting consisted of whatever was to hand
and how they perform so as to assist them to manage a such as beacon fires, either as small markers, or
compliant overall facility. even fuel poured into long trenches. In emergencies
auto headlights were sometimes used (and still are,
thankfully rarely). The first basic lighting started to
WARNING: Untrained personnel should never appear in the late 1920s and Sydney Airport dates as
work on these systems. They can contain high one of the earliest airports to use lighting. Kerosene
voltage components up to 3,000 V which could flares, also commonly known as Toledo flares, were
kill or maim. Ensure only qualified electrical developed and were popular for a while leading up to
tradespersons with appropriate specialist AFL and past World War II.
training are permitted to carry out this work.
Through the United Nation’s (UN) International Civil
Never work on live equipment!
Aviation Organisation (ICAO), standards started to be
developed from the 1940s. Australia’s Department
of Civil Aviation at the time was a frontrunner in
developing its own standards and technical solutions.
These local efforts contributed to the development
of the ICAO standards, and also included some of the
world’s first visual approach slope indicator system
(VASIS) and later, the T-VASIS system based on symbols,
and aircraft nose in guidance (NIG) systems. Since the
early 1980s the Australian standards and the ICAO
standards have become one and the same in most
cases, although differences still occur.
PLEASE NOTE: All figures, diagrams and images

contained in this Airport Practice Note are
strictly for illustrative purposes only. Please
refer to the relevant regulations and standards
for clarification on specific requirements.
Additionally, the AAA intends to update

this Airport Practice Note periodically to
reflect changes that occur in regulations and
standards. For the most up-to-date version of
this document, please visit the AAA website
(www.airports.asn.au).

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS A or Amp (Ampere) is a unit of measure for the flow
of electric charge, commonly referred to as electric
ABN (Aerodrome Beacon) is a beacon installed at an current.
airport or aerodrome to indicate its location to aircraft
pilots in low visibility conditions. Approach surfaces and take-off climb surfaces extend
from the ends of the runway intended for use for
AC (alternating current) is a current which is continually take-off or approach to land. They extend from the
changing its current and direction in a regular fashion end of the runway in the splay left and right of centre
such as a mains supply. For instance, for 50 Hz this line of the runway. These surfaces extend at a much
means the current changes direction 100 times per lower gradient than the transitional surface and are
second, being twice for each cycle. dependent on several factors. This gradient is however
at around 1:50 and also extends to an elevation of 45
AFL (airfield lighting) also referred to as visual aids m.
provided by aerodrome lighting or AGL (Aerodrome Apron (ramp) is the area of an airport where aircraft
Ground Lighting). Provides visual guidance to pilots for are parked, unloaded or loaded, refuelled, or boarded.
aircraft approaching, departing, and moving around the Although the use of the apron is covered by regulations,
airfield at aerodromes. such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more
accessible to users than the runway or taxiway.
AFRU (aerodrome frequency response unit) is radio
based equipment that monitors the communication AsA (Airservices Australia) usually provides aerodrome
frequency at an airport sometimes referred to as and en route and navigational aids and air traffic
the common traffic aircraft frequency (CTAF). This management services for aircraft within Australia.
equipment transmits a recorded message when it
monitors a transmission on its frequency. This lets the CAS (Civil Aviation Safety Authority) is the civil aviation
pilot know that the aircraft radio is working and has regulator for aircraft and aerodromes in Australia.
selected the correct frequency. After a transmission
is received this equipment will only transmit a beep CCR (constant current regulator)
for the next five minutes if another transmission is This equipment is essentially a large light dimmer. The
monitored. Hence this equipment is sometimes referred capacity of these regulators is typically between 2.5
to as a beep back unit. The AFRU can exist as individual and 30 kW. The airport lighting regulator is used to
equipment or can be incorporated with a pilot activated control the brightness of the airfield lights. It does this
airport lighting control (PAALC) into a single unit. by controlling the current flowing in the cable to the
lights. The regulator will typically have between one
Airside is that part of an airport within the secured area and seven pre-set levels of brightness. The regulator
reserved for the movement of aircraft and equipment. is usually controlled from the control tower by the air
All persons within this area must have been cleared traffic controllers to set the appropriate intensity of the
by security to be there. This may include customs and airfield lighting. CCRs rated at higher than 6.5 kVA must
passport clearance and security clearance for workers. be expected to provide output voltages higher than
1000 V high voltage (HV).
ALA (authorised landing area) is a runway strip that is
not certified or registered. Cd (candela) is the measurement of the intensity (I)
of a light source in a particular direction including the
ALER/VAULT (airport lighting equipment room) may effect of any lens filter. It is independent of distance and
be a standalone building or part of a building that is used to describe the intensity of a light source, its
may house the powerhouse and other operational brightness and beam spread. In comparing this to water
installations. This building will contain the electrical it would be equivalent to pressure or pounds per square
control equipment to control the various airfield lighting inch (psi).
systems. Where control towers are provided the ALER
forms the interface between the control tower and the
airfield lighting fitting.

CIE (International Commission on Illumination) is but can be used as an en route beacon. Once again
devoted to worldwide cooperation and the exchange of this beacon will bring the aircraft to the location of the
information on all matters relating to the science and airport but is not suitable for landing guidance in low
art of light and lighting. visibility conditions.
C/L (centreline) as in runway centreline or taxiway E (Lux) is defined as lumens per square metre and is
centreline. a measure of the amount of light falling on a surface.
Its value is dependent upon the distance from the
CRI (colour rendering index) sometimes called colour light source. This is the measurement taken using
rendition index, is a quantitative measure of the ability the light meter/Lux meter. In water terms this would
of a light source to reveal the colours of various objects be described as litres per square metre which would
faithfully in comparison with an ideal or natural light equate to the depth of the water.
source.
ERSA (En Route Supplement Australia) is a document
CT (current transformer) is usually for monitoring/ that describes each airfield in Australia. It lists all
feedback purposes for airfield lighting control pavements and facilities available at the airport.
equipment. The current flowing in the secondary circuit This includes lighting facilities, standby power and
CT is directly related to the current flowing in the navigational aids. This document is updated four times
primary circuit of the CT. each year.
CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency) is required
Flight strip is the area around the runway contained
for the mandatory broadcast zone (MBZ).
within the gable markers that is intended for the use of
DC (direct current) is a steady unchanging current aircraft while landing, taking off and manoeuvring in the
provided from power sources such as batteries. air close to the ground. This area must be maintained
clear of obstacles or those obstacles must be designed
DME (distance measuring equipment) is a transponder- in such a way as to not pose a risk to aircraft.
based radio navigation technology that measures slant
range distance by timing the propagation delay of very Genset (generator) is installed to provide backup
high frequency (VHF) or ultra-high frequency (UHF) power in the event of failure of the mains power
radio signals. supply. Where provided as a backup power system,
when a mains power failure occurs, the generator will
Developed in Australia, it was invented by James Gerry automatically start and assume the system load. It is
Gerrand under the supervision of Edward George 'Taffy' normal to experience a short power outage while the
Bowen while employed as Chief of the Division of generator starts.
Radiophysics of the CSIRO. Another engineered version
of the system was deployed in the early 1950s operating A genset may also be used as the primary source of
in the 200 MHz VHF band. This Australian domestic power at a location where no mains power is available
version was referred to by the Federal Department of and is therefore the primary source of electricity. Where
Civil Aviation as DME(D) or DME Domestic, and the later generators provide primary power, it is normal to have
international version adopted by ICAO as DME(I). two or more generators to provide for maintenance and
equipment failures.
DME is similar to secondary radar, except in reverse.
The system was a post-war development of the IFF Glide path indicator produces the vertical information
(identification friend or foe) systems of World War II. to the aircraft showing its vertical position above or
To maintain compatibility, DME is functionally identical below the design glide path angle on approach to land.
to the distance measuring component of Tactical air The glide path is the electronic equivalent to the visual
navigation (TACAN). The DME uses a readout in the approach slope indicator system such as the Precision
cockpit of the aircraft of the distance in nautical miles Approach Path Indicator system (PAPI). This equipment
to the beacon. This is generally located at the airfield is located beside the runway usually close to the point
of touchdown.

HIAL (High Intensity Approach Lighting) system is Inner horizontal surface is a surface at an elevation
designed to smooth the transition from instrument to of 45 m above the runway and starts where it meets
visual flight on a precision instrument approach. the inner conical surface and extends out to a point
between 2000 and 4000 m from the runway depending
Hz (Frequency in Hertz) The repetition rate of an upon the classification of that runway.
electrical supply being the number of cycles divided
by the total time interval. NB 50 Hz is the standard AC Inner marker is an electronic beacon that is located at
power supply in Australia the threshold and is used for approaches in visibility
with decision heights below 60 m. This marker is not
I (CURRENT) in Amps exists in a closed electrical circuit generally installed on Australian airports.
and is measured in amps. Current flows when there is
a potential difference (voltage) between two parts of kVA (kilovolt-amp) is 1000 volt amps, with a volt being
the closed circuit. This can be likened to the volume of electrical pressure and an amp being electrical current.
water flowing.
kW (kilowatt) is a measure of one thousand watts of
ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) electrical power.
Aerodrome Design Manual provides recommendations
and advice for the provision of aerodromes. The Landside is the part of an airport that is occupied by
Aerodrome Design Manual is provided in 6 parts. Parts terminal buildings car parks workshops and offices.
relevant to AGL are: It is the area that is open to public access.
• Part 4 Visual Aids;
Localiser produces a radio beam down the centre line
• Part 5 Electrical Systems; and of the runway and extends out into the approach to
• Part 6 Frangibility. a distance of about 40 km. This beam is used by the
instruments in the aircraft to indicate position left
ICAO Annex 14 is provided in two volumes: Volume I - and right of the runway centreline. The antenna and
Aerodromes; Volume II - Heliports. equipment of the localiser is located at the end of the
runway.
Volume I describes the aerodrome equipment. It is an
international standard that is used as the foundation Lm (lumen) is a measurement of the total amount of
for the Australian standards, although each nation state visible light produced by a light source. It can be likened
may make alterations to the international document to to the measurement of water in litres.
better suit their own requirements. The document is
often referred to simply as Annex 14. MAGS (Movement Area Guideance Signs) are designed
to assist pilots when they manoeuvre or taxi an aircraft
IES (Illuminating Engineering Society) is a society on the airport prior to take-off and after landing.
aiming for the advancement of the art and science of
illumination and the dissemination of knowledge to all MBZ (Mandatory Broadcast Zone) encompasses
interested parties. the airspace surrounding a designated, uncontrolled
aerodrome, where pilots are required to make certain
IWDI/IWI (illuminated wind direction indicator) or broadcasts to facilitate mutual separation.
more commonly referred to as a windsock, is designed
to swivel to indicate the direction of the wind. MHz (megahertz) is a unit of frequency equal to one
million hertz.
ILS (instrument landing system) is comprised of several
beacons (e.g. glide path and localiser) that combine to Megger test is a method of testing making use of an
give precision approach guidance to an aircraft when insulation resistance meter that will help to verify the
approaching to land at an aerodrome. condition of electrical insulation.
Inner conical surface is the transitional surface and Middle marker is located at about 1000 m from the
approach take-off on surfaces together form the inner threshold. This marker indicates to the pilot that the
conical surface. This surface is a misshapen cone with threshold lights should be visible at any moment and in
the runway at the bottom of the cone and the top of Category 1 (CAT I) approaches this indicates the position
the cone at an elevation of 45 m above the runway. at which the pilot must make the decision to abort the
landing and go around if enough visual guidance is not
available to complete landing.

MIT (mains isolating transformer) is a large voltage NOTAM (Notice To Airmen) are issued by Air Services
transformer of a typical rating between 1 KVA and up Australia to notify pilots of any changes made to an
to 10 KVA. It is used on smaller airports to power the airfield that will change the information listed in the En
airfield lighting circuits. This transformer provides the Route Supplement Australia (ERSA). This document will
adjustment of voltage to the airfield lighting circuits to be raised for changes that will render facilities out of
provide the required field current; typically, 6.6 A. service or require the changing of available pavements.
MOS-139 (Manual Of Standards Part 139) is prepared OBL (Obstruction or Obstacle Lighting) may be required
by CASA and is the Australian document that sets where the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) has
out the regulatory requirements for the aerodrome. determined that an object or a proposed object has or
Lighting standards are primarily covered in Chapter 9. will intrude into navigable airspace.
MOWP (method of works plan) is a document used OHM is a unit of measurement of the resistance of an
during major works to detail the process and plan of electrical circuit. This can be likened to the diameter of
the works. It will lay out in detail how the work will be a water pipe.
conducted and what notifications must be made to
OLS (obstacle limitation surface) also known as the
ensure the safe operation of the airfield during works,
transitional surface, contains a number of conceptual
and to provide advance notification of facility and
surfaces running upwards and outwards from the
movement area restrictions to aircraft operating at the
runway. They define the limits that any natural or man-
aerodrome. Also, the way in which materials will be
made obstacles may extend that could pose a threat
brought on-site will avoid any disruption or safety risk
to any aircraft in flight manoeuvring in the area of the
to aircraft.
airport. Anything protruding through these surfaces will
need to be considered for removal, marking or lighting
NBD (non-directional [radio] beacon) is a radio
to mitigate their threat the movement of aircraft.
transmitter at a known location, used as an aviation
navigational aid. As the name implies, the signal Outer horizontal surface is an elevation of 150 m above
transmitted does not include directional information. the runway and extends out to a point around 15,000 m
The NDB operates at low frequency between 190 kHz from the runway.
and 1750 kHz. The low operating frequency of the NDB
signals follow the curvature of the Earth. They can be Outer marker is located on the centreline of the
received at much greater distances at lower altitudes, approach between 7 to 10 km from the threshold. This
a major advantage over very high frequency omni marker provides the first fix to the aircraft firming its
directional radio range (VOR). However, NDB signals distance from landing in low visibility.
are also affected more by atmospheric conditions,
P (power) in Watts is the rate of transfer of energy
mountainous terrain, coastal refraction and electrical
measured in watts.
storms, particularly at long range.
For DC circuits P = V x I
Each NDB is identified by a one, two, or three-letter For AC circuits P = V x I x PF
Morse code callsign. The NDB signal is received by the
aircraft and the signal is converted into an indication of PAALC (Pilot Activated Airport Lighting Control) is
direction to the Beacon. The pilot can then follow this required for a Pilot Activated Lighting (PAL) system.It
direction indication and it will bring the aircraft over the involves radio-based equipment that receives a coded
NDB antenna. In this way the beacon can be used to transmission from the aircraft on the aircraft air band
bring the aircraft into the location of the airport. It will 118mhz-136mhz to turn the airfield lighting on.
not however give guidance for use in low visibility for
the approach to land. The PAALC can exist as a standalone system or can be
incorporated with an aeroplane frequency response
NIGS (Nose in Guidance System) for aircraft parking unit (AFRU) into a single unit on the Mandatory
provide visual guidance assistance in maintaining Broadcast Zone (MBZ) or Common Traffic Advisory
the aircraft on the parking positon centreline as the Frequency (CTAF). Frequency allocations for each
aircraft enters the parking positing. They provide visual individual airport are allocated on application through
guidance to pilots to the aircraft stopping position. Airservices Australia.

PAPI (Precision Approach Path Indicator System) is a R/W or RWY (runway) is a defined rectangular area
visual landing guidance system that in recent times has on land prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
been largely replacing the older 'T' Visual Approach Runways may be a man-made surface of asphalt and
Slope Indicator System (T-VASIS). The PAPI usually concrete or a natural surface of gravel or grass.
comprises four boxes located to the port side of the
runway, but can comprise eight boxes; four on each side RGLs (runway guard lights) are designed to help
of the runway. The PAPI provides a colour code signal prevent an unintended incursion of an active runway by
to indicate where the aircraft is relative to the required an aircraft or vehicle. They are sometimes referred to as
approach angle: wig wags.
»» two red and two white signals – ON SLOPE
RVR (runway visual range) is the distance that an
»» three red and one white signals – AIRCRAFT LOW aircraft pilot on the runway centreline can view lights
»» four red signals – AIRCRAFT EXTREMELY LOW along the runway. Usually measured in metres, this
can be measured in different weather conditions using
»» one red and three white signals – AIRCRAFT HIGH
a commercial meteorological transmissometers, or
»» four white signals – AIRCRAFT VERY HIGH manually by counting the number of lights set at a
known distance (e.g. runway edge lights).
PC (personal computer) as used in complex control
systems. SCR (silicon controlled rectifier) is an electronic
component (semiconductor) that acts like a switch to
PE (photo electric) cells used to detect the level of allow the flow of electrical current when so required.
the ambient light; usually for auto selection of lighting It is sometimes referred to as a thyristor and are
intensity stages. frequently used in constant current regulators (CCRs) as
PF (power factor) is the ratio of the real power, that the output current control device.
is used to do work, and the apparent power that is SIT (series isolating transformer) is a small waterproof
applied to alternating current (AC) circuits. Ideally 1:0 transformer typically rated between 25 to 300 VA. Its
for best efficiency. function is to provide electrical isolation between the
PLC (programmable logic controller) as used in series field circuit and the lamp circuit. These can be
advanced control systems. direct buried (although not recommended) alongside
the pavement or installed in a suitable pit.
Powerhouse is a building generally used for housing
electrical switchboards for the distribution of power TDZ (touchdown zone) lighting incorporates two rows
and electrical generators. These generators will vary of lights (barrettes) either side of the runway centreline
in size depending on the use of the powerhouse. The at 30m intervals extending from the runway threshold
generator and vary in size from around 1 kW for a small for a distance of 900m from the runway threshold.
navigational aid in excess of 1 MW for control tower,
buildings and airfield lighting. The generator will be TWER (tower equipment room) ia a room located
either a primary generator that will provide the only below the air traffic control tower typically used
source of electrical power or a standby generator that to interface with electronic and electrical control
will provide power in the event of the loss of mains equipment.
power.
T/W or TWY (taxiway) is a path on an airport
RMS (root mean square) is the effective part of a connecting runways with aprons/ ramps, hangars,
waveform for either current or voltage. terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard
surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller
RPT (regular public Ttansport) indicates that an
airports may use gravel or grass.
airport is serviced by an airline offering air transport
domestically and/or internationally. Transitional surface is a surface that extends upwards
and outwards from the side of the runway at a gradient
of 1:7 until it hits an elevation of 45 m above the
runway.

T-VASIS ('T' visual approach slope indicator system
provides visual indications to pilots to assist them to
maintain their aircraft on the correct approach slope
as they approach an aerodrome to land. The T- VASIS is
gradually being replaced by PAPI systems.
UPS (uninterruptable power supply) usually provides

backup power supply to particular equipment when the
normal ‘mains’ power supply fails. UPS is commonly
provided by electronic equipment utilising batteries as
the power source during the period when the normal
supply is not available.
V (volt) is the potential difference between two points

measured in volts. Voltage can be likened to water
pressure
VOR (very high frequency omnidirectional radio

range) is a type of short-range radio navigation system
for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit
to determine their position and stay on course by
receiving radio signals transmitted by a network of fixed
ground radio beacons. It uses frequencies in the very
high frequency (VHF) band from 108 to 117.95 MHz.
Developed in the United States beginning in 1937 and
deployed by 1946, VOR is the standard air navigational
system in the world, used by both commercial and
general aviation. By 2000 there were about 3,000
VOR stations around the world. This system has now
being gradually being replaced by the use of Global
Positioning System (GPS).

2. ILLUMINATION THEORY
2.1 Lighting The human eye has a non-linear sensitivity to visible

light. It is less sensitive at the extremes of the
Visible light is an electromagnetic radiation the same visible range and most sensitive at the centre at 555
as heat or radio transmission in the wavelength range nm which is a green light.
of 720 nm to 390 nano metres.
Red is the longest visible wavelength starting at 390 nm.

Violet is the shortest visible wavelength at 720 nm.
Figure 2.1: Visible light spectrum
gamma x-rays ultraviolet infrared rays radar FM TV shortwave AM

rays rays
10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104

Wavelength (meters
Visible Light
400 500 600 700

Wavelength in Nanometers
Figure 2.2: CIE phototopic response curve
1.0
Green
0.8
Relative Response
UV IR
0.6
0.4
Blue Red
0.2
0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength in Nanometers

2.2 Colour Chromaticity Diagram The airfield lighting colours are defined by limits
of the X and Y values and displayed on the
This diagram is used to describe the colour of light diagram below.
on a locus plot that describes the colour as a value of
X and Y. Airfield lighting light fixtures must produce
light with colours within defined limits to meet the
requirements of the colours used in the systems.
Figure 2.3: CIE chromaticity diagram
0.90
520
0.80
540
0.70
560
0.60
580
0.50
3000 2500
Y 4000
6000
0.40 600
2000 1500
10000
620
0.30
490
700
0.20
480
0.10
470
460
0
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80

Figure 2.4: MOS colour boundaries for airfield lighting
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
Green White
Y
Yellow
0.40
Variable White
0.30
Red
0.20
Blue
0.10
0
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80

Coloured filters Coloured LED lights
The glass filters used for airfield lighting fitting must The development of sufficiently powerful light-emitting
be produced to meet strict standards of colour and diode (LED) lamps has offered great benefits. The LED
transmissivity. produces light of a colour determined by its chemical
make-up and therefore does not lose efficiency by use
Transmissivity is the amount of light that is transmitted of coloured filters. In addition, the amount of energy
through a filter. required to produce the light is lower than that required
for quartz halogen tungsten filament lamps, and the
Two type of filters are generally used for airfield lighting
life of LEDs is significantly longer than that of filament
equipment:
lamps (LEDs can last up to 100 times as long as filament
»» absorption filters; and lamps).
»» dichroic filters.
When used for airfield lighting, LED lights provide lower
Absorption filters energy usage, better colour rendition and colour match
between the lights, as well as being more efficient.
Absorption filters allow the required light colour to LED lights can provide better service over a longer
pass through the filter and absorb the light with the life period with significantly reduce maintenance
other colours. When a lamp such as an airfield ighting requirements. In practice, this could mean over 10 years
tungsten filament globe is used with glass absorption between replacements.
filters, the amount of coloured light that passes through
the different colour filters is:
»» red 15% 2.3 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
»» green 15%
Polar diagram
»» yellow 35%
This diagram is used to describe the light output
»» blue 5%
through 360° at a particular angle of elevation.
It is clear from the list above that a great deal of energy
This is normally produced for omnidirectional lights.
is lost in the process of producing a coloured light using
white light.
Vertical distribution or XY plot
Dichroic filters This diagram describes the light output at various
angles of elevation and is commonly used to
A technique that has been used to improve the
describe fittings such as low and medium intensity
efficiency of colour filters has been to use dichroic
omnidirectional lights.
filters. The dichroic filter is made up piece of plain glass
coated with multiple layers of metallic salts.
Isocandela diagram
These layers work as band pass filters to transmit only
The isocandela diagram is used to describe the
specific wavelengths of light. In addition, some of the
performance of lights such as taxiway centreline lights
light passing though the dichroic filter has its frequency
and high intensity unidirectional lights. This diagram
changed to the required colour frequency by the
plots points of equal intensity versus angle of elevation
dichroic material, meaning more light passes through
and azimuth.
the filter thus increasing the filter efficiency. In this
way dichroic filters can be made with transmissivity
levels approximately twice that of coloured glass filters.

Figure 2.5: Polar diagram Figure 2.6: Desired vertical light distribution
100
90
90O
120O 60O 80
70
150O 30O
Elevation in Degrees
60
50
40
180O 0O
30
20
210O 330O 10
240O 300O -10

270O
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Intensity of red light candelas
Figure 2.7: Isocandela diagram
Minimum 250 cd
12
Minimum 500 cd
10
Y Degrees Vertical
9.5
Main Beam
7 Minimum
2500 cd
5
Minimum
Avaerage
5000 cd
0
-10 -8.5 -7 -5 0 5 7 8.5 10
X Degrees Horizontal

2.4 Types of light sources 2.5 LED FAQs
A typical quartz halogen lamp will be described Will LEDs really last 100,000 hours?
by the following terms.
Yes, in a laboratory, but in real life it will be less and will
»» lamp wattage 100 W depend on the maximum 'junction' temperatures of
»» rated voltage 15.5 V the LED also. The higher the temperature, the shorter
the life. So good thermal design of your LED light is
»» lamp current 6.6 A absolutely critical.
»» lumens 2000 lm
Are LEDs more efficient than halogen lights ?
»» life 2000 hr
Yes. Filament lamps typically provide 12-20 Lumen/
This describes the performance and ratings of a typical Watt. New LEDs can provide up to 120 Lumen/Watt
airfield lighting and lamp. Changes to applied current which is comparable to the best discharge lights.
will change all the other values.
Are LEDs cheaper to run?
It can be seen from the below graph that small changes
in current will have large effects on light output and life Yes, both for power and maintenance but this needs to
expectancy. be offset against capital cost considerations.
Figure 2.8: Lamp characteristics
Life Lumens Efficacy Watts

180
160
140
Percentage of Nominal Published Data
Amperes
120
Ohms
100
80
Ohms
60
Amperes
40
Watts
20
Efficacy
Lumens Life
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Percentage of Rated Lamp Voltage

Will output remain stable throughout the life
of the LED?
No. There will be some drop offs. This is less for the first
50 per cent of the stated life, accelerating in later years.
See manufacturers' data for the exact losses. Good light
fittings will take this into account in their design.
Will colour remain stable throughout the life

of the LED?
Not 100 per cent, but it is significantly better than
previous coloured glass filters. As above, see data
sheets. Reputable manufacturers/suppliers will have
taken any shifts into consideration in their designs
Can I mix filament lamps and LEDs on the

same circuit?
No. CASA will not allow this and for good reason.
The main problem is different intensities for a given
current. While lamp intensities follow a log curve with
respect to current, LEDs have a linear response. Some
LED lights have special circuitry to mimic the log curve,
however the intensity of LED lights also appear brighter
to the human eye. So the lesson is, only change over a
complete runway or a taxiway circuit at a time.

3. CATEGORIES OF AIRFIELD
LIGHTING SYSTEMS
3.1 Authorised Landing Area (ALA) In simple terms, these lighting systems comprise of 6
green threshold lights, 6 red runway end lights, with
systems white edge lights spaced equally at a maximum of 60
For ALAs, there are no defined standards. metres along the length of the runway. Where runways
are 30 metres wide or less, runway lights are spaced
As for private non-regulated landing strips, it is up to laterally at 32 metres, regardless of the pavement
the operator or owner to ensure a safe standard is width. This is to present a uniform pattern to pilots. For
implemented. runways that are 45 metres or wider lights are generally
placed at 1.8 metres outside the defined runway
However, it can be said that: "Where there is no specific pavement.
standard, use the general standard."
MOS-139 9.10.1(b) below refers to MIRL systems:
This means use the MOS-139. By doing so you can be
relatively sure that:
a) you will be a providing a safe facility and less likely to b) medium intensity – a 3-stage intensity
be open to fault in the case of an accident or incident, lighting system suitable for a non-instrument
and runway or a non-precision approach runway.
This is provided to enhance the lighting system
b) it will be easier if needed to upgrade and license your particularly in marginal weather conditions.
airport if so desired at a later date. This system cannot be used at an aerodrome
that does not have air traffic services or similar
3.2 Airfield Lighting (single-stage personnel.
and three-stage systems) for certified
NOTE: This requirement is for controlling light
or registered aerodromes intensity during the landing phase. This section
is not to be confused with lighting systems
These lighting systems comprise the majority of all AFL
controlled by a photo-electric cell which can
installations in Australia, numbering in the hundreds.
provide day, twilight and night intensity settings
All airports comprise a runway and a runway strip. It is
based on ambient conditions.
important that all operators, maintenance staff etc. are
aware of relevant parameters for your airport.
These lighting systems are usually either single stage At an aerodrome with an air traffic service (ATS), the
intensity (low intensity runway lighting systems [LIRL]), runway lighting systems must be equipped with an
or three stage intensity systems (medium intensity intensity control so that the ATS can select light output
lighting systems [MIRL]) and in most cases local manual to suit ambient conditions and avoid dazzling pilots.
control is supplemented by a PAALC or PAALC/AFRU. These airports are normally provided with medium
intensity runway lighting systems.
LIRL systems can have the runway edge lights spaced at
90 m apart, MIRL must have their lights spaced at 60 m Medium intensity runway lighting systems can be
apart. provided at other aerodromes where air traffic control
(ATC) is not provided, however these aerodromes must
CASA notes that with GPS technology, virtually any have specific personnel who are trained and authorised
runway can become an instrument runway. Accordingly, to select the required runway light intensity. In MOS-
CASA recommends that any new runway edge lights 139 Clause 9.1.14.2, CASA requires that at these
should be spaced at 60 m (required for an instrument aerodromes a Certified Air-Ground Radio Operator
runway). (CAGRO), a Unicom operator, or similar authorised and
responsible person with two-way radio communications
with the aircraft must be available to provide the
aerodrome lighting intensity control.

Three-stage systems triggered by a PAALC utilising PAPI systems are normally required to be installed at
the settings DAY/TWILIGHT and DARK are acceptable airports that have regular jet RPT flights or 'black hole
under MOS-139 and are not to be confused with ATC approaches' as deemed by CASA. PAPI systems operate
controlled systems. In these cases, the PAPI is provided on three stages and are activated regardless of ambient
with three intensity controls and the runway lighting is light conditions. (i.e. they are activated DAYLIGHT/
usually provided with single intensity (which is selected TWILIGHT and DARK settings). Chapter 10 of this
for TWILIGHT and DARK conditions). document covers PAPIs and PAPI installation in more
detail and the relevant standard is MOS-139 9.9.4.
Intensity ratios between the various components of the
lighting systems are important and should be consistent Obstacle lighting and beacons may be required and are
through all airfield lighting systems. If runway edge covered in Chapter 14 of this document. Please also
lighting is considered 1.0, then threshold lights must refer MOS-139 9.4 for obstacle lighting and MOS-139
be 1 to 1.5 the intensity of the runway edge lights' 9.5 for aerodrome beacons
intensity. Runway end lights must be 0.25 to 0.5 the
intensity of the runway edge light intensity.
3.3 CAT I/II/III airfield lighting
Taxiway lights used in a simple regular public transport
(RPT) airport are normally blue elevated edge lights, overview
with yellow holding point lights placed where the
It is not the intention of this practice note to cover this
flight strip intersects the taxiway. In some cases,
area in depth as these are mostly confined to larger
inset centreline taxiway lights are used and these are
airports with their own AFL professionals and designers.
green bidirectional so that guidance is assured in both
However as an overview:
directions.
An integral and necessary part of this system is a fully CAT I – compromises of high intensity six-stage runway
illuminated wind direction indicator which is clearly lighting and corresponding high intensity approach
visible from all approaches. In some cases it may be lighting (HIAL) systems. More often than not taxiway
necessary to have more than one (see Chapter 13), but lighting is three-stage inset centreline, due to the added
generally speaking one is sufficient for shorter runway complexity of taxiway systems. This is to avoid the 'sea
lengths. You need to be mindful of the 1:7 obstacle of blue' effect that can occur where multiple taxiways
limitation surface (OLS), also sometimes referred to are lit using blue elevated lights that can be seen
as the transitional surface, and with wind indicators from all directions. Illuminated wind indicator (IWI),
normally 8 metres in height so they need to be placed PAPI, apron lighting etc. are also used similar to RPT
a minimum of 56 metres outside the runway strip so as airports. Additionally, movement area guidance signs
(MAGS) start to be used, again due to the complexity of
not to infringe.
taxiways, holding points and mandatory stop bars, see
Apron floodlighting is also required under MOS- MOS-139 Section 8.6). Runway guard lights are a MOS
139 standards to ensure the safety and security requirement (See MOS-139 Section 9.3.16)
of passengers and aircraft. All details for apron
It is also requirement for CAT I systems to have a backup
floodlighting requirements, lighting levels and
power supply capable of activating within 15 seconds of
uniformity levels are covered in MOS-139 Section
mains failure. This is achieved with appropriate diesel
9.16. Aircraft must be lit from both sides and this can
backup genset
require multiple poles and lights. Most major lighting
companies will perform a computer design as part of CAT II – These are similar to CAT I systems with the
their service. It is important to note that all lighting addition of red barrettes in the approach lighting
provided on the aprons must limit light above the system, runway centreline lights and touchdown zone
horizontal and be low glare. lights.

Figure 3.1: CAT I 'Calvert' approach light pattern
300m 2.7m
Typical spacing
Threshold 52.5m
45m
37.5m
30m
22.5m
1.5m
Centres
150± 6.0m
Point of Origin 150± 6.0m
150± 15m
150± 15m
150± 22.5m
150± 22.5m
Figure 3.2: CAT II and III approach light examples
Runway edge light
Runway centre light
Runway touchdown
zone light - Barrette
Threshold lights spacing

3m (green)
150m
Centreline Barrette
300m
Side row Barrette (red)
60m
Crossbar
30m
Inner 300m approach and runway lighting for

precision approach runways, categories II and III
Typical full length configuration for approach

lighting systems, categories II and III

In the case of a mains failure the backup power supply
must be able to switch over within a maximum of one
second. It can be expensive to achieve this via a static
(battery) UPS or a rotary no-break system. In practice
some airports achieve this standard by running off their
back up generators in low visibility conditions (i.e.
the genset becomes the primary supply). The usual
primary (mains) then becomes the backup supply which
can be easily switched in the one second required.
Serviceability of a CAT II system must be 99.9%.
CAT III – Runway lighting requirements are physically

identical to CAT II with the main difference being
taxiway routing. i.e. the spacing between taxiway
centreline lights can be reduced down to 7.5m
Also note serviceability/availability standards which in

this case must be 99.99 per cent of the time.

4. SERIES CIRCUITS
4.1 The theory of operation 4.2 Parallel circuits

One of the primary objectives of the airfield lighting The most common type of cabling system used to
is to produce light signals of even and consistent power lights in buildings and auto electrical systems is
brightness regardless of where the light fittings are the parallel wiring system. This system uses a ‘constant’
located on the field or their distance from the source of voltage with two wires; one wire running to all the
supply of power. lights in the circuit and the other wire returning from
the lights to source of power.
To achieve this, it is necessary to use a cabling system
that is simple in nature and will deliver power reliably This system of cabling is the most simple and
to the light and maintain power to all other fittings convenient, as it requires only a constant voltage which
without changing brightness even after the failure of is available from the AC mains or a DC battery supply.
other lights in the system.
With this system, the failure of one lamp will not
Up until recently the main type of lamp use for airfield necessarily affect the operation of the other lamps in
lighting has been the tungsten filament lamp. These the system. In buildings and automotive use, the source
lamps generate light when current is passed through of power and the lamp that it drives are generally only a
the lamp filament, heating the filament and resulting few metres apart and rarely exceeding several hundred
in the production of light. The amount of current metres. Even so, if the cable run becomes long or the
that passes through the lamp filament is generally number of lights in the circuit is increased, voltage
proportional to the voltage applied across the filament. loss (voltage drop) in the cabling becomes a serious
consideration.
LED lights are now coming into use around airfields
and this is starting to change how designers work to Those lights located close to the source of supply will be
improve efficiency, through life reliability and costs. at full brightness, however as the distance of the source
of supply increases the resistance of the cable (causing
voltage drop) will reduce the brightness of the lights.
Figure 4.1: A simple series circuit
120V 40V 40V 40V

A tungsten filament lamp will be significantly reduced In this configuration electrical power sourced from the
in brightness with only a small per cent reduction in supply must flow through each lamp in turn and each
applied voltage because the light output verses the lamp will experience the same amount of current
supply voltage is not linear. flowing through it and therefore each light around
the system will be of even brightness regardless of its
The large area of airports necessitates the use of very distance from the source of supply. These systems are
long electrical circuits to provide power to all parts of generally called series current systems.
the runway and taxiway lighting systems. The distances
involved are routinely in excess of 4 km and may exceed With series current systems the voltage of the supply
10 km. The number of lights on a circuit is also often source will need to be of sufficient value to cause the
very large and may be around 200 lamps in a large required current to flow in the circuit.
circuit.
In simple terms this means that if each light requires
To provide power to the circuits, and to ensure the 10 V to operate and there are 100 lamps in the circuit
minimum ‘voltage drop’ around the lighting systems, the voltage needed to power the circuit would be
using conventional parallel wiring would necessitate one thousand volts (1000 V). This arrangement has a
the use of extremely large cables that would be very number of obvious difficulties.
expensive to source and install.
Firstly, the failure of one lamp will break the circuit and
cause all lamps to fail (think of Christmas tree lights)
4.3 Series circuits and this is obviously a serious problem in a circuit used
to provide guidance to an aircraft on approach to land
The alternative to a parallel system is to connect the where reliability is the highest priority.
lights in series. In these systems the connections are
made from the power supply to the first light, then Secondly, the voltage required to power a large circuit
from that light each successive light in turn, as a series is very high and this is a serious danger to anyone
loop, with the last light then connected back to the working on this equipment, and the equipment must
source of supply. be designed to operate at the highest voltage that the
equipment could be expected to operate.
Figure 4.2: A simple parallel circuit
120V 120V 120V 120V

During World War II a number of airfield systems were The installation of the cable in the ground can be direct
brought into Australia that used this simple series buried or in cable ducts and conduits.
connection with the addition of the small cut out device
that short circuited to re-establish the connection in Most systems installed in Australia prior to 1990 were
the event of the failure of the lamp. This equipment direct buried. Today this needs an approved document
had each light fitting manufactured in such a way as to path to show how compliance can be met. Now the
be able to operate at the full system voltage of several practice of using cable ducts or conduits has become
hundred volts. It was very dangerous and posed a the most common standard system of installation, and
threat to life from contact with the equipment while this is strongly recommended and preferred. Whether
operating at any time. direct buried or in ducts the cables follow marked
defined routes from the ALER to the equipment they
A safer and more suitable alternative was required and power.
the use of the series isolating current transformer was
adopted to provide electrical isolation from the main Airfield lighting circuits are routinely operating at
‘primary’ circuit and to provide a reduced voltage on voltages above 1000 V. This would normally constitute a
the secondary circuit connecting to the lamp. In this high-voltage circuit requiring special treatment with the
way the voltage supplied to the light fitting is relatively cables buried below 750 mm.
low. The installation of lighting cable within the airside of the
Series isolating current transformers are generally airfield was previously covered by a special dispensation
known as SITs. The particular advantage of the SITs is (refer To MOS Part 139 Clause 9.22.1). However, the
that if the lamp filament fails (goes open circuit) the dispensation has now lapsed and compliance with
current in the SIT primary circuit continues to flow so AS/NZS 3000 is now required It is recommended that
that all the other lights connected to the circuit stay on. a suitably qualified professional person such as an
AFL consultant be employed to provide advice on
This has become the universally accepted method of the available options for the airfield lighting cabling
powering airfield lighting throughout the world. systems. Refer to the related case study in Chapter 21
for further guidance.
In the past it was common to work on the light while
power was applied. This practice was somewhat safer The layout and size of the airfield necessitates the
when the circuit sizes and the wattage of fittings was installation of the airfield lighting cable to run for
relatively small and the power was from a sinusoidal considerable distances in close proximity to the cables
source. This practice relied on the integrity of the of other airfield lighting circuits. The combination
insulation/isolation of the series isolating transformer. of high voltage and close proximity to other circuits
However, this practice is no longer deemed safe in means that the cables can act like transformers and the
today’s workplace health and safety environment, electromagnetic field around the cable can induce high
and equipment should be de-energised prior to voltages into other cables, even when they are off.
commencing work.
Depending upon the complexity of the airport, the

airfield lighting circuits can be as simple as one single NOTE: Great care must be taken when
loop of cable for the runway and taxiway of a small conducting work on any primary airfield lighting
country airport, or involve dozens of circuits controlling circuits to ensure that the circuit cannot be
multiple facilities for large international airports. energised directly or become energised due to
induced voltages.

4.4 Maintenance 4.5 Troubleshooting
The maintenance on series circuits is mainly a case
of watch and act for low impedance (low insulation
resistance) to earth. It is recommended that regular WARNING: Due to the potential for high
(at least annually and preferably more frequently) voltages, this work should only be carried out
inspection tests are carried out. This requires a qualified by qualified electrical staff.
electrical tradesman to carry out the impedance
(insulation) test to earth, usually employing a suitable
tester such as a 'megger'. When a circuit has failed, or the circuit impedance
to earth is very low, remedial action is needed. The
The circuit must be disconnected and isolated from the
first step usually involves a drive around the cable
mains power while this is done i.e. the system must be
route looking for the obvious e.g. earth works such
'out of service'. Ensure you have clearance to do this.
as trenching, obvious lightning strike damage such as
These cable insulation resistance readings should be missing pit lids etc. If this does not locate the damage,
recorded and kept in a place known by the responsible then the slower option comes into play.
maintenance staff. By keeping these records, the trend
This involves isolating the circuit as per the insulation
can be observed, and action taken when necessary, to
tests described in the maintenance section, then cutting
improve the circuit condition.
the circuit around the mid point of the cable. If cable
A new installation should have a current impedance at connectors are used, typically it is possible to open the
least over 100 M ohms, preferably 1G ohm. It is strongly circuit without cutting the cable. Normally you would
recommended that insulation resistance of at least 1G start at the half way point (i.e. the far threshold). Then
ohm be required on completion of new works and that insulation test each half of the circuit to determine
this be maintained by the contractor during the defect which half contains the fault. Continue this process
liability period to ensure suitable on going service of until the faulty segment is isolated and repairs can be
the cabling system after the end of the defect liability performed.
period.
Note the most common faults to be expected are:
A circuit reading below 1M ohm should be monitored »» lightning strikes;
closely and appropriate action put into place to
»» earth works;
rectify the low insulation resistance problem. Where
the insulation resistance of the cabling system has »» slow decline in earth resistance;
fallen below 100K ohm the system should be repaired »» bad connection; and
immediately.
»» failed SITs.

5 TRANSFORMERS AND CONSTANT
CURRENT REGULATORS
5.1 Series isolating transformers connected to the lamp of the light fittings. In this way
electrical isolation is achieved from the high voltage
Airfield lighting systems generally use series current primary to the relatively low voltage secondary winding
circuits. powering a lamp.
Current transformers are special transformers utilised As current flows on the SIT primary circuit it magnetises
to reflect the current in the primary (main) circuit into the core of each transformer. This magnetic flux induces
the secondary (output) circuit. a voltage in the secondary of the transformer and the
resultant current flows through the lamp.
Series isolating current transformers (SITs) used in
airfield lighting systems provide electrical isolation from When a lamp fails, the current flowing in the secondary
the primary circuit to the low voltage secondary circuit of that SIT falls to 0 ampere (0A) and this constitutes
to power the lamp. In this way the voltage supplied to a very high secondary impedance. In a conventional
the light fitting is relatively low, typically in the range current transformer this high secondary impedance
of 6 to 30 V (although this can be as high as 150 V would be reflected into the primary by the turns ratio of
depending on the light type). the SIT.
The primary winding of the SITs are connected as Most airfield lighting SITs have a turns ratio of around 1
a series connection. The secondary of each SIT is to 1. Even so, the infinite impedance of the secondary
would be reflected as an infinite impedance into the
primary winding.
Figure 5.1: Series circuit layout
Lamp
60
27
Mains Isolating
Transformer
240v or 415v

The result of this would be to effectively open circuit 5.2 Mains isolating transformers
the primary and cause the primary current to fall to
0A. This of course would be a significant disadvantage Airfield lighting circuits generally utilise a series
similar to the simple series connected circuit. connection arrangement. This means that the voltage
supplied to the circuit will have to vary depending on
To stop this happening the airfield lighting current the length of cable and the number of lights connected
transformer (the SIT) is designed with only sufficient to it.
iron in the magnetic core to supply the flux necessary
to drive the lamp. Both of these parameters are widely variable and so
supply to the lights has to be capable of adjustment
When the lamp open circuits and the current in the over a wide range, and potentially high voltage.
secondary falls to zero the amp turns of the secondary
also fall to 0A and the ‘amp turns’ of the secondary no The international standard for power supply for airfield
longer oppose the flux generated by the primary. lighting circuits has a maximum current of 6.6 A. It
therefore follows that the voltage required to pass 6.6 A
The flux in the core therefore rises however with only a through a 1 kW load will be:
limited amount of iron the flux cannot rise significantly
and therefore the iron core quickly becomes saturated. V = W/I
When saturated the SIT is now no longer an inductive V = 1000/6.6
device and the current is only limited by the resistance
V= 151.5 volts/KW
of the copper winding.
Airfield lighting circuits can vary between 1 kW and 30
The overall impedance of the SIT when unloaded
kW therefore the system voltage will vary from 151 V to
(that is the lamp has failed) is somewhat higher than
4,545 V.
when unloaded, usually around two times. The voltage
present at the secondary terminals is also higher, The mains power supply in Australia is fixed at either
generally around twice the on-load root mean square 240 V phase to neutral or 415 V phase to phase. It is
(RMS) voltage. clear that these two voltage sources cannot supply
the range of airfield lighting loads. To modify the
Ultimately what this means that the SIT is unloaded
voltage required to supply the airfield lighting a voltage
when the lamp filament is working normally and fully
transformer is utilised to adjust the voltage to the
loaded when the lamp filament has failed (which is
required level.
contrary to what you would normally expect). When the
lamp filament has failed, the SIT presents a higher load A mains isolating transformer (MIT) is a simple power
on to the power supply system. transformer. It has a primary winding suitable to
connect to the mains supply of 240 or 415 V.
Airfield lighting circuits are frequently powered
by phase-controlled regulators and the output of The secondary winding will have a voltage suitable to
this equipment is non-sinusoidal. The result of this supply the airfield circuit. As the airfield lighting field
distorted wave form can result the peak voltages being circuit load increases so the voltage must be increased
considerably higher than the RMS level. High wattage to match the power rating of the transformer. To
SITs of 200 and 300 W can generate open circuit make this equipment more flexible so that it can be
voltages in the range more than 200 V peak. adjusted on-site to match the load, these transformers
are provided with a number of secondary tappings to
In summary the SITs and lamp circuit arrangement
allow adjustment of the output voltage to match that
achieve an even and consistent lighting output from
required for a specific circuit. These transformers may
all lights in the circuit regardless of the length of the
also have a large range of tappings so that they can also
circuit. SIT gives isolation from the dangerous primary
be adjusted to supply multiple intensity stages.
voltage. The relatively low voltage at the light fitting
allows for a more compact construction and safer MITs also usually have a range of tappings on the
environment. primary so that the transformer input can be adjusted
to match the local voltage levels.

Figure 5.2: Mains isolating transformer (MIT) Advantages
1 The MIT is a simple rugged reliable device that is not
easily damaged by lightning surges.
2 The MIT is relatively inexpensive compared with the
alternative series current regulators.
3 The intensity of the airfield lighting can be
controlled using tap changing relays.
4 It is more compact than the equivalent regulator.
5 The load power factor is relatively stable for
different fixed loads.
Disadvantages.
1 The MIT cannot be used on circuits that have
varying loads such as taxiway segment selection.
440v 1136v 2 Intensity changing on high-power circuits in excess
420v 1023v of 10 kW requires switching high voltages that
400v 1009v require special switching circuitry.
3 A short circuit or partial short circuit on the airfield
lighting circuit can cause very large and destructive
240v 795v fault current to flow.
220v 682v
4 Changes in supply voltage will cause variations in
10v 57v the airfield lighting circuit current which will cause a
0v 0v similar change of intensity of the lights.
5 Changes in the load such as the loss of a number
of lamps will also cause a change in the series
current. The open circuit lamp will reflect a higher
impedance into the circuit which will result in
The mains isolating transformer as its name suggests, reduced circuit current.
also provides isolation between the primary and 6 The tapping of the transformer windings cannot
secondary supplies to the lighting. produce infinitely variable adjustment of current.
The tappings can only be selected to obtain currents
The mains supply is arranged with a reference to earth.
close to the desired level.
However, the secondary has no such earth connection
and is operated independent of earth. This has the
advantage of making the airfield lighting circuit more
tolerant of ‘earth leakage’ and in fact airfield lighting
circuits can operate satisfactorily with very low earth
impedance.
It also follows that with no earth connection on

the secondary of the transformer there can be no
large earth fault current and so an earth fault on the
secondary will not cause fault current flow in the
primary winding. This does not mean that contact with
the secondary circuit will not cause electrocution as
some magnetising current will flow to ground sufficient
to cause fatal electrocution.

5.3 Constant current regulators 5.4 Silicon controlled rectifier
Regulators are routinely used to control all forms of The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) or thyristor is the
energy. This includes air, hydraulics and electricity. All device that is most commonly used to control the flow
regulators have a common function which is that they of electricity through the regulator. The SCR is a solid-
control the amount of energy they are designed to state rectifier similar to a diode.
regulate.
The diode is in effect an electric one-way valve. It will
The regulator may control air pressure, or water or oil allow current flow in one direction. When the polarity
pressure and flow. Electrical regulators control voltage of the voltage applied to a diode is such that the diode
or current. is forward biased. It will conduct the electricity until
the voltage is removed or reversed which will cause the
Voltage is of course electrical pressure, and current the diode to be reversed biased and it will block reverse
electrical flow. All regulators have one thing in common: current flow.
they compare the value of the unit they are controlling
against the value of the level of the unit that is desired The diode is a two-layer silicon device and the SCR
to be achieved. The regulator is then able to adjust the differs in that it is a four-layer device.
supply to achieve the required output.
An air pressure regulator will commonly use spring

Figure 5.4: Diode symbol
tension to set a level of poundage and control a valve
to regulate the pressure in the supply line. Similarly, a
voltage regulator will use a preset voltage as a set point
to control a regulating circuit to maintain a constant Device package
voltage output. anode cathode
The series current regulator as its name implies uses

an electronic circuit to control the amount of electric
current flowing in the output circuit. This requires
a machine that can control the amount of electrical
energy flowing into the circuit, a feedback circuit that
anode cathode
will measure the amount of current being achieved,
a comparing circuit that will compare the amount of
current flowing to the amount that is required (the set
point) and adjust the output of the circuit with a power Schematic symbol
control device to maintain the desired current.
Figure 5.3: Diode operation
± D I
+
Msmax Vlmax or Imax
I or Vl
Vs Vdc or Idc
Vs Vl Rl
x 2x 3x 4x x 2x 3x 4x
wt wt
Vsmax
± –
Rectifieed output Voltage/
Input Voltage Waveform Half-Wave Rectifier Current Waveform

The SCR has another terminal which is called the trigger If triggering the SCR is delayed until later in the cycle
or gate. The characteristic of the SCR is that when it the amount of power will be reduced. The circuit above
is forward biased (the condition that would bring a is only controlling one half of the wave and in the other
diode into conduction) it will not conduct until a small half no power can flow because the SCR, like the diode,
electrical signal is applied to the gate connection. When will not conduct when reversed biased.
this signal occurs the SCR will begin conducting if it is
forward biased and will remain in conduction until the To control the power flowing into the output
electric current falls to 0 or it becomes reversed biased. transformer that is connected to an airfield lighting
circuit it is necessary to control both positive and
In Figure 5.5 it can be seen that with an AC wave form negative half cycles of the power wave form. To do this
applied to the circuit the SCR will not conduct until a it is necessary to use two SCRs arranged in a back-to-
trigger potential is applied to the gate. Once triggered, back (anti-phase connection).
the SCR begins conducting and will continue to conduct
even if the gate pulse is removed. Figure 5.5 describes this connection and shows how the
two SCRs control both halves of the AC wave.
In this way it can be seen that the amount of power
flowing through the load ‘RL’ can be controlled by Figure 5.6 shows an applied AC wave with one SCR
controlling how long the SCR is in conduction and ‘Th1’ controlling the positive half of wave form and the
therefore how much applied power is allowed to flow other SCR ‘Th2’ controlling the negative half. This is the
through the load. The earlier in the half cycle that the basic power control system used in the airfield lighting,
SCR is brought into conduction (triggered) the more constant current regulator.
power will be applied to the load.
Figure 5.5: Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) operation
Vn
il Trigger Pulse
Vmax Trigger Pulse Vl
Rl
Vl Load Waveform
SCR
G it ig
Vn
iRG
Vak
Vg Rg t
OFF ON
Pulse Control
Figure 5.6: Constant current regulator (CCR) operation
+
AC IN
Lp -
Th1 gate
AC IN
Th2 Th2 gate

Th1
Th1 current
Th2 current

Basic regulator circuit The control circuit compares the selected current/
intensity level to the feedback from the CT. The result of
The circuit in Figure 5.7 describes the major this comparison is sent to the firing circuit of the SCRs
components of the series constant current regulator to control the timing of the SCR triggering.
(CCR). Over time there has been various systems of
achieving constant current regulation. However, since If the output current is less than the selected level of
the introduction of the SCR this layout is the most the control circuit it will cause the SCR is to fire earlier
common format in use today. in half cycle and hence apply more energy into the
circuit to increase the current.
The mains input is connected to a mains contactor
to control the switching on and off of the regulator. If the output current is greater than selected, the
The mains power is connected to the mains isolating control circuit will delay the firing of the SCRs to reduce
transformer via the back-to-back connected SCRs. the energy into the circuit and therefore reduce the
current.
The SCRs control the power into the mains isolating
transformer. The secondary of the output transformer The output tappings should be selected so that when
has tapping to allow adjustment of the output so that the maximum current (6.6 A) is selected, the regulator
the maximum power rating of the regulator can be should be supplying a near full sinewave, with the firing
better adjusted to match the installed load. The output of the SCRs occurring very early in the half cycle.
current then flows through the output links to the
If a tapping is selected that is too low for the load
airfield circuit.
connected, the regulator will fail to achieve the required
This current is monitored by a current transformer full 6.6 amp current.
which provides feedback to the control circuit. The
If a higher than required tapping is used, the regulator
control circuit receives a command from the tower, or
will operate ‘normally’. However, the firing of the SCRs
the regulators local control switch to provide a selected
will be delayed until very late in the cycle particularly
level of current that corresponds to the level of lighting
on the lower current settings. This will result in a poor
required.
power factor, harmonics, and may cause the regulator
to be unstable (although modern regulators can usually
handle these conditions without any problem).
Figure 5.7: Basic regulator operation
Mains Isolating
Transformer
Load selection Links
SCR's
Mains
Output to
Field Circuit
Feedback
Mains Contactor
Control Unit
Intensity Selection

Most modern regulators will incorporate several extra 5.6 Troubleshooting
features as part of the control unit. These may include
lamp failure detection, over voltage, over current and For SITs and MITs, a fault can usually be found by
earth fault detection. isolating the transformer, and using an ohm meter
to check the continuity of the circuit windings, or a
The regulators often incorporate several types of 'megger' to test insulation to earth.
remote control such as direct wiring where each
intensity is selected a separate hard connection or serial For CCRs, attempting fault finding poses some
communication (such as Modbus Ethernet systems) difficulties. Series current regulators are a closed loop
which may be used in more complex systems. device. That is, power is fed into regulator, the output
is monitored and this adjusts the control. A failure in
the equipment will often cause immediate shutdown
5.5 Maintenance making it difficult to fault find with the machine
operating.
Maintenance for MITs is minimal. Keep the transformer
clean and well ventilated. Check current settings
annually, or if loads have changed then set tappings
accordingly. WARNING: THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION
IS INTENDED FOR USE BY QUALIFIED
Maintenance requirements for new CCRs is now ELECTRICIANS ONLY.
minimal. Keep clean and well ventilated. Check circuit
current settings annually. Check fault indicators
annually.
To begin fault finding start by:
»» checking any indicator lights or alarm messages;

»» check that mains is available;
»» obtain clearance to place the regulator in local
control; and
»» then follow the supplier’s handbook instructions for
fault finding.

6 CABLES AND CONNECTIONS
6.1 Types of airfield lighting cable The 5 kV cable has a thicker insulation and can be
provided with other options such as conductor and
Primary cable insulation stress relief layers, and outer conductive
screens.
The airfield lighting primary cable is the cable that
connects the series current power source (MIT or CCR) Two examples of 5 kV airfield lighting primary cable are
to the SITs for the lights in the airfield lighting systems. shown below.
The standard airfield lighting primary cable is a single Where primary cables with metallic screens are used
conductor cable of 6 mm sq of seven strands. the metallic screen must be earthed. This requires a
special jointing arrangement.
This cable is available in two voltage ratings 3 kV
and 5 kV. Secondary cable
The older three kV cable has a stranded copper The secondary cable which runs from series isolating
conductor ‘C’, polyethylene insulation ‘B’, and a transformer to the light fitting is usually a twin core
black nylon outer sheath ‘A’. The nylon is to provide figure-8-style cable with PVC insulation and a nylon
mechanical protection and protection from termites. sheath for mechanical protection.
The 3 kV cable is generally used on installations up to 10 The standard wire size used to be 1.5 sq. mm but 2.5
kW where the supply voltage is 1500 V. and 4 sq. mm cable is available for longer secondary
cable runs.
The 5 kV cable was introduced to allow circuit loads
above 10 kW with the resultant increased system The selection of the size of this cable is dependent on
voltage. the length of the cable run from the SIT to the light.
Figure 6.1: 3 kV cable Figure 6.3: 5 kV cable with polyethylene insulation,

conductor and insulation semi-conductive
screens and metallic screen
A B
C
A Jacket (outer sheath LDPE)

A
B Polyethylene insulation B C D E F
C Stranded copper conductor
Figure 6.2: Basic 5kV cable with Ethylene Propylene

Rubber (EPR) Insulation A Jacket (outer sheath LDPE)
B Cable metallic screen (brass tape - wound over the
extruded semi conductive insulation screen)
C Extruded semi-conductive insulation screen
A B C D D Insulation (HDPE)
E Conductor screen (extruded semi-conductive layer)
F Conductor (6mm2 multi-stand copper)
A Jacket (outer sheath LDPE)
B Polyethylene insulation
C Stress relief layer or outer conductive screen
D Conductor

6.2 Cable joints 3 KV cable joint.
Cables come in lengths limited by the cable drum that The 3 KV cable jointing kit V10/386D is pictured in
they are supplied on. Cables must be jointed to other Figure 6.4. This provides an in-line joint for the 3 kV
sections of cable and to SITs to allow the lighting system cables.
to work correctly.
This kit contains the materials needed to make a joint
Also, when a cable is damaged the cable must be on the Australian 3 kV cable. It does not contain any
repaired by locating the damaged section of cable, materials for cleaning the cable prior to making the
cutting out the damaged section, and joining the cable joint. A cleaning cloth and alcohol wipes will also be
back together. needed to make a joint using this kit.
Cables can be jointed using different jointing methods. The kit contains:
These include in-line joints and connection plugs and
»» one 6 mm in-line crimp lug;
sockets to the cables.
»» one 10/3 mm heat shrink tube; and
These joints must be very carefully made to achieve a
connection that is both electrically sound and provides »» one 16/5 mm glue lined heat shrink tube.
the same level of insulation and waterproofing as
provided by the cable.
WARNING: Ensure the circuit is properly
The quality of these joints is the single most important isolated, earthed and tested prior to
factor in maintaining a high level of circuit insulation. commencing any work or touching the cable.
By its very nature the cable installation and jointing The following information is for use by qualified
work must be conducted in the open in all kinds of electricians only.
weather and the cables are located in small pits and
confined areas.
Figure 6.4: 3kV primary cable heat shrink jointing kit
To make high-quality joints under these conditions
requires absolute cleanliness of the cable and joint
parts and careful attention to the way in which the work
is conducted. Any contamination of the joint or poor
workmanship will cause less than perfect results. It is
particularly important to ensure that the cable joint
preparation is undertaken during dry conditions or with
suitable protection to ensure that there is no ingress
of moisture into the cable joint during the jointing
process.
This work is labour intensive and may be conducted

under difficult conditions. The care and precision under
which it is undertaken will have a very significant effect
on the quality of the whole installation. The insulation
levels required on installations today is much higher
and must be maintained over time at levels that were
previously considered unobtainable.

5 kV cable joint.
WARNING: Ensure the circuit is properly
The 5 kV cable joint kit AUST-APL/1 pictured in Figure isolated, earthed and tested prior to
6.5 contains the materials needed to make a joint on 3 commencing any work or touching the cable.
and 5 kV cable. This provides an in-line joint for the 3
kV cables. This kit is intended for use on cable that does
not have an earth’s screen.
The kit contains:

»» one alcohol wipe;
»» one strip of emery cloth;
»» one 6mm in-line belled-end crimp lug;
»» one piece of mastic tape;
»» one 24/6 mm heat shrink tube 100 mm long; and
»» one 16/4 mm heat shrink tube 210 mm long
Figure 6.5: 5 kV primary cable heat shrink jointing kit

6.3 Cable connector kits Secondary Connector Kit
Cable connector kits are available for primary cables It is important to check carefully when purchasing any
(for both unscreened cables and cables provided with secondary connector as they can differ depending the
metallic screens) and for secondary cables. style of secondary cable being used. (e.g. single core or
two core, conductor size etc.) An exmaple is provided in
Care must be taken when purchasing connector kits to Figure 6.7.
ensure that the correct type of kit is obtained for the
particular type of cable being used. Please request installation instructions from
the manufacturer and follow the manufacturers
Primary connector kit requirements.
It is important to check carefully when purchasing any

primary connector kits as they can differ depending on
the conductor size, the diameter of the cable insulation
and the overall diameter of the cable. An example is
provided in Figure 6.6.
Please request installation instructions from

the manufacturer and follow the manufacturers
requirements.
Figure 6.6: Typical primary connector kit for unscreened cable
Figure 6.7: Typical secondary connect kit for two core cable

7. TAXIWAY LIGHTING
These notes should be read with reference to The layout and performance of these systems will vary
MOS-139 Chapter 9.13. to meet the overall performance requirements of the
taxiway lighting in accordance with the requirements
described in the relevant standard.
7.1 Overview
Taxiway lighting is used to guide the aircraft to the
Taxiway lighting is part of the visual guidance lighting runway from the apron and from the runway to the
used on the simplest lighting installation at all levels apron.
to the most sophisticated lighting installation used to
guide aircraft in very low visibility operations. It must be identified on the runway during the rollout
of the aircraft with sufficient time to allow the pilot to
The taxiway lighting will comprise of sub systems to steer the aircraft safely onto the taxiway.
form the taxiing guidance. These may be as simple as
edge and hold position lights only or include additional The lighting must then guide the pilot through curves
subsystems as listed below: and intersections with other taxiways and runways to
bring the aircraft to the apron while avoiding leaving
»» Taxiway edge lights the pavement or colliding with building, equipment or
Taxiway edge lights are usually elevated and blue other aircraft in the movement area.
in colour. Low and medium intensity lights are
omnidirectional and elevated. Edge lights are single In Australia taxiway edge lighting is usually used on ony
stage low intensity or three-stage medium intensity. the most simple of taxiway layouts. Row effect is an
important factor to make judgement of the aircraft's
»» Taxiway centreline lights position.
Taxiway centreline lights are inset lights and green
in colour.
»» Exit lights Figure 7.1: Taxiway edge lights
Exit taxiway lights are inset taxiway centreline lights
directing aircraft off the runway onto the taxiway.
These lights are green then yellow alternating from
the runway centreline to the edge of the flight strip.
»» Intermediate hold position lights
Intermediate hold position lights are yellow lights
located at the runway holding points on the taxiways
leading onto the runway and at intermediate
holding positions located around the airfields.
»» Stop bar lights
Stop bar lights are red in colour and located in a line
across the taxiway at runway holding positions.
»» Runway guard lights
Runway guard lights are flashing yellow lights at
runway holding positions, either elevated edge or
inset across the taxiway.
»» Retroflective taxiway markers
These are permitted by the MOS on Code A and B
taxiways.

In low visibility, as the number of lights visible to the 7.2 Configuration
pilots is decreased, so the row effect will be much less
effective. Any curves or intersections will be difficult to Taxiway edge lights
follow and loss of effective guidance can leave the pilot
disoriented. The edge lighting is located near the edge outside the
designated taxiway.
In low visibility, complex edge lighting can become
a sea of blue light with little intuitive guidance provided. This may be outside the pavement or on the pavement
where a seal has been used to reduce erosion of the
It is in these conditions that the serviceability and soil by jet blast or prop wash. Some taxiways may be
consistency of performance of each light is most marked on large areas of pavement such as aprons or
important. hardstands.
The quality and reliability of this information is The spacing of the lights is up to 60 metres on long
dependent on the serviceability of each fitting to give straight sections of taxiway but reduced on shorter
reliable information and not mislead the pilot. sections or around bends. The lights are located in pairs
on each side of the taxiway. On bends the lights are
Each fitting must be correctly installed, levelled, clean,
located on each side of the taxiway on radials from the
functioning correctly and not obscured by grass or other
centre of the curve.
objects in any direction for several metres.
The edge lights will also be used to mark the edge of
Where the taxiway system is more complex with curves,
turning nodes on runways and the edge of aprons were
intersections and multiple routes, taxiway centreline
the apron is not well lit or the apron edge is not clearly
lights give greatly improved guidance.
identified.
The centreline lights are directly in front of the pilot and
Edge lighting may also be used in conjunction with
generally more closely spaced. The pilot experiences a
centreline lights to mark the edge of sections of taxiway
very intuitive line of lights to follow without the need
where there is difficulty in identifying the edge such as
to judge the aircrafts position between two rows of
corners.
lights on each side of the aircraft.
Figure 7.2: Taxiway edge lights with hold position Figure 7.3: Taxiway centreline lights with stop bar

Figure 7.4: Typical taxiway edge light layout
A
A
Transition
from curved
to straight
taxiway
B
Runway Strip
Transition
entering an
intersection

Centreline lights Runway exit taxiways are of two types:
»» Low speed exits intended to be used when an
The centreline lights are located along the taxiway
aircraft has slowed to normal taxing speed and are
centreline with spacings similar to edge lights with
usually a 90 degree turn from the runway.
larger spacing on long straights and reduced on curves.
Because centreline lights are used on airfields operated »» Rapid exit taxiways that are intended to allow the
in lower visibility and with complex taxiway layouts, the aircraft to exit the runway at higher than normal
spacing can be further reduced to as small as taxi speed and continue to slow on the taxiway. This
7.5 metres. type of exit allows the runway to be cleared more
quickly and ready for use by another aircraft and
Centreline lights extend onto the runway to mark the so increasing the efficiency of the airfield. Rapid
path onto the runway for take-off or to guide the pilot exit taxiways are a gentle sweeping curve from the
from the runway to the taxiway. runway. The rapid exit taxiway lights extend along
the centre of the runway for 60 metres prior to the
commencement of the exit curve to give the pilot
warning of the impending exit.
Figure 7.5: Typical taxiway centreline light layout
Detail B Detail A
Straight
Lights before section
T.P. of rapid exit entering
runway
Straight section Straight section

before and after before and after
a curve a curve
Detail C

Intermediate hold position lights Stop bars
Hold positions are the point on a taxiway that marks the Stop bars are provided on taxiways for low visibility
limit an aircraft may travel before receiving clearance to operation and incorporate a row of inset red lights
enter a runway. across the taxiway to control the access of aircraft onto
the runway.
The intermediate position lights are either elevated or
inset yellow lights. Stop bar lights are controlled by ATC. The taxiway
»» Edge hold position lights are usually elevated and centreline lights leading onto the runway for a distance
are provided on each side of the taxiway in line with of at least 90 m past the runway lead onto the runway
the taxiway edge lights. These lights are of the same are controlled in conjunction with the stop bar lights
type of fitting type as the taxiway edge lights but are such that when the stop bar lights are ON, the taxiway
fitted with a yellow lens. lead-on lights are OFF.
»» Hold position lights provided on taxiways with When an aircraft is cleared to proceed the stop bar is
centreline lights incorporate three unidirectional turned off and the lead-on centreline lights come on.
inset lights across the taxiway facing the direction of
the aircraft approaching a runway. The centre light Runway guard lights (wig wags)
of the three lights is located in line with the taxiway
centreline lights, the other two lights are located 1.5 Runway guard lights are used on taxiways either on
m either side of the centre lights. each side of the taxiway or inset units across the
centreline of taxiway.
Figure 7.6: Typical hold position layout They are visible to aircraft approaching the runway. The
operating guard lights indicate not only that you are
approaching a runway but importantly that the runway
is active (in use).
They are flashing yellow lights and used on airfields

operated in low visibility. See MOS-139 9.13.6
Typical Taxiway Edge
Lights Layout Runway guard lights are required to be switched on
whenever the runway is active. Note that in practice,
this means at all times unless it has been taken out of
service.
7.3 Maintenance
Elevated fitting maintenance inspection and repair
work should include:
»» Inspecting glass wear (lens) for breakage, sand
blasting, rubber and dirt.
»» Checking lamp condition and function, including
checks for etching of the envelope and damage/
corrosion of the lamp base or leads.
Typical Taxiway »» Lamp holder condition.
Centreline Lights »» Light base and frangible mounting.
Layout
»» Checking level and alignment using the correct
instrument for the fitting.

Inset fittings are best serviced in the workshop and Note: Great care must be taken to ensure that inset
only replaced in the field with a changeover unit as lights are replaced using the correct type of inset
dismantling is difficult and time consuming in the light with green and yellow lenses correctly oriented.
airfield environment. Some manufacturers have inset lights with lenses that
emit light at 180 degrees for straight taxiways. Curved
The time to have the base unit open may be short and a sections of taxiways have lights with lenses that are
base cannot be left open while aircraft traffic along the required to be angled to orient their output for the
taxiways. direction of the curve (left or right). These lights are
Inset fitting maintenance inspection and repair work generally marked with a dot or a line of green or yellow
should include: of paint on their surface to indicate the direction of the
light and the colour.
»» Inspecting glass lens for breakage, chipping, sand
blasting and dirt around the lens. Make sure that inset light tops are tightened with a
»» Inspecting and changing seals and gaskets torque wrench to the manufacturers specifications.
in accordance with the manufacture's
recommendations.
»» Checking filters for damage.
»» Checking lamps or LEDs for serviceability and
condition.
»» Checking all mechanical parts for corrosion and
sound condition. These lights are subject to high
loading and must be in good condition and the
mountings sound so as not to constitute a hazard to
aircraft.
»» Checking all hardware (screws and bolts) that they
are in place and the threads are not stripped.
»» Cable glands must be tight and no water should be
able to enter the fitting.
»» Cable plug and socket must be clean and fit tightly.
»» The inset base unit must be tight in the ground, level
and the mounting studs or bolts in good order.

8. RUNWAY LIGHTING
8.1 Overview In Australia where there are a high proportion of Non

instrument runways with no air traffic control the
This section should be read with reference to the runway edge lighting is used to identify the airfield
applicable standard MOS Part 139 Ch 9.10. and give guidance in the circuit prior to lining up to
approach to land. In the approach phase the pilot
Runway edge lighting is the most fundamental form makes judgement of trapezoidal appearance of the
of airfield lighting that forms the basis of any airfield runway lighting to judge alignment, angle of approach
lighting installation. and attitude of the aircraft. This is why the standard
The edge lighting is made up of four sub components. on spacing is important so as to provide a constant
These are: impression on which the pilot can judge their relative
position. At these non-instrument runways, the runway
»» Runway edge lights lights are required to provided omnidirectional lighting
Runway edge lights are elevated or inset, and white to assist the pilot keep visual contact with the airfield
in colour. The exception is instrument precision while making their approach around the runway.
approach runways which are yellow for the last
600 m. The quality and reliability of the information is
»» Threshold lights dependent on the serviceability of each runway fitting
Threshold lights are green in colour, elevated to give reliable information and not mislead the pilot
or inset. as to any of the above mentioned information. This is
particularly important on basic runways where there
»» Runway end lights are no or few other aids to guide the pilot.
Runway end lights are red in colour, elevated or
inset. Each fitting must be installed correctly, levelled, clean,
»» Runway centreline lights functioning correctly and not obscured by grass or any
Runway centreline lights are white and red in colour, other object in any direction for several metres.
or inset.
The layout and performance of these systems will vary 8.2 Configuration
to meet the overall performance requirements of the
runway lighting in accordance with the requirements The appearance and arrangement of the runway
described in the relevant standard. lighting is the same from the most basic runway to the
highest level of facility and low visibility CAT III runway.
The edge lighting is used by the pilot in both take-off However, the light fitting type and the number of
and landing and provides the pilot with information as intensity settings for the lighting will change to suit the
to the start and finish of the usable runway length and specific installation.
width.
The runway lighting is provided with threshold lights,
In take-off the pilot can judge the location of the aircraft runway edge lights and runway end lights.
on the runway by its alignment to the runway and
identify the runway end. The aircraft will be affected The longitudinal spacing of the runway edge lights is a
by cross winds and the pilot’s ability to react will be maximum of 60 m and no less than 55 m.
dependant on the number of lights that can be seen
that will indicate the edge of the runway. Row effect is The lateral spacing of the lights for runways of less
an important factor to make judgement of the aircraft's than 30 m is the same as for a 30 m runway (i.e. 0-3
position. In low visibility as the number of visible m outside a runway. Typically, the lights are placed
lights is decreased so the row effect will be much less laterally at 32 m). For larger runways 45 m or 60 m the
effective. It is in these conditions that the serviceability lights are placed not more than 3 m from the runway
and consistency of performance of each light is most edge.
important.

8.3 Characteristic Runway end lights
Runway edge lights Runway end lights are red in colour and either elevated
or inset lights.
Runway edge lights for non-instrument runways are
white in colour. Instrument precision approach runways The end lights will have intensity and control to suit the
required the last 600 m prior to the runway end of the runway edge lighting installed. This is required to be a
runway edge lights to show yellow in colour. ratio of 0.25:0.5 of the runway edge lights.
Lights for low and medium intensity lighting are Note: in Australia low intensity installations may use
omnidirectional. The omnidirectional lens provide for elevated runway end/threshold split-lens fittings where
circling guidance. the runway end and threshold are co-incident. For
medium intensity and above, inset lights are more
High intensity lights are unidirectional. Some high common. The exception to the latter might be where
intensity units have bidirectional beams with a the runway elevation drops such that inset lights cannot
supplementary. For intensity controls, see MOS-139 be seen for a sufficient distance. If in doubt, refer this
Chapter 9.1.14 to your CASA inspector.
Threshold lights See MOS-139 Chapter 9.3.10 for spacing details.
Threshold lights are green in colour and either elevated Runway centreline lights
or unidirectional inset lights except the outer threshold
light which in Australia is omnidirectional and elevated. Runway centreline lights are provided for instrument
precision approach runways used for aircraft departures
The threshold lights will have intensity and control to intended for use in visibility conditions down to runway
suit the runway edge lighting installed. This is required visual range (RVR) conditions of 350 m. Runway
to be ratio of 1:1.5 of the runway edge lights. centreline lights should be installed along the runway
centreline at equal spacings of 30 m, 15 m or 7.5 m
Threshold lights are usually a row of green lights spaced depending on the visibility conditions in which they are
equally across the runway at the threshold. intended to be used for. Runway centreline lights white
in colour up to 900 m from the runway end, alternate
The number of lights provided for the threshold lighting
is dependent on the type of lighting systems (low red white from 900 m to 300 m from the runway end,
intensity, medium intensity or high intensity) and the and red for the last 300 m prior to the runway end
width of the runway for high intensity systems. High intensity inset threshold lights have a characteristic
that aims the beam towards the centreline of the
runway and so the units close to centreline are straight
ahead with units toed left and right towards the side
line. Care must be taken to replace units with the
correct toe in when conducting maintenance.

Figure 8.1: Typical non-instrument runway layout (CHECK DETAILS OF DIAGRAM)
Equal Intervals
2 elevated unidirectional threshold light

units (green)
6 Bi-directional threshold and runway end

light units - red to departing aircraft and
green to landing aircraft
Uniform
Longitudial
spacing 60 m
Legend
Green light
Red/Green light
White light

Figure 8.2: Precision approach runway layout (CHECK DETAILS OF DIAGRAM)
»»
Elevated unidirectional runway

edgelight - yellow within last 600 m
Inset unidirectional runway edgelight

- yellow within last 600 m
Uniform
longitudinal
spacing
Elevated unidirectional runway

edgelight-white

Figure 8.3: Typical runway end and threshold lights (CHECK DETAILS OF DIAGRAM)
Six unidirectional inset lights at equal

intervals - red
Typical runway end lights (high

intensity) for precision approach
runways
Threshold wing bar. Unidirectional

elevated lights - green
Typical runway threshold lights with

threshold wing bars (high intensity) for
precision approach runways
Unidirectional inset lights at equal Unidirectional elevated lights - green

intervals of not more than 3m - green
Typical runway threshold lights (high

intensity) for precision approach
runways
8.4 Displaced thresholds and Departing aircraft are able to use the displaced section
of the runway for take-offs or landing rollouts when
stopways landing from the opposite direction because those
The threshold of a runway is not necessarily located aircraft are not impacting the runway with the force of
at the start of the pavement. The threshold may be a landing aircraft or affected by obstacles beyond the
located at a point several hundred metres from the runway.
start of the pavement. This can be done for various
reasons such as:
»» To give safe clearance over obstacles in the
approach to the runway.
»» A displaced threshold may also be introduced if
the pavement at the of the runway is no longer
able to sustain the continuous impact from landing
aircraft.

8.5 Temporary displaced threshold Inset fittings
The threshold of a runway may be displaced Inset fittings are best serviced in the workshop and
temporarily to allow works to be conducted in on the only replaced in the field with a changeover unit as
threshold area or the pre-threshold. The touchdown dismantling is difficult and time consuming
zone of a runway is the area most subject to damage
in the field environment. The time to have the base unit
and wear and so it is not unusual for this area to be
open may be short and a base cannot be left open while
closed for repair while maintaining the runway in
aircraft traffic occurs.
operation with a reduced length.
Inset fitting maintenance inspection and repair work
The layout of lighting patterns suitable for permanently
should include:
and temporary displaced threshold are described in
MOS-139 Chapter 9.12-4 »» Inspecting glass lens for breakage, chipping, sand
blasting and dirt around the lens.
»» Inspecting and change seals and gaskets
8.6 Stopway (runway end) lights in accordance with the manufactures
recommendations.
Stopways are an extension of the runway and when
provided are there to increase the effective length of »» Checking filters for damage.
the runway in relation to the distance available for an »» Checking lamp for serviceability and condition.
aircraft to accelerate for take-off then abort and stop.
»» Checking all mechanical parts for corrosion and
Stopway lights are unidirectional red lights aimed in sound condition. These lights are subject to high
the direction of the aircraft on a take-off run to give loading and must be in good condition and the
guidance throughout the aborted take-off rollout. mountings sound so as not to constitute a hazard to
aircraft.
Refer to MOS-139 Chapter 9.12-5
»» Checking all hardware (screws and bolts) that they
are in place and the threads are not stripped.
8.5 MAINTENANCE »» Cable glands must be tight and no water should be
able to enter the fitting.
Elevated fittings »» Cable plug and socket must be clean and fit tightly.
Elevated fittings maintenance inspection and repair »» Checking that where two coloured lenses are
work should include: utilised that they are reassembled with the lens
»» Inspect glass wear (lens) for breakage, sand blasting colour in the correct position.
and dirt. »» The inset base unit must be tight in the ground, level
»» Lamp or LED condition including is it functioning? and the mounting studs or bolts in good order.
Is there evidence of etching of the envelope and Note: Great care must be taken to ensure that inset
damage / corrosion of the lamp base or leads? lights are replaced by the correct type of inset light.
»» Lamp holder condition.
Make sure that inset light tops are tightened with a
»» Light base and frangible mounting. torque wrench to the manufacturer's specifications.
»» Check that where two coloured lenses are utilised
that they are reassembled with the lens colour in
the correct position
»» Check level and alignment using the correct
instrument for the fitting.

9 APPROACH LIGHTING
9.1 Introduction Where required, the position of these crossbars may

be altered to avoid roads, fences etc. which may run
High intensity approach lighting systems are used through the system.
in conjunction with high intensity runway lighting
to enable aircraft landings to be made in adverse Ideally, the entire approach light system should be kept
weather conditions. These lighting systems are also at the same level as the runway threshold. However,
used for approaches in good visibility conditions where where the ground slopes above or below the threshold
extraneous lighting around the airport could cause level there are allowable rising and falling gradients at
conflicting information to a pilot. which the lights can be installed.
These systems can also provide centreline and roll For tolerances see MOS-139 Chapter 9.7 and the
guidance at airports where there is no background appendices in ICAO Annex 14.
lighting. They also provide a terrain reference in the
Note: Reduced length approach lighting systems may be
form of lights, giving the pilot a threshold reference
approved by CASA in some instances.
level. The most common system used in Australia is
called the Calvert centreline and cross bar system.
The approach lighting can be installed as two different 9.3 Light direction and elevation
systems, CAT I and CAT II. With the CAT I system the angles
minimal weather conditions an aircraft is allowed to
land in is at decision height of 60 m and in visibility The light units are a fixed unidirectional beam directed
conditions down to 800 m or in RVR conditions down along the approach to the runway. The light beam is
to 550 m. The CAT II system allows landings with both a parallel to the runway centreline and the lights are
reduced decision height and runway range, the decision elevated at an angle so that the centre of the beam
height is now 30 m with an RVR conditions down to 350 intersects the three degree glideslope angle at 750 m
m. from the source of the beam. The angle of elevation of
the light will depend upon the distance the light is from
Where CAT II systems are utilised, touch down zone the touchdown point and the position of the light with
(TDZ) lighting is required to be provided. TDZ lighting reference to the threshold level. A special alignment
incorporates two rows of lights (barrettes) either side of tool is usually provided by the suppliers, for installation
the runway centreline at 30 m intervals extending from and subsequent maintenance.
the runway threshold for a distance of 900 m from the
runway threshold.
9.4 Colour and light intensity
9.2 Configuration White light is the only colour used in a Category One
approach light system. The intensity of the light is
Both CAT I and CAT II systems consist of a line of lights controlled and six separate intensities of light can be
being an extension of the runway centreline extending selected. These intensity selections range from 100%
up to 900 m beyond the runway threshold and five down to 0.3% in the following steps: 100%; 30%; 10%;
crossbars of lights at right angles to the centre line. 3%; 1%; and 0.3%. Each step is one third of the previous
Figures 9.1 and 9.2 show plan views of both systems. intensity as it steps down through the available range.
The intensities would be selected to suit the weather
As can be seen from Figures 9.1 and 9.2 the crossbars
conditions; the ultimate decision being made by the
which are at right angles to the centreline are designed
pilot of the approaching aircraft.
to form decreasing bars of lights referenced to a point
of origin 300 m after the runway threshold.
These give an arrowhead pointer reference to the

runway centreline. This enables the pilot to line up on
the runway centreline when the weather conditions
may not permit good visual references from the runway.
The bars also provide roll guidance in conditions where
other visual references are not available.

9.5 Light pattern In addition are side rows of lights from the threshold
to a point 300 m out. These side row lights display red
Category One systems (CAT I) light as illustrated in Figure 9.2.
The CAT I system uses a coded centre line. The code A typical Inner 300 m approach and runway lighting
changes every 300 m. As can be seen in Figure 9.1, the for precision approach runways, categories II and III
centreline consists of one light for the first 300 m from including the TDZ lighting can be seen in Figure 9.3.
the threshold, the next 300 m two lights and the final
300 m three lights.
9.6 Maintenance
Category Two systems (CAT II)
For maintenance and troubleshooting of circuits, see
The CAT II approach light system is laid out the same Chapter 5.
as the Category One system with the addition of extra
lights in the centreline starting at the runway threshold For light units, ensure lenses are clean and free
and extending for 600 m. of sandblasting. Ensure all connections are good
and repair if needed. Replace any unserviceable or
blackened lamps. Level and align fitting in accordance
with manufacturer's recommendations.
Figure 9.1 CAT I Approach Light System Figure 9.2 CAT II Approach Light System

Figure 9.3 Typical inner 300 m of CAT II and CAT III
18.0m – 22.5m
18m preferable
30m
or 60m
3.0m – 4.5m
30m
15m invisibilities
below 350m RVR
Runway edge light
Runway centre light
Runway
touchdown zone
light (TDZ)
60m max
Threshold lights
spacing 3m max
4m
Side row
barrette
150m
Equal to that of
'TDZ'
Crossbar 300m
Either single light source or where 60m

the centreline beyond 300 m from
the threshold consists of barrettes,
centreline barrette
Centreline barrette
Crossbar
30m

10. PRECISION APPROACH PATH
INDICATOR SYSTEM (PAPI)
10.1 Standard reference The conditions that a pilot must overcome are:
These notes should be read with reference to the »» night;

applicable standard for Australia, MOS-139 Chapter »» lack of horizon;
9.9.4
»» sloping ground;
»» lack of visual information in the approach terrain;
10.2 Background
»» difference in height between the pre-approach and
To avoid confusion between different systems a bit of the runway;
history is worth noting. Research conducted in the years
after the second world war into the safety of aircraft »» misleading visual information from significant
operations found that the most dangerous part of any features around the runway such as roads, tree lines,
flight was the landing phase. and hills;
»» poor contrast in the visual segment; and
The most common cause of accidents was found to be
pilot error due to the pilots inability to safely control »» the handling characteristic of the aircraft.
the glide path to touchdown on the runway.
The visual guidance system must achieve four main
Radio aids were developed to guide the aircraft to a points:
point where the pilot would obtain sufficient visual »» clearance of obstacles in the approach to land;
information to manually control and land the aircraft.
»» clearance over the threshold;
These aids are essential in low visibility operations
allowing the pilot to begin the approach to land without »» descent at the correct angle; and
sighting the runway. These aids are relatively expensive »» touchdown at the correct point on the runway.
to purchase and maintain and so are limited to major
runways where closure of the runway would cause When a visual approach slope indicator system (VASIS)
significant disruption to the airport and the economy is deployed on both sides of the runway it will also give
of the city it serves, or military runways needing all- some roll guidance where a natural or reliable horizon
weather capability. Even with the use of instrument is absent.
landing systems (ILS) the pilot needs to control the
To be successful any VASIS must be intuitive, using
aircraft by visual reference in the final moments before
visual skills of the observer that are repeatable under
touchdown.
all climatic and geographical conditions and by all pilots
These systems require specialist equipment on the regardless of age, gender or visual acuity within the
ground in the aircraft and the pilot must be trained in range required for pilots.
its use along with all the skills needed for instrument
The visual skills of the pilot that may be used are:
flight.
»» colour;
A visual guidance system would give increased safety
in the approach to land in better visual conditions »» intensity;
where the runway is visible for several kilometres. »» characteristic (steady or flashing, On or Off);
This equipment could be used by all pilots without the
need for the aircraft to be equipped with specialist »» alignment; and
navigational aids.
»» pattern or shape.
Although the runway may be visible to the pilot this
Not all these abilities of the observer are the same, as
does not mean that there is not considerable difficulty
sensitive or repeatable across all people.
to safely assess the situation.

Colour is quite subjective between different observers The first VASIS in widespread use was the red/white
and to be useful must be well defined so as not to be VASIS
confused.
This equipment provided basic control information of
Intensity is not a very useful way to provide information on slope, below slope, and above slope.
as it is very difficult to tell the difference between quite
different levels of brightness. Typically, less than a 50 The limited information especially the rate of change
per cent change is not able to be detected reliably. and the fact that the red signal was a much lower
intensity than the white meant that this system was less
Characteristic is a very sensitive skill repeatable from than ideal.
person to person and time to time. The presence of a
light or a flashing light is very clear. The basic design of the optical system provided a
gradual change from red to white or white to red. This
Pattern or shape can be very useful as long as the shape resulted in a wide range of subjective judgement as to
or pattern is large enough over distance. when the change occurred and consequently a wide
range of results from pilot to pilot.
The VASIS must give guidance by providing the pilot
with certain information that gives feedback to the pilot This system had to be designed for only one size
of the aircraft's position with respect to the ideal glide of aircraft, which at the time of design was not a
slope. significant problem, as the aircraft in service did not
vary very much with respect to the wheel-to-pilot eye
This information is: height. The introduction of larger aircraft like the 747
»» the aircraft is ON slope; and DC10 with wheel-to-eye heights much greater
than other aircraft meant that this equipment would
»» the aircraft is above or below slope;
bring the aircraft over the threshold with only limited
»» how far from the correct approach slope; and clearance. A third set of lights could be added further
»» how quickly this rate of change is occurring. along the runway from the top set to give an alternate
glide path but with the loss of its simplicity and still
limited information.
The next major development in VASIS design was the

Australian T-VASIS.
Figure 10.1: VASIS signals
Far Bar
Near Bar
Below Glidepath On Glidepath Above Glidepath

The T-VASIS was arranged to be similar to the Figure 10.2: PAPI on intial approach
information from the ILS equipment in an aircraft. It was
in principle a white light presentation with lights being
visible or not to indicate approach angle.
This equipment is very accurate and intuitive with

simple components that operate reliably for many
years. Its performance met all the requirements of on-
slope, above and below slope with three indications of
each which gave excellent rate of change information,
plus a red signal to indicate a dangerously low angle.
The problem with this system is that it is made up of

20 light units on the side of the runway. The number of
units and its associated equipment made it expensive
to install and maintain. Modern airports rely heavily on
the efficiency of the taxiway system to operate at peek
number of movements per hour. The T-VASIS occupied a
large amount of space near the ends of the runway and Figure 10.3: PAPI on short final approach
this is difficult to co-locate it within the needs of the
taxiway network.
Many other forms of visual glide slope guidance

have been developed around the world for specialist
and military operations using a mixture of principles
including flashing lights and alignment of lights.
The 1980s saw the introduction of the PAPI system. This

system has become the most commonly used VASIS
around the world today.
It is principally a red/white VASIS using graduated

signals to give more information and a more
sophisticated optical system to achieve rapid colour
change to remove the subjective assessment by the
observer as to when the colour change has occurred. Its
layout is quite compact and therefore easier to locate
along the runway without interfering with taxiways.

10.3 Configuration Each light unit is comprised of two or three identical
lamp filter lens assemblies. The decision to use two or
The PAPI installation is made up of four identical light three or lamp assemblies is made with reference to
units. These light units are located at the side of the the serviceability of the equipment. The loss of one
runway at the point of touchdown. The light units lamp or filter in a two-lamp unit will render the unit
are laid out in a line at right angles to the direction of unserviceable. The loss of one lamp or filter in a three-
the runway and spaced at approximately 15 m from lamp unit is still considered serviceable. The decision
the edge of the runway the first unit and then at 9 m to use a two or three lamp system will be made with
intervals between lights. consideration of the ability to monitor and make repairs
to the equipment in service and the effect on the
Each light unit is identified by a letter starting with the operation of the airfield. The first LED versions of the
letter A at the extreme left of the runway, and if the PAPI are now starting to come onto the market and are
installation is a double-sided PAPI then finishing with a likely to replace lamp versions over time.
letter H at the extreme right.
As already stated the light units of the PAPI are all
If a single-sided installation is used it will be located identical and the angle of transition from red to white is
left side of the runway unless there is a significant set by the angle that the light unit is elevated. The exact
engineering difficulty in locating it on the left. In these angle may vary on some installations to suit obstacle
circumstances it may be located on the right. clearance however the standard settings are:
A double-sided installation will perform as a mirror »» Unit A (H) 2’ 30”
image left to right with the outer most units set to the »» Unit B (G) 2’ 50”
lowest angle of approach. »» Unit C (F) 3’ 10”
»» Unit D (E) 3’ 30”
These settings provide an on-slope indication of two red
lights and two white lights at three degrees.
Figure 10.4: PAPI light unit location

Threshold
Runway
15m ± 1m D1
D
9m ± 1m
C
9m ± 1m
B
9m ± 1m

Figure 10.5: Typical PAPI unit installation
Figure 10.6: Typical PAPI operation of optics
Reflector lamp Filter Lens
View from straight ahead

focused just past the
edge of the filter onto the
refector
Looking down into the

lens the observer's sight is
focused below the filter and
white light will be seen
Looking up into the lens the

observer's sight is focused
onto the filter then through
to the reflector and the
observer will see red light

Figure 10.7: PAPI light beam projections 10.4 Characteristics
The standard approach angle is three degrees and the
signals of the PAPI are arranged so that the on slope
3° 30 min signal at three degrees will show two white and two
red lights.
»» The two high signal is set at 3° 30 minutes
3° 10 min »» The slightly high signal is set at 3° 10 minutes
»» The slightly low signal is set at 2° 50 minutes
2° 50 min »» The two low signal is saying below 2° 30 minutes
Figure 10.9: PAPI on glide path

2° 30 min
Pap Targets D
C
B
A
Figure 10.8: PAPI: A Pilot's eye view
Too High
Slightly High
On Glide Path
Slightly Low
On Glide Path Too Low

10.5 Installation Figure 10.10: PAPI location for sloping ground
The location of the PAPI is determined with reference to

several important considerations. Approach slope
The PAPI must be located so that the guidance it gives

will bring the pilot's eye over the threshold at a safe
height with consideration for the vertical distance
between the pilot’s eye and the main landing gear
wheels. This height is chosen with reference to the Threshold
general size of the aircraft as laid out in the table below
taken from MOS Part 139 9.9.4. Up slope runway with PAPI location moved closer to
the threshold to maintain the same
Consideration is also given for the presence of an ILS
system on the runway concerned. Where an ILS is
present the guidance from the PAPI must not conflict
with the guidance from the ILS.
The actual location will also be affected by any slope

on the runway. A runway with an uphill slope from Threshold
the threshold will have the PAPI located at a closer
threshold than a level runway. Conversely a runway that
runs down from the threshold will result in the PAPI Down slope runway with PAPI location moved away
from threshold to maintain
being located further from threshold.
The PAPI light units are generally located at the same

height as the centre of the runway. However, if this is
not possible, adjustment must also be made to locate
the light units so that they appear to the pilot in the
same location as if light units were positioned at the
runway height.
Threshold
Location changes as height of light unit changes
Figure 10.11: PAPI displacement from runway threshold
Eye-to-wheel height of aeroplane in the Standard wheel Special minimum wheel

approach configuration a clearance (metres)b clearance (metres)c, d
(1) (2) (3)
Up to but not including 3 m 6 3
3 m up to but not including 5 m 9 4
a In selecting the eye-to-wheel height group, only aeroplanes meant to use the system on a regular basis shall be considered. The most demanding amongst such
aeroplanes shall determine the eye-to-wheel height group.
b Where practicable, the standard wheel clearance shown in column (2) shall be provided.
c The wheel clearance may be reduced to not less than those in column (3) with specific agreement of CASA, where an aeronautical study indicates that such
reduced wheel clearances are acceptable.
d Where the special minimum wheel clearance is provided at a displaced threshold it shall be ensured that the corresponding standard wheel clearance specified in
column (2) will be available when an aeroplane at the top end of the eye-to-wheel height group chosen overflies the extremity of the runway.

The amount of adjustment will be calculated using To determine the location of the light units, a ground
the approach slope angle. For an approach slope of survey must be done to determine the levels of the land
three degrees, this adjustment will be calculated by in the area where the units are to be located. The exact
the approach gradient 1:19. That is, with every metre location of the units can then be determined in relation
difference in height the light unit must be located to the factors described above. Each light unit requires
approximately 19 metres closer or further from a concrete foundation to rigidly locate the units in place
threshold to maintain the appearance of being located and to maintain accurate alignment. A pit will also be
at the runway height. required to locate the associated transformers. Two
transformers for a two-lamp unit or three transformers
The PAPI light projector is very flexible in its use. Its for a three-lamp unit.
light output is observed as red in colour below the
centreline and white above the centreline. This allows As part of this ground survey your surveyor will need
the equipment to be positioned and adjusted so to take into consideration factors associated with the
that the approach angle can be changed if necessary obstacle limitation surface to ensure compliance with
to accommodate pre-threshold obstructions. CASA respect to possible obstacle infringements.
permits approach angles of up to 3.5° for jet aircraft
and up to 4° for propeller aircraft. This equipment can The primary cabling for the PAPI will run from the
be very easily adjusted to accommodate a range of ALER to the first PAPI box, and then each unit in
approach slopes by simply selecting angles for each unit turn. The installation may require all of the PAPI
around the mid-approach angle. units to be cabled together on one circuit and one
regulator or, where double sided systems are used,
The units are then adjusted to these angles with no may require separate circuits, one for each side of the
need to engineer any new equipment to accommodate runway, supplied from separate regulators or MITs.
the new approach light. The same units can also be This complicated installation will result in greater
used for helicopter approaches at much higher angles redundancy meaning that the loss of one source will
of approach. not extinguish the entire system allowing for continued
guidance pilot guidance to complete their landings.
For further design assistance refer MOS-139 Chapter

9.9, and ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 4.
Figure 10.12: PAPI design angle can be impacted by obstructions

20.145 mm
Approach slope may be increased

to maintain clearence over pre-threshold
obstructions
Approach Slope
Threshold
Location changes as hieght of light unit changes

10.6 Maintenance »» Check the filter to make sure it is correctly
positioned in the filter holder and that the filter is
The visual approach slope indicator is the most accurate not cracked, chipped or damaged in any way.
lighting system used in airfield lighting. Consequently, »» Check that the lamp is operational, that the
the maintenance and adjustment of this system must envelope is clear and that the lamp is correctly
be undertaken with care and precision. located in the lamp holder.
When undertaking a maintenance inspection on the »» To adjust or check the correct setting of the light
PAPI, it is important to have a methodical approach to angle will require a clinometer specific to the
the work. model of PAPI you are going to check. You’ll also
need to know the angle setting of the PAPI light as
»» To begin the inspection, start with the exterior of commissioned.
the unit.
»» The standard settings are for a three degree PAPI are
»» Examine the outer case for signs of damage, loose as below.
lips and breakage or sand blasting of the external
glassware. Loose covers can allow the entry of Port side (left observed from threshold)
insects and dirt. If not firmly affixed they can also Box A 2° 30 minutes
cause light spill to escape from the unit which will Box B 2° 10 minutes
result in light signals being observed at angles other Box C 3° 50 minutes
than intended by the design of the equipment. Box D 3° 30 minutes
»» The entry of dirt and moisture into the equipment Starboard side (right observed from threshold)
can damage or impair the performance of the Box E 3° 30 minutes
reflector or lamp. It can also effect the proper Box F 3° 10 minutes
operation of the filter lens. Sand blasting of the front Box G 2° 10 minutes
glass will also have a negative effect on the optical Box H 2° 30 minutes
precision of the light signals and their transition.
Where a non-standard approach angle has been used
»» Check mountings and hardware for corrosion, you will need to know the setting of each box before
breakage and loose fixings. Any movement in you can perform the adjustment of this equipment.
the mountings can cause changes in the angle of
operation of the light unit. No movement in the It is good practice that the setting angles of each unit
mounting unit can be tolerated at all as rigid fixing are permanently marked with an engraved label fixed to
is vital to ensure the precise angles of operation of the foundation or inside the unit.
the PAPI.
To set the approach angle you need to firstly cross-level
»» Check the cables for deterioration and damage.
the light unit. This is done with a small bar level that
»» Remove the outer cover and examine the interior is fitted onto the machined pads of the PAPI box main
light for dirt and moisture damage. frame. It is good practice to always place this level on
»» Examine all the interior hardware for loose or the frame the same way around and move it to the
broken fixings. left or right so that it is positioned in the same place
each time. The cross-level adjustment is performed
»» The precise operation of the change of angle the by adjusting one of the front legs. It is good practice
light signal is dependent upon the precise location to maintain one leg as a fixed reference and to make
of the filter and the rigid fixing of this with respect to all adjustments on the other leg. This adjustment is
the lens. not required to achieve the same accuracy as the
»» Check and clean the lens making sure the lens is not vertical angle adjustment. It is only necessary to
cracked or loose. adjust the cross-level so that the bubble is within the
centre marks. The accuracy of the PAPI signals is not
greatly dependent on the accuracy of this horizontal
adjustment. However, cross levelling should be done to
achieve a sharp transition red to white.

Once this adjustment has been completed the
clinometer can be adjusted to set the angle required
for that light unit. The clinometer is then fitted to the
machined pads on the PAPI box main frame with the
high end of the clinometer towards the rear of the light.
The rear leg is used to adjust the angle of the PAPI light
so that the bubble in the level of the clinometer is
perfectly centre. The setting of the clinometer and the
vertical adjustment of the box is critical to the accuracy
the PAPI.
During commissioning or when a flight test is

performed, the pilot of the aircraft will fly across the
signal of the PAPI to check the even distribution of
the signal left and right. The flight check will also test
the even progression of signals in the vertical and that
there is no asymmetry of signals on a double-sided PAPI
installation. If an ILS is installed, it will also check for
harmonisation with the standard glide slope
NOTE: Asymmetry is the term used to describe the

condition when the PAPI indication on one side of the
runway is different to the other side.
Figure 10.13: Typical PAPI Clinometer and tools

11. MOVEMENT AREA GUIDANCE
SIGNS (MAGS)
MAGs are required at more complex airports and The illuminated MAGs were originally powered by
provide assistance to pilots to navigate their way filament lamps or fluorescent tubes powered with
around the movement area, as well as providing either their own, or a mixed series circuit (e.g. taxiway/
supplementary information. MAGS light circuits).
It is now common to see MAGs lit by LEDs. These may

11.1 Types of MAGS utilise panels of LEDs or 'edge lit' LED panels.
Some common issues are balancing the minimum

Mandatory distance permitted from the pavement with the wind
These are white letters on a red background. Mandatory loading and therefore frangibility.
signs include runway designation and intersection, CAT
While the specifications may look cumbersome, most
I, II, and III designation, hold positions, no entry and
vendors these days have software applications available
vehicle stop signs.
to perform the tedious design work.
Information
These are yellow letters on black background to signify 11.2 Maintenance
location, and black letters on yellow background to
signify direction. These signs can indicate taxiway This is much the same requirement as for elevated edge
location and direction, runway exits, apron directions, lights and related circuits.
etc. »» Isolate the MAG before performing any work (use
Where MAGS are required to be used at night they can local switch if provided).
be internally illuminated. If they are not, then they must »» Clean panels with clean, dry cloth. Note that while
be made of retro-reflective materials. Specifications for most panels are UV stabilised, in practice their life is
sign requirements are contained in MOS-139. typically around 7 years after which panels may fade
and need replacement.
»» Replace lamps or LEDs as required.
»» Ensure mountings have not worked loose and
Figure 11.1: Examples of mandatory signs torque if required.
»» Circuits – refer to Chapter 5.
Figure 11.2: Example of information sign

12. MOUNTING FOR ELEVATED
AND INSET LIGHTS
12.1 Mountings for elevated lights
MOS Part 139 EXTRACT
Elevated fittings are installed in one of three basic
methods. There may be minor variations on these and 9.1.11 Light Fixtures and Supporting
that is normally acceptable. Structures
»» Mounted on a tripod plate and wired to its SIT and 9.1.11.1 All aerodrome light fixtures and
located remote to the light. supporting structures must be of
»» Screwed directly into a 2” British Standard Pipe minimum weight while being fit for
(BSP) or National Pipe Straight (NPS) socket with a the function, and frangible.
remotely located SIT. Notes:
»» Mounted on a cover plate bolted to an Federal 1. For guidance on frangibility, see:
Aviation Administration (FAA)-type deep-base can a ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 4 –
with the SIT housed below the fitting. Visual Aids, Chapter 15, Frangibility of Visual
Aids; and
Elevated lights and supporting structures where located
with runway and taxiway strips must be frangible. These b ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 6
can take many forms from shear grooves, to breakable Frangibility.
fibreglass structures. Suppliers should be able to 2. See Subsection 11.1.4A for information
provide certificates for your records. regarding siting of equipment and
installations on operational areas.
Figure 12.1: Examples for installing elevated lights
Figure 12.2: Example of frangible approach masts
Tri-pod stand
Screwed mounting FAA deep base

12.2 Mounting for inset lights
Inset lights can be mounted in two variations:
»» shallow base with the SIT remotely located; and
»» bolted to the cover of an FAA deep base with
the SIT below.
Figure 12.3: Example of shallow inset base
Figure 12.4: Example of deep inset base

13. ILLUMINATED WIND DIRECTION
INDICATOR (IWDI)
Illuminated wind direction indicator(s) are to be 13.1 Control
provided at every aerodrome intended for use at night.
Illuminated wind indicators are normally connected to a
An illuminated wind direction indicator consists of a separate power source.
conventional canvas wind sock floodlit from above.
Where only one wind indicator is provided and there
Runways intended for night operation by RPT aircraft are two or more lit runways, then control for the wind
must be provided with wind indicators at: indicator needs be incorporated in the runway lighting
»» each end of runways used by RPT jet aircraft; control for each runway.
»» each end of runways used by RPT propeller-driven Where more than one wind indicator is provided, then
aircraft where the strip length is greater than 1500 control for each wind indicator needs be incorporated
m; and in the runway lighting control(s) for the operationally
»» the end of a runway where a straight-in landing can related runway(s).
be made off an instrument approach.
Each illuminated wind indicator must be installed in a 13.2 Maintenance

conspicuous position on the aerodrome, having due
regard to obstruction marking surfaces, and in such a Care should always be exercised when lowering the
way as to be free from the effect of air disturbances mast for maintenance or other purposes.
caused by nearby objects.
»» Unplug the power supply for the moveable section
Illuminated wind indicators serving particular runways of the mast from the mast supports. Check that
should be located 100 metres upwind of the thresholds, there is no obstruction in the area where the mast
on the left-hand side of the approaches where will be lowered e.g., marker cone or parked vehicle.
practicable and outside the runway strip.
»» A rope of sufficient length is to be secured to the
If an aerodrome is served by only one illuminated wind mast and the strain taken up on the rope before
indicator it should be located in a conspicuous position, the securing pin is unlocked and removed. Slowly
central to all runway thresholds. lower the mast until it has been firmly seated on the
ground. After completing the required task, repeat
You need to be mindful of the 1:7 obstacle limitation the procedure in reverse order.
zone and with wind indicators typically 8 metres in »» Before leaving the site check that the wind sock
height they need to be placed at around 56 metres is free from any snags and that all lamps are
outside the flight strip (taking into account rise and fall operational.
for the terrain) so as not to infringe on any obstacle
limitation zone.
Most IWDIs in Australia in practice use four pairs (eight

lights) to meet CASA lighting requirements for this
equipment. Please refer to MOS-139 Chapter 9.6

Figure 13.1: Mid-hinged illuminated wind indicator (IWI)
Illuminated Wind Indicator

Height approx 8m
White or another conspicuous

colour for ?? wind sock, and
Mid-hinged column type yellow for ?? wind sock

14. ROTATING BEACONS AND
OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING
14.1 Rotating beacons Figure 14.1: DCB10
In Australia, the need for a rotating beacon is normally

advised by CASA. When required they are normally
installed on the roof of the ATC tower, but this is not
exclusively so.
There are three main types in existence. A 36” diameter

DCB36, a 10” diameter DCB10, and four-headed sealed
beam units.
The larger DCB36 unit is mainly installed at international

airports, and being international have the colour code
green/white in alternate flashes.
The smaller DCB10 and sealed beam models are more

often found at regional airports and have the colour
code of white flashes only.
Figure 14.2: DCB36
The DCB36 and DCB10 units are now obsolete and are
being replaced by the newer multiu-head type units.
For further information, refer MOS-139 Chapter 9.5.
14.2 Obstruction lighting

It is the policy of the Civil Aviation Safety Authority
to investigate all new constructions which could be
potential hazards to aircraft movements.
CASA may, under the Air Navigation Act, prohibit

any new constructions above certain heights near
aerodromes. It may also order the removal or
modification of an existing construction if it impinges
certain clearance planes or order the lighting and/or Figure 14.3: Sealed beam unit
marking of such constructions.
Obstacle identification by lights

An obstacle may be marked by either low, medium or
high intensity obstacle lights. It may also be marked
with a combination of these lights.
Low and medium intensity lighting is used for the

identification of obstacles at night only. High intensity
obstacle lighting is used for both day and night
operations. The number of light units used to identify
an obstacle will depend upon its location with respect
to flight paths etc.

Low intensity obstacle lighting Figure 14.5: LED based medium intensity obstacle
light
Low intensity obstacle lights on fixed objects shall be
fixed red lights having an intensity sufficient to ensure
conspicuity considering the intensity of the adjacent
lights and the general level of illumination against
which they would normally be viewed. They shall emit
aviation red in all directions in azimuth, from three
degrees below to 90 degrees above the horizontal. The
intensity of the lights shall not be less than 10 candelas
of red light in the required direction. New installations
shall have a peak intensity of not less than 100 candelas
of red light.
Medium intensity obstacle lighting

Medium intensity obstacle lights shall be flashing red
lights. The flash frequency shall be between 20 and 60
flashes per minute with an ON period of approximately
twice the OFF period. The effective intensity of the flash
shall not be less than 1600 candelas of red light and the
light distribution shall cover all directions in azimuth, Figure 14.6: Tungsten lamp medium intensity
and from one degree below to 90 degrees above the obstacle light
horizontal. The lamp units will always be a double
unit, and when used in conjunction with high intensity
obstacle lights the light output will be white light.
Figure 14.4: Twin low intensity obstacle light

LED lighting for low and medium intensity Location of obstacle lights for temporary
obstruction lights obstacles
Low and medium obstructions lights are now usually Depending on the nature and location of the obstacle,
available with LED light sources. temporary low intensity obstacle lighting may need
to be provided on the top of the object, associated
High Intensity obstacle light equipment or cranes, while the obstacle is present at
night.
High intensity obstacle lights shall be flashing white
lights. The flash frequency shall be between 40 and Vehicles and some other mobile objects on the
60 per minute. All high intensity obstacle lights on the movement area of an aerodrome are obstacles. They
same object shall flash simultaneously. The effective need to be lighted in accordance with the requirements
intensity flash luminance shall be: of CASA regulations, if the aerodrome is used and these
obstacles are present at night. Typically, these are
»» day, 200,000 candelas minimum yellow flashing lights for vehicles.
»» twilight, 20,000 candelas ± 25%
Permanent man-made obstacles
»» night, 4,000 candelas ± 25%
All non-frangible elevated objects which are closer
to the edge of a taxiway than the minimum distance
Figure 14.7: Strobe based high intensity obstacle light between a taxiway and a fixed obstacle are required to
be illuminated if the taxiway is used at night.
Objects which extend to a height of 110 m or more

above ground elevation shall be referred to the Civil
Aviation Safety Authority even if they do not impinge
the clearance planes.
One or more obstacle lights shall be located at the

top of the obstacle except in the case of a chimney or
other structure of like function where the lights shall be
spaced around the perimeter of that structure. Where
the top of an object is more than 45 m above the level
of the surrounding ground, additional lights shall be
provided at intermediate levels. These intermediate
lights shall be spaced as equally as practicable between
the top light and ground level. Where low or medium
intensity lights are used the spacing between the lights
shall not exceed 45m. Where high intensity lights are
used the spacing shall not exceed 105 m.
The number and arrangement of lights at each level

to be marked shall be such that the object is indicated
from every angle in azimuth. Where a light is shielded
in any direction by an adjacent object, additional lights
shall be provided on that object in such a way as to
retain the general definition of the object to be lit. The
shielded light may be omitted if, in the opinion of the
flying surveyor (CASA) of the particular region, it does
not contribute to the definition of the object to be
lighted.

The top lights shall be so arranged as to at least indicate The lights shall be so placed that the obstacle can be
the points or edges of the object which is highest in readily identified (under normal visibility conditions)
relation to the obstacle limitation surface. In the case from a distance of at least eight kilometres and kept in
of a chimney or other structure of like function, the top view throughout the approach, landing and take- off
lights shall be placed between 1.5 m and 3 m below manoeurvres. Under certain circumstances medium
the top. In case of a guyed tower or antenna where it intensity lights may be required in lieu of a series of low
is not possible to locate a high intensity obstacle light intensity lights on an extensive obstacle.
on the top, such a light shall be located at the highest
practicable point and a medium intensity obstacle light An important point with low intensity obstacle lights is
showing white, mounted on the top. the type of light bulbs used. Under no circumstances
should the compact fluorescent type of light bulb be
In the case of an extensive object or of a group of used. These lamps do not have a filament focal point
closely spaced objects, top lights shall be displayed and therefore do not meet the requirements of the
at least on the points or edges of the objects highest fresnel lenses used for obstacle lighting. The lens is
in relation to the obstacle limitation surface, so as designed to focus light at a set angle from the light
to indicate the general definition and extent of the fitting, this does not occur with the fluorescent light
objects. If two or more edges are of the same height, bulb. Newer models of low and medium intensity lights
the edge nearest the landing area shall be marked. use red LEDs, and these are the obvious choice where
long life is desirable from a maintenance point on
Where low intensity lights are used they shall be difficult to access installations such as a radio mast etc.
spaced at intervals not to exceed 45 m. Where medium High intensity lights to date are usually a white xenon
intensity lights are used they shall be spaced at intervals flash type.
not to exceed 900 m. When the obstacle limitation
surface concerned is sloping and the highest point For further information, see MOS-139 Chapter 9.4.
above the obstacle limitation surface is not the highest
point of the object, additional obstacle lights should be
placed on the highest part of the object.
Permanent natural obstacles

Natural obstacles such as a line of hills requiring
obstacle lighting are frequently so extensive that
the fitting of lights as specified above for man-made
obstacles would not be practical. There are many
complexities associated with aircraft operations
where such obstacles exist. Each case must therefore
be considered separately on its merits and should
be referred to the Civil Aviation Safety Authority for
approval.
The general principle to be followed is where the

position of the obstacle is such that aircraft are
obliged to pass close to it, i.e. where it is located
within the approach area, then the obstacle should
be fully equipped with lights. Where the position of
the obstacle is such that aircraft can carry out their
approach, landing and take-off manoeurvre without
approaching close to it, the lighting can be restricted to
a small number of lights on the obstacle’s highest and
most prominent features.

15. CONTROL AND MONITORING
SYSTEMS
15.1 Airport requirements The main types of control systems in Australia, in order
of installation numbers are:
Airfield Lighting requires some type of control and
monitoring system. This ranges in scope and complexity, 1 Basic:
depending on the airport's need. From a simple relay- »» Relay based control.
based system costing in the order of thousands to a
»» Single or three stages of intensity.
complex multi-PC-based system costing in the millions.
»» Simple monitoring of basic parameters including
A common feature of all these controls, from simple to operation, mains power availability, current
complex is they must be able to provide all MOS Part selection as basics.
139 requirements, and they should all operate in fail-
»» Usually incorporated into the same cubicle with
safe mode. i.e. if any fault should occur in the system,
the MIT(s), and PAALC unit. Often weatherproof
then the system should go into default safe mode e.g.
and mounted outside.
all lights on and twilight intensity selected. In addition,
the controls should be secure. For example, it is »» Usually allows for off/local/remote control
possible today to control PLC or PC systems via remote –– Off when carrying out maintenance or not
login or control via personal smart device. While this required
may be desirable for the maintenance engineer to
–– Local for manual selection
access and fix the system from home it raises the safety
aspect that the login accessibility should be strictly –– Remote which can include tower remote
controlled and managed. operation or auto PAALC control. For the
latter this can be a set intensity or the
intensity can be auto controlled for day/
twilight/night by PE cells. Remote can also
WARNING: If this is not treated with care, it be operated from say the airport manager's
could be possible for an unauthorised person office or by airline representatives
to switch off all lights remotely while an aircraft
was on short final approach. »» Simple maintenance and fault finding.
»» Low cost.
The following may assist in selection of the best fit for

your airport’s needs.

Figure 15.1: Example of a basic three stage intensity control layout
Interface Control
Module PAPI 27
22
Indicator ON when a
facility switch is not
selected AUTO
Selector Switch Runway
G3 F3 E/4
2 7 R R
AUTO
8 P OFF
G4 E3 F/4
P
3 1
9 W 2
F4 E4
W G/4
12
E2
F2
H/3
4 G2
Br
1 Bk
H3
V
V
Transformer cover
safety switch
D1
CB10 D16A
TX1 White
C1
White
LK 11
B1
Pink
V
A1 A
Red
LK12
D1
Transformer Case
The circuit in Figure 15.1 shows a typical-three stage When a change of intensity occurs, the old selection is
control utilising a MIT. turned off, the mains contactor is de-energised, the new
selection of tapping is made, and the mains contactor is
The MIT is labelled TX1 and it shows the primary re-energised to power the circuit.
winding connected to a three-phase supply via a mains
contactor with its contacts controlling the primary This arrangement forms an 'off load' tap-changing
winding of TX1. circuit so that only one intensity selection can be made
and the high voltage secondary selections only change
The secondary windings of TX1 are connected to three while the transformer is de-energised. In reality the
contacts making selection for three intensity stages. MIT would have several other tappings as to allow
These three contacts are controlled by the three adjustment of the voltage to achieve the desired output
contactors at the top of the drawing. The contactors are currents.
in turn controlled from the three stage DAY/TWILIGHT/
NIGHT light-sensing circuit and its selections energise
the appropriate contactor via an interlocking contacts
set to ensure that only one intensity can be selected at
a time.

Figure 15.2: Example of an intermediate PLC based control system
2 Intermediate: 3 Complex:
»» PLC-based control. »» PC-based control.
»» Up to six stages of intensity. »» More common for larger international airports
where individual lamp control and monitoring is
»» More features available than relay logic systems
desired.
e.g. can monitor down to component level such
as CCR fault types, hours run, circuit faults, »» Able to do everything a PLC-based system can.
individual circuit components to name a few. »» More complex user interfaces e.g. for tower or
»» Usually incorporated into a rack mounting or ALER are common.
cubicle installed inside the ALER. »» Can incorporate individual fixture control and
»» Can control multiple circuits, CCRs, runway monitoring.
and taxiway selection, PAPI etc. genset/mains »» Deeper level of fault diagnostics typically
parameters etc. provided.
»» OFF/LOCAL/REMOTE control is normal. »» Typically provided in redundant architecture but
»» Potentially more complex maintenance if a fault not always e.g. a complex airport may have two
occurs but this is partly offset by self diagnosis x PCs in the tower cab, two in each of the ALERs
features. making a network of 10 or more PLCs providing
multiple redundancies.
»» Cost is coming down to be comparable to more
complex relay-based systems.

Figure 15.3: Example of CAT II/III control and monitoring system

15.2 Intensity settings
For six-stage intensity systems, the rule of thumb is that
if Stage 6 = 100%, then divide each level by one-third,
e.g.
STAGE % INTENSITY TYPICAL CURRENT SETTING

6 100% 6.6 A
5 33% 5.5 A
4 11% 4.8 A
3 3% 3.8 A
2 1% 3.4 A
1 0.3% 3.0 A
This will vary slightly depending on facility and is usually

fine tuned during flight testing
For three stage intensity systems, the rule of thumb is

to use the equivalent of Stages 2, 4 and 6 above, e.g.
STAGE % INTENSITY TYPICAL CURRENT SETTING

3 100% 6.6 A
2 11% 5.5 A
1 1% 4.8 A
For single-stage intensity systems, the current

requirements to meet the specification is 100 per cent
of 6.6 A. However, note that lower wattage lamps are
used; e.g. typically for the runway edge lighting 30 W
for a single intensity system, 45 W for a three-stage
system, and 150 W for a six-stage system.
Additionally, this current may be adjusted during flight

testing as deemed suitable for that location.

16. PILOT-ACTIVATED AIRPORT LIGHTING
CONTROLLER (PAALC)
AND AERODROME FREQUENCY
RESPONSE UNIT (AFRU)
16.1 System overview A correct code will be recognised by the control unit
as a light ‘ON’ command. When the lights are selected,
The PAALC and AFRU can be stand-alone units or in they will remain on for a predetermined period set
some cases may be a combined unit incorporating both during the PAALC setup procedure of between 30
systems. minutes and 90 minutes.
For a standalone unit, a PAALC will have its own All units should be configured to be fail-safe so that
dedicated frequency allocated through application to failure of the equipment will result in the lights being
AsA, while the AFRU will be on the existing CTAF or MBZ turned on.
frequency of the airport.
The PAALC in recent cases will transmit a voice message
Combined PAALC/AFRU units will always operate on of the status of the lights.
the existing CTAF or MBZ frequency of the airport. This
frequency will be published in the ERSA. These messages can be:
»» NO runway lighting.
In either case both the PAALC and AFRU must meet the
requirements of MOS Part 139 Chapter 9.3 to operate »» Runway lighting ON.
as either a pilot activated airfield lighting control »» Lights 10 minutes remaining.
(PAALC) or an aerodrome frequency response unit
(AFRU), or both functions at the same time. Automatic frequency response unit
Pilot-activated airfield lighting control When configured as an AFRU, the equipment will
(PAALC) monitor the selected CTAF or MBZ frequency for
transmissions.
The pilot activated airfield lighting control unit allows
the pilot to select the airfield ON lighting using the An aircraft making the required transmission of the
communications radio in the aircraft. aircraft's identification and location when entering
an aerodrome locality will constitute a transmission
When the radio is set to the PAALC frequency, the greater than two seconds in length. The equipment on
airfield lighting can be selected by three carrier receiving this transmission will recognise it and respond
transmissions i.e. the pilot presses the microphone on the common air traffic frequency (CTAF) with a
transmit button three times. The correct code is to transmission of the airport name e.g. Lilydale CTAF.
consist of three bursts of carrier signal each anywhere
between one and five seconds long, with the last two This will confirm to the pilot that the radio is working
code bursts completed within 24 seconds of the end of and is on the correct frequency. It will also notify
the first burst. The ERSA advises pilots that “the code other aircraft in the area of the presence of another
they should send is three bursts of approximately 3 aircraft. The constant repeat transmission by the AFRU
seconds, with at least 1 second between bursts, and the when aircraft may be engaged in a conversation would
three bursts must be transmitted within 25 seconds”. be a distraction so after one operation of the AFRU
message, a timer is set for a period of five minutes so
that subsequent transmissions that would trigger the
AFRU will cause it to transmit a 300 mS BEEP, hence the
generic name for this type of equipment as 'beep back'.

Combined PAALC and AFRU systems
Where the PAALC and AFRU are in the one unit the
sequence for selecting the PAALC is different to that
required for a stand-alone PAALC.
The required sequence is detailed in the ERSA notes.
16.2 Maintenance
Due to the different types of units on the market,
you should ensure you have a copy of the relevant
manufacturer's handbook for your equipment on hand
to cover basic troubleshooting. Note that for the most
part the most common reported faults lead back to
operator error with respect to transmission and timing
of the three pulses. Ensure that this is first tested to
be working correctly before pursuing other possible
faults. Other than faults, the only real maintenance
is the replacement of the internal battery as per the
manufacturer's recommendations.

17. POWER SUPPLY FOR AFL SYSTEMS
A reliable power supply is paramount when operating 17.2 Standby power

an AFL system.
While licensed regional airports are not always
Depending on location and size of the airport, the AFL equipped with standby power this changes again once
system may operate on a mains supply or a power aerodromes become rated to CAT I and above. For these
generator. airports, automatic changeover switching to standby
power is required in the case of a primary failure.
A useful document in designing this is the ICAO
Aerodrome Design Manual Part 5. If carrying out any The changeover time requirements vary depending
new works, it is suggested reading this first, and if on the facility. However, in simple terms at CAT I,
considered necessary, employ a suitably experienced AFL load needs to be able to switch to backup power
consultant to assist with design. within 15 seconds. This can be achieved by selecting
an appropriately rated rapid start diesel generator.
Most modern units can be supplied with all necessary
17.1 Mains supply automatic engine controls and changeover switches.
When selecting a suitable generator rating, note it is
For the majority of regional airports in Australia this is
necessary to balance desired additional capacity for
a reliable supply authority mains supply or in remote
future expansion, against generator efficiency and
locations a primary generator supply is sufficient for
suitable long term operations (e.g. diesel engines do
powering the needs of basic AFL systems to meet MOS
not perform well over time where the connected load is
Part 139 requirements.
low, they like to run at close to full rated load).
Care should be taken to ensure that the supply feeders
For CAT II or III, the changeover time goes down to
are close to where you need them and that they are
one second. There are different ways to achieve this.
secure and reliable. If they need to be extended to site,
Firstly, if a satisfactory independent primary supply
be aware of the costs involved, including substation
is available. However, this is rare. Second and most
costs as well as overhead or underground mains.
commonly, is to start a standby diesel generator as
Once the airport is rated for CAT I to CAT III power soon as the RVR is in the order of 1200 m, and then
supply requirements become more demanding in that a run the AFL load on the generator with the automatic
secondary source of power is required. As an example, transfer to primary supply in case the secondary supply
this can be achieved by providing feeders from separate (the generator) fails. This will enable the required one
transmission lines, fed by separate generators, fed to second changeover to be achieved. The critical load
separate substations or a ring main system. It is not should remain on the generator until an RVR of greater
intended to cover this in depth here, and as can be that 1200 m is regained.
appreciated it is not usually available outside larger
Other standby power solutions involve very large
cities.
battery bank UPS or standby fly wheel driver
generators. These are not covered in this particular note
as they are not common on regional airports for AFL
loads at present.

18. PORTABLE AND TEMPORARY LIGHTS
For permitted applications refer MOS Figure 18.1: Toledo flare

Part 139 Chapter 9.1.10.
In the past, these types of lights were mainly restricted

to emergency use or temporary replacement of failed
fixed lights.
In recent years with the continued development of

solar battery-powered LED lights, we are starting to see
higher power units that are comparable in output to
fixed permanent taxiway lights. In time, low intensity
runway applications for permanent installation may
follow and eventually achieve intensities comparable to
low intensity fixed permanent lighting systems.
18.1 Types of portable lights

There are four main types of portable or temporary Figure 18.2: ELF-80 battery
lights in use in Australia:
»» older kerosene flares, also known as Toledo Flares;
»» dry cell, disposable battery, filament lamp flares;
»» rechargeable battery flares, in filament or LED
versions; and
»» solar powered, rechargeable battery LED flares.
The latter are the easiest to use as no daily

maintenance is required. However, as usual, cost can be
a consideration.
These lights may be considered, subject to compliance

issues, for use as temporary taxiway or runway edge
lights during construction periods. If in doubt, refer to
your local CASA inspector.
Figure 18.3: AV70 solar
If these lights are regularly used as temporary edge
lights, it may also be worth considering laying out
marker pads to sit them on, so as to speed up efficient
and accurate dispersal when needed. e.g. in an
emergency situation.

19. SERVICEABILITY
Please refer to MOS Part 139 Chapter 9.20 for 19.4 Information recording and storage
monitoring, maintenance and serviceability
requirements. Information is generally gathered on a printed form
that has been designed for a particular system and is
entered in routine maintenance checks of the system.
19.1 Record Keeping If a light position requires attention, the type of
work performed and the use of any components can
Serviceability records are most important and the be entered on the recording form. The information
medium in which serviceability records are stored can collected on these forms can readily be entered into a
determine their usefulness. Records that are difficult spreadsheet to constantly update the number of lamps
to locate or interpret lose their value as a maintenance used etc. during a set period. This makes retrieval of the
tool. To keep effective track of an airfield lighting stored information easy and staff can quickly assess any
system's serviceability requires a method that can potential problem areas in the system.
easily identify lights and their position in the system, a
detailed record of all maintenance performed on the
individual light and a record of all components replaced. 19.5 Maintenance and record keeping
From the maintenance record of a light or several light
19.2 Commissioning records positions, potential faults or problems can be detected.
If a light position is using an abnormally high number of
These records must be included in aerodrome manuals. lamps over a period, it may be that there is a fault with
Ongoing proof of compliance may include regular either the lamp assembly itself or the SIT associated
serviceability audits against commissioning records with that light. From these records the lamp life of a
to demonstrate continuing compliance e.g., apron particular batch of lamps may be determined and if
floodlighting levels. MOS-139 Chapter 21, Part 6 they are not meeting the suppliers stated lamp life then
contains some typical examples that can be used for the airport can investigate any circumstances on the
commissioning or regular maintenance checks. airport causing this, or report to the supplier. Every time
work has to be performed on a light unit it costs money.
Careful monitoring of maintenance records can detect
19.3 Lamp position identification problems, which ultimately will save money in time and
materials.
The numbering of light positions is the most effective
method of identifying individual lights in the field
situation. Although on a major airport this is a large
project, once completed it makes the record-keeping of
19.6 Effective staff training and
the individual light position a very precise maintenance participation
record. As light positions are numbered around
the system it only requires the runway or taxiway A serviceability record-keeping system is only as good
identification to be included in the record keeping form as the staff who are entering the information into the
to obtain a complete picture of the maintenance status system. If the staff do not enter the correct details,
of a system. then the system is doomed to failure. If staff are fully
informed of why the information is required and the
importance of accurate information being recorded,
then the system should prove to be effective.
It has to be stressed that the record keeping of the

maintenance details is as important as the changing of
lamps and the maintenance of the light unit.

19.7 Serviceability records »» A PAPI light unit (i.e. a single box) is deemed
unserviceable when any one lamp in a two lamp
Each airport will have to design the system for recording box, or more than one lamp in a three lamp box is
their serviceability around the operational system for not operating.
their individual airport. »» A single-sided PAPI system (i.e. four light boxes) is
Experience has shown that the simpler and easier a deemed unserviceable when any PAPI light box is
form is made the more likely staff are to complete the unserviceable as above.
form accurately, therefore ensuring useful data can be »» A double-sided PAPI system (i.e. eitgh light boxes)
accessed when determining maintenance procedures is deemed unserviceable when any PAPI light box is
and forecasting component purchase. unserviceable as above.
Under the case studies (Chapter 21) there are two »» If any PAPI red filter is unserviceable, missing,
examples of inspection checklists. damaged then all lights within the light unit is to be
extinguished until the filter is replaced. This would
render any PAPI light unit (and therefore any PAPI
19.8 Serviceability standards system unserviceable.
If any of the following details applies to your lighting For Category I and above precision systems refer to
system, then they will be deemed unserviceable. MOS-139 Chapter 9.20.
Your CASA inspector should be contacted if you are

unsure of the serviceability of your system.
»» In the case of any lighting system comprising less
than four lights (e.g. short taxiway holding position
lights or runway threshold identification lights), if
any one of the lights becomes unserviceable.
»» In the case of any lighting system comprising four
or five lights (e.g. wind direction indicator lights or
runway guard lights), more than one light becomes
unserviceable.
»» In the case of a lighting system comprising 6 to 13
lights (e.g. threshold lights), more than two lights
become unserviceable, or two adjacent lights
becomes unserviceable.
»» In the case of a lighting system comprising more
than 13 lights, more than 15 per cent of the lights
become unserviceable, or two adjacent lights
becomes unserviceable.
»» Any one low intensity (fixed red light) obstacle light
is extinguished (Note: this is two lamps in a dual
fitting).
»» Any one medium intensity (flashing red light) is not
operating normally.
»» Below 85 per cent of approach lighting is working as
a recognised pattern.

20. SAFETY AND BEST PRACTICES
20.1 Safety considerations Safety procedures and guidelines

This section contains information that will aid airport Most visual aids are exposed to weather and moisture
staff to conduct safe work practices. and may develop electrical shock hazards through
damage from lightning or insulation deterioration from
Safety is the responsibility of each individual, regardless exposure.
of position. Safety must be practised daily in every
maintenance activity that is performed. Begin maintenance procedures only after a visual
inspection has been made for possible hazards.
The safety program established at each airport should
include preventive safety precautions used when Due to the danger of lightning, lighted navigational
servicing the equipment as well as first-aid procedures aids should not be serviced during periods of local
for use in the event of an injury. thunderstorm activity.
Develop and implement a set of action plans to follow

in the event of an accident occurring.
WARNING: Only suitably qualified staff should
be permitted to work on AFL electrical systems. Ensure that positive responsive actions take place
within moments of accident notification by establishing
and having in place a known set of predetermined
responses. Precious seconds are saved getting medical
Common causes of accidents assistance to those in need when action plans are in
place. Rehearse and review action plans regularly.
Some common causes of accidents are listed below.
»» Working on equipment without adequate Electrical hazards of series lighting circuits
coordination with equipment users.
Airport lighting circuits, by their nature, are very
»» Working on equipment without sufficient dangerous.
experience on that equipment.
»» Failure to follow instructions in equipment manuals. This is especially true for the uninformed electrician
with little or no experience working on constant current
»» Failure to follow safety precautions. series circuits.
»» Failure to properly lock out equipment.
Airport lighting circuits can operate at potentials of
»» Using unsafe equipment. several thousand volts depending on the size of the
»» Becoming lax due to working in a familiar regulator driving the circuit and the load.
environment.
There are three basic rules to remember when working
»» Poor housekeeping of work areas. on and around airport lighting circuits:
»» Working at unsafe speeds.
1 ALWAYS assume that the circuit is energised until
The number one cause of accidents is working at unsafe you have proven otherwise. ALWAYS check for
speeds. This is often the main contributing factor in current before disconnecting the series circuit
failing to follow proper safety guidelines in all the connector, removing a series cut-out plug, or
other causes outlined in the list above. The perception opening the primary series circuit by any other
that there is not enough time to take proper safety means. Make it a required practice to check the
precautions or think through the proper procedures circuit with an ammeter prior to breaking the
has the potential for causing an accident. Even in connection – NO EXCEPTIONS. Never attempt
emergency repair situations, care must be taken to to measure voltage in a series lighting circuit
make the time to follow proper safety procedures to using ordinary volt meters. An inductive voltage
avoid injury or death. measuring device (sometimes referred to as a
'ticker') should be used to detect the presence
of induced voltage on a series lighting cable after
checking for the presence of current.

Always use a true RMS clamp-on type ammeter to Re-lamping
verify if the circuit is energised. ALWAYS check the
operation of the test equipment on a known live The most common lighting maintenance task on the
circuit before and after measurements are taken. airfield is re-lamping of runway and taxiway light
fixtures.
2 NEVER under any circumstances break a live
series circuit. The voltage generated in the circuit On larger airports this is carried out by licensed
can reach levels many times normal before the electricians. For smaller airports this task is often
regulator’s open circuit protection can shut it down. performed by maintenance staff or airport reporting
As long as a current flow can be maintained, even officers (AROs). Under no circumstances should the
if it is through you, the regulator will continue to latter staff work on 'live' circuits. Safe re-lamping
operate. This is one of the reasons that series instructions should be included in airport procedure
circuits can be so hazardous to work around. By documentation and staff provided with copies.
their nature, there is no personnel protection
provided such as might be found on parallel interior Depending on the type of fixture, this may be
wiring. accomplished in the field or, as in the case of most
inset lights, the entire fixture is removed, replaced, and
3 NEVER enter a manhole with energised conductors
brought to the maintenance shop for refurbishing.
and never handle cables or transformers in light
base housings while there is current present. Cables The greatest unseen danger to you is re-lamping or
or connectors can have cracked insulation where it removing the fixture when the circuit is energised. This
is not visible or may be deteriorated and fall apart, has been a common practice by airport electricians for
exposing you to circuit conductors. Be aware that convenience and the dangers are often overlooked.
water in pits increases the dangers of electric shock
because of the possibility of circuit leakages to earth There are two primary hazards associated with this
or cable faults due to the increased conductivity practice.
when a person makes contact with the water.
The first occurs when a series isolation transformer
has a primary to secondary short in the windings.
20.2 Induced voltages. Remember that even though these are referred to
as isolation transformers, they were not designed
Series circuits are typically run from the AFL equipment for personnel protection. They are merely designed
room or cubicle in duct banks where the wires are lying to isolate the secondary from the primary circuit to
parallel with each other in close proximity. allow the circuit to continue to operate with a lamp
burned out. While the series isolating transformers
Voltages may be induced in an otherwise un-energised
are reliable, failures do occur. A transformer with a
conductor and may be a hazard when troubleshooting
primary to secondary short may not cause a circuit
and testing. Circuits that have a load that varies due
malfunction and could therefore remain unnoticed in
to flashing action of runway guard lights or strobes
normal operation with a live primary. This exposes you
are particularly prone to induce voltages in other
to the full voltage present on the primary circuit and
conductors due to the pulsing characteristics of the
can be especially dangerous if another short is present
voltage and current in these circuits.
on the primary circuit. When that happens, you can
Always check for induced voltages before handling an become the path to ground for the full primary current,
airfield lighting series circuit conductor. a circumstance which is almost always fatal. This
condition is especially dangerous when working with
inset lights and removing them from the light base can
while the circuit is energised.

As soon as the fixture is unbolted and lifted from its 20.3 Safety practices
housing, you become the path to ground. Some have
tried to alleviate this hazard by attaching a ground wire When you perform maintenance on airport visual aids,
from the bottom of the light fixture to a grounding lug use the following safety practices.
on the inside of the can. However, you cannot know if
the wire is truly connected until you remove the fixture, 1 Ensure that workers are trained and familiar with
at which time it is too late. electrical safety.
2 Strictly observe safety rules.
The second hazard encountered when re-lamping an
energised light fixture is from the open circuit voltage 3 Ensure that commercial test equipment is
present at the secondary of the transformer. Underwriters Laboratory (UL) approved and rated
for the voltage under test and/or for the application.
The open circuit voltage present on the secondary 4 Prior to beginning any maintenance work on airport
of the transformer is proportional to the size of the lighting circuits, coordinate the work schedule with
transformer. The open-circuit secondary voltage on the tower, facility manager, or airport operations
a 300 watt transformer is approximately 110 volts. personnel. Make sure circuits will not be energised
Moreover, depending on the materials used in the during maintenance by observing strict lock-out
design of the isolation transformer and the type of tag-out procedures for the equipment and obtain
regulator powering the circuit, relatively high voltage authorisation for local control if equipment is
peaks can be generated. The larger the transformer, normally operated from a remote control point.
the higher the peaks. With as much as 200 volts being
generated in some circumstances. The duration of this 5 Where maintenance work is to be accomplished
peak varies inversely with the size of the transformer on a high-voltage circuit, assign at least two
(i.e. larger transformers have shorter durative spikes). electricians, with at least one having a thorough
Because of their size and duration, the peak voltages knowledge of the layout of all airport high-voltage
can create an unsafe condition for maintenance circuits.
personnel. Therefore, we recommend that you perform 6 Because performing maintenance on many lighted
re-lamping of the series lighting circuits with the circuits visual aids requires workers to traverse the active
de-energised, especially during the re-lamping of airfield, all workers shall be fully knowledgeable
fixtures with exposed contacts. If this is not practical, of air traffic control and radio communication
wear appropriate insulating gloves with leather procedures. Workers shall be fully familiar with
gauntlets during re-lamping procedures. airport runway and taxiway layout to avoid any
possibility of runway incursions. All air traffic control
One final hazard that is present when re-lamping instructions shall be read back to the controller
any type of fixture, whether in the field or at the and if the worker has any question regarding the
maintenance shop, is the danger of cuts from broken instructions of the controller, the worker shall ask
lamps. Many times when an airfield lamp fails, the glass the controller to repeat the message.
envelope becomes cracked or brittle and can break
during the removal process. Always wear leather gloves If you are the observer electrician, you have a number
when removing lamps to prevent your hands from of duties.
being cut in the event of a lamp shattering.
»» Keeping other personnel not involved in the work
clear of the equipment.
»» Being familiar with power disconnects and
immediately disconnecting the power source in case
of emergency.
»» Being qualified in first-aid and prepared to render
emergency care if necessary. You should bear in
mind that prevention of an electrical accident is of
primary importance even though first-aid treatment
is available.
»» Observing the work being done to detect and warn
against unsafe practices.

20.4 Personal safety precautions »» Do not wear jewellery, wristwatches, or rings while
working with electrical equipment.
Every electrician should adopt the following »» Keep clothing, hands, and feet dry if at all possible.
commonsense safety precautions as standard
procedure. »» Use the correct tool (screwdriver, alignment tool,
etc.) for doing the job. Ensure that the tools are in
»» Know the location of main power disconnect good serviceable condition.
devices. »» Never use toxic or flammable solvents for cleaning
»» Know how to summon medical aid. purposes.
»» De-energise circuits by removing necessary fuses »» Where air pressure is required for cleaning, use
using properly insulated fuse pullers or by turning a low-pressure (30 psi or less) air source. Eye
off and locking out circuit breakers or other protection (goggles or face mask) is necessary when
disconnecting means. Consult circuit diagrams to using compressed air for cleaning.
identify all fuses, breakers or disconnects involved. »» Wear goggles and safety shoes when working near
Remember that removal of a fuse does not remove or around high voltage.
the voltage from the 'hot' side of the fuse clip.
Discharge all capacitors. »» Do not take anything for granted when working with
inexperienced help.
»» Do not depend on interlocks to remove power
or on indicating lights to signal that power is off.
Verify that power is off by using a voltmeter and/ 20.5 Electrocution
or ammeter on the component after opening the
power switch. Verify operation of voltmeter (or An electric shock is the passing of an electric current
ammeter) on known live circuit before and after through a person. The amount of damage to the person
measurements are taken. depends on the amount of voltage and current to which
the person is subjected.
»» Insulate your feet by standing on a dry rubber
mat. Remember, however, that contact with the Voltages between 200 and 1,000 volts at commercial
grounded equipment cabinet could nullify this power line frequencies are particularly harmful since,
protection. under these conditions, heart muscle spasm and
»» Stay clear of terminals, leads, or components that paralysis of the respiratory centre occur in combination.
carry voltages of any magnitude. Also, avoid contact However, lower voltages can also prove fatal, as
with components that are grounded, including the evidenced by records of deaths caused by 32-volt farm
frame. lighting systems. The body response to current is a
follows:
»» Shut down and de-energise the equipment when it
is necessary to reach into the equipment in locations »» 5 to 15 mA stimulates the muscles
where rapid and direct withdrawal of the hand is
»» 15 to 19 mA can paralyse the muscles and nerves
not possible. In any case, only one hand should
through which it flows
be exposed, with the other hand kept away from
contact with voltages or ground. »» 25 mA and above may produce permanent damage
to nerve tissues and blood vessels
»» Be certain that there is no power applied to a circuit
when making a continuity or resistance check (the »» 70 mA and above may be fatal.
meter will be damaged and you could be injured).
The injurious effects suffered during electric shock
»» Ground test equipment to the equipment under test depend upon the path of the current through the body.
unless otherwise specified in instruction manuals. The current path will take the most direct route through
»» Place a warning sign, such as 'DANGER - DO NOT the body from the two points of contact. For this
USE OR OPERATE', at the main switch or circuit reason, any current path which involves the heart or
breaker, and provide a lockout for the circuit on the brain is particularly dangerous. Therefore, keeping
which you will be working. Follow direction of local one hand clear of the equipment will eliminate the
facility lock-out tag-out procedures manual. possibility of a current path from arm to arm.

Figure 20.1: 'DANGER - HIGH VOLTAGE' sign 'Danger – High Voltage' sign
Permanently place 'DANGER – HIGH VOLTAGE' signs on
all fixed electrical equipment where potentials of 500
volts or more terminal-to-ground are exposed. Place
signs in a conspicuous location, usually on the outside
of the equipment.
Lock-out/tag-out and danger tags

Each airport electrical maintenance department should
have a written lock-out/tag-out procedure. Equipment
or circuits should never be worked on unless locked
out and tagged by the person performing the work.
Never trust anyone but yourself. Have your partner
check behind you to make sure the proper equipment is
turned off. The lock-out tag should only be removed by
the person who signed it except in some circumstances
when verbal permission has been granted to another
Figure 20.2: Danger Tag person or when the worker who signed the tag is on
vacation, etc. Never rely on the tower controllers to
assure electrical safety. The controllers in the tower are
relieved periodically and the next person may not know
of the work that is going on. Always take whatever time
is necessary to make sure that the circuit or equipment
you are working on is safe. One of the primary reasons
for accidents is when workers get in too great a hurry
and don’t take proper precautions and don’t follow
proper safety procedures. The other main reason is
when the electrician lets his/her guard down because
he/she is working in a familiar environment and
becomes negligent about safety procedures.
Locks and padlocks

Use built-in locks on switch gear and disconnecting
switches whenever the equipment is tagged, and,
on completion, return the keys to the supervisor
responsible for their control. Padlocks need not be
used if it is decided that use and control of such locks
would be difficult because of the type of switchgear
and its location. However, use padlocks with 'DANGER'
tags when equipment or electrical lines remain out of
service or when electrical work has been discontinued
until a later date. When outside contractors are
involved, each contractor should attach and control tags
and locks independently.

Figure 20.3: First Aid Treatment for Electric Shock.

Grounding and Bonding
Never remove, alter, or attempt to repair conductors
or conduit systems providing grounding or electrical
bonding for any electrical equipment until all power is
removed from equipment. Warn all personnel of the
ungrounded/un-bonded condition of the equipment.
Display appropriate warning signs, such as danger tags,
to warn personnel of the possible hazards.
It is also very important to ensure that all safety earths

are removed when the work is complete and is ready to
be re-energised.
20.6 Test equipment

Suggested test equipment includes:
»» multimeter, true RMS, minimum 10 A scale;
»» insulation tester, 'megger' or similar, minimum 1000
V test voltage;
»» ammeter, clamp type, true RMS, minimum 10 A;
»» cable locator;
»» light meter, 0-100,000 Lux (must be suitable for the
type of lights being measured); and
»» luminaire levelling and alignment tools to suit your
installation.

21 CASE STUDIES
1. SAMPLE RUNWAY LAYOUT DESIGN ESTIMATES

2. SAMPLE MAXIMUM POWER REQUIRMENT ESTIMATE
3. LED VS HALOGEN LAMP COMPARISON COST ESTIMATE
4. AFL CABLING SYSTEMS – STANDARDS COMPLIANCE FOR DEPTH OF CABLE
5. SERVICEABILITY CHECKLIST
A) BASIC AIRPORT
B) INTERMEDIATE AIRPORT
6. COMMISSIONING CHECKLIST
A) AIRFIELD LIGHTING
B) PAPI
C) APRON FLOODLIGHTING

CS1. SAMPLE RUNWAY LAYOUT DESIGN
ESTIMATES
1.1 Example of estimate for qantity of Primary cable
materials »» Runway length 1240 x 2 = 1480 m + length to where
the cables cross the runway (say 60 m per end = 240
For this example, we have assumed: runway length
m) giving a total of 1720 m.
1240 metres, runway width 30 metres.
»» Runway width 30 m x 2 = 60 m + distance to out to
1 x single taxiway 300 metres in length, 1 x single circuit where the cables are run (say 6 m off the runway
of primary cable. edge = 24 m) giving a total of 84 m.
»» Allow 2 metres minimum extra per light position – in
this case 78 lights x 2 metres = 156 metres.
1.2 Calculations for quantities of
»» Taxiway length x 2 = 600.
materials
»» Cable from taxiway to control unit x 2 – in this case
Runway edge/threshold/runway End we have an assumed this to be 600 metres.
»» Subtotal cable = 4,360 metres, rounded to 4500
Runway length 1240 m / 60 m (maximum spacing) =
metres.
20.66 then rounded up to 21 spaces 21 spaces = 22 light
positions with the positions at each end being green/ »» Allow a minimum of 10 per cent (or in this case
red threshold white edge lights 20 per side spaced smallest cable drum size of 500 m) as in practice
59.04 metres apart = 40 lights. there is some wastage due to offcuts or short
lengths and final cable route can change.
Green outer threshold lights = 2 per threshold (total 4).
»» TOTAL allow 6,000 metres primary cable.
Red/green combined threshold/runway end lights = 6
per end (total 12). Secondary Cable
Secondary cable is only required where the factory
Taxiway/holding position (elevated edge)
-fitted tails on the series isolating transformers are not
Yellow Holding Point Lights = 2 per taxiway sufficient to reach to the light fitting or the primary
Blue taxiway lights – plans are required to determine cable respectively. In this case we have assumed the
exact quantities of taxiway lights as this can depend on primary cable and SITs are 6 m off the runway edge.
the radius of curves as to the spacing. For the purposes The lights will be approximately 1 m off the runway and
of a small airport with a short taxiway leading directly taxiway edge giving a 5 m secondary cable length. Allow
to the apron generally speaking the quantity ranges 2 m each end gives 9 m per light.
from 12-20. Full details of what spacing is required TOTAL allow 750 m Secondary Cable.
can be found in MOS-139 Chapter 9.13.14 and an
estimation of the quantity for budgetary purposes can
be made. For this example, we have assumed maximum
20 blue taxiway lights.
Series isolating transformers

One required for each light fitting.

Cable jointing kits or connectors 1.3 Cost estimates
Each primary cable join in the primary cable run This example is typical only and must be used carefully.
requires 1 x primary heat shrink jointing kit or 1 primary This is in no way intended to be a total final figure for
connector kit. each airport. It should form the basis of a 'budgetary
quote' only based on the requirements for the
Each series isolating transformer requires 2 x primary particular airport using the prices that are current prices
heat shrink jointing kits or a connector kits for both at the time. Note this does not include costs associated
primary in and out connections (dependent on the style with any civil works such as trenching, backfill,
of SIT used i.e. Australian style epoxy transformer or excavation, concrete foundations etc. As these vary
FAA style transformer). Allow 80 primary jointing kits. considerably due to local soil conditions, the presence
Each light position requires a secondary connection of rock etc. this should be sought as a separate figure to
to the series isolating transformer which can be include into any estimate.
a secondary cable heat shrink kit or an FAA-style
connector (again depending on the style of transformer Elevated light -allow $1,500 each installed (includes
used). Allow 75 secondary jointing kits. supply of light, series isolating transformer, connectors
or heat shrink, simple plastic pit and installation).
Control system
Inset light -allow $2500 each installed (this includes
1 x PAALC/AFRU combined unit. supply of light and base, series isolating transformer,
connectors or heat shrink, simple plastic pit and
1 x waterproof outdoor airport lighting control cubicle
installation).
(including control equipment).
Primary cable - cost of materials (around $3 to $4) +
1 x mains isolating transformer (appropriately sized as
$3 a metre to lay cables. (As stated above please
below).
remember to allow additional cost of civil works such as
Mains isolating transformer sizing trenching, backfill etc.).
See Case Study 3. Control cubicle - weatherproof, outdoor, lockable

cubicle Including PAALC and MIT. Allow up to $25,000
Illuminated wind direction indicator plus civil works for concrete foundation plus cost of
bringing any mains power supply to site.
1 per airport in the majority of instances.
Illuminated wind direction indicator - allow cost of IWI
Note: With the illumination requirements for the IWIs, plus the cost of any mains power cable (will need to
these are now generally achieved using a 240 V system be sized and costed dependent upon the length of the
and LED floodlights. You should allow adequately sized cable run), trenching, backfill etc.
mains power cable to the IWI from the mains power
source. Apron floodlighting - allow cost of any poles and lights
plus the cost of any mains power cable (will need to
Apron floodlighting be sized and costed dependent upon the length of the
cable run), trenching, backfill etc. Any major lighting
Any local lighting company will offer a lighting design company should be able to provide design of the apron
to ascertain the quantity of lights and poles required. floodlighting including height and configuration of any
Ensure that they are familiar with the relevant MOS-139 poles.
requirements as contained in Section 9.16.

CS2. HOW TO ESTIMATE THE POWER NEEDS
OF AN AFL SYSTEM
First we need to make a few assumptions for this Primary cable losses for
exercise.
R/W and T/W circuit = 1.96 km R/W * 2 sides +
»» Three stages of lighting intensity estimated 1,200 m for T/W and Apron + 1,200 m for
»» one 6.6 A circuit for the combined R/W and T/W the run to the cubicle = 4,360 m. Say 4.5 km.
load. 4.5 Km * 145 W cable losses = 653 W losses.
»» one 6.6A circuit for the PAPI
»» runway of 1240 m Secondary cable losses for
–– 40 R/W lights at 45 W each
R/W and T/W circuit = 0.75 km
–– 4 Outer T/H at 150 W each
0.75 km * 327 W cable losses = 245 W losses.
–– 12 T/H lights at 45 W each
»» short 200 m stub taxiway to apron So total power needs for the R/W, T/H and T/W are
3894 + 653 + 245 = 4,792 W.
–– 20 T/W lights at 30 W each
»» PAPI on both ends Assume PF of 0.8 for the MIT (or CCR) so rating needs to
be 4,792/0.8 = 5,990 VA or 5.99 kVA.
–– 8 units of 2 * 200 W lamps = 400 W each
»» one only IWI of 8 * 150 W Then select closest standard size MIT which is 6 kVA. (Or
say 7.5 kVA for a CCR).
»» two floodlight poles
–– 4 * 400 W Similarly, for PAPI circuit we have 8 units of 400 W =
3,200 W *1.1 SIT losses = 3,520 W.
From experience we can assume the following losses.
Primary circuit length estimate of 4.5 km, so losses of
»» MIT has 0.8 PF 145 W * 4.5 = 652 W 3520 + 652 = 4,172 W.
»» SIT losses are also 10 per cent Assume PF of 0.8 so total load is 4,172/0.8 = 5,215 VA
»» primary cable losses are 145 W/km or 5.215 kVA Then select closest standard size MIT of
5.5 kVA. (Or 7.5 kVA for a CCR). Note: Standard size MIT
»» secondary cables are 327 W/km. or CCR details are available from your vendors.
Calculation of R/W and T/W MIT load then is: Similarly, again, to calculate the losses for the IWI
and the apron floodlights, this will be a function of
R/W + T/H + T/W = cable length to each mast from the switchboard and
(40*45)+(4*150)+(12*45)+(20*30) = cable size. This can be easily calculated by any local
1800 + 600 + 540 + 600 = 3,540 W lamp load. electrician.
SIT losses bring this up to = 3,540 * 1.1 = 3,894 W So the AFL control cubicle will contain the switchboard,
the three stage controls, the PAALC, the MIT for the
R/W and T/W circuit, plus an MIT for the PAPI.
The circuits will include as a min:
1 * 6.6 A for the R/W and T/W

1 * 6.6 A for the PAPI
1 * 240 V for the IWI
2 * 240 V or 1 * 240/415 V 3 phase for the floodlights.

CS3. LED VERSUS LAMP COST ESTIMATES
You can ask your vendors to provide some comparison The AAA has a sample calculator which can be found on
costs. The main consideration will be initial capital costs the website. You will need to input your own particulars
versus through-life costs. If the future savings are good and the calculator will then estimate relative costs of
enough, then the LED system may pay for itself over LED versus halogen and the applicable payback period.
time with reduced power needs, less maintenance, and
CO2 costs if they are a consideration. An example is shown in the following table.
eg. Cat 2 Taxiway: AAA AIRPORT - ROI/NPV CALCULATIONS

ASSUMPTIONS SOURCE/COMMENTS DEFAULT VALUE DEFAULT VALUE
TAXIWAY APPROACH
Hours of operation per day 12 Average Airport useage 12 18
Energy cost / kwh 0.20 (Actual cost) for location 0.2 0.2
CO2 kg / kwh 1.22 ( Dept of Climate Change - NGAF) 1.22 1.22
CO2 emissions / tonne $ 23 Australian Legislation or current value 23 23
SafeLED IQ @ 2 amp (wattage) incl losses 9.8 See IES report calculations 9.8 84
SafeLED @ 6.6 amp (wattage) incl losses 37.8 See IES report calculations 37.8 107
w / halogen light (wattage) incl losses 73.1 See IES report calculations 73.1 227
LED life hrs (forecast) 100,000 Laboratory life estimate approx 100,000 100,000
100,000 hrs - Derated to 75,000 for
actual estimate
Halogen life hrs (rated 1500 hrs @ 6.6a) 6,000 (1000 hrs Actual life incr due to derated 6,000 6,000
current)
LED life in yrs per hrs of operation 22.8 From est hrs/day for 75,000 Hr life Calculated value Calculated value
Halogen lamp cost 22.20 Based on current price 22.20 22.20
Halogen fitting cost 314.00 Based on current price 314.00 160.00
LED replacement module cost 29.90 Based on current price list 29.90 29.90
Inset light , 6.6A cost 546.00 Current price (depending on Qty) 596.00 960.00
Inset light, intelligent 6.6 or 2A cocst 698.00 Current price (depending on Qty) 748.00 1,080.00
$ Electrician / hr cost 75.00 Estimated from airport records 75.00 75.00
Electrician maintenance time / hr / lamp 1.50 Estimated from airport records 1.5 1.5
change including travel + misc time
Total qty of lights for this exercise 1000 Project qty Please input Please input
quantity quantity
Analysis period in years 10 For purpose of NPV calculations 10 10
Currency AUD$ For location AUD$ AUD$
Discount rate 5% Bank overdraft rate 5% 5%
INSTRUCTIONS:
- Airport to input data in yellow fields to suit local circumstances. (or use default figures on right-hand side).
- Calculations for savings in power, CO2, maintenance, R.O.I., N.P.V., will then be automatically calculated on the following pages.

INITIAL CAPITAL COST Sell $ Qty lights Total
Halogen fitting 314.00 1000 $314,000
Inset light, 6.6A 546.00 1000 $546,000
Intelligent light 6.6 or 2A 698.00 1000 $698,000
LED cost v halogen $232,000
LED IQ @ 2A cost v halogen $384,000
DATA CALCULATIONS
POWER CONSUMPTION COSTS Hrs per Days p.a. Qty lights kw kwh p.a. kwh cost Cost / 10
day yrs
Halogen 12 365 1000 73.1 320,178 $64,036 $640,356
LED inset light , 6.6A 12 365 1000 37.8 165,564 $33,113 $331,128
LED IQ inset light, intelligent 6.6 or 2A 12 365 1000 9.8 42,924 $8,585 $85,848
LED saving vs halogen 35.3 154,614 $30,923 $309,228
LED IQ @ 2A saving vs halogen 63.3 277,254 $55,451 $554,508
CARBON EMISSION & COSTS

CO2 kg/kwh kwh p.a. total tn CO2 @ $/tn Cost / 10 yrs / tn
Halogen 1.22 320,178 391 $8,984 $89,842
LED inset light , 6.6A 1.22 165,564 202 $4,646 $46,457
LED IQ inset light, intelligent 6.6 or 2A 1.22 42,924 52 $1,204 $12,044
LED saving vs halogen 154,614 189 $4,338 $43,385
LED IQ @ 2A saving vs halogen 277,254 338 $7,780 $77,797
MAINTENANCE COSTS
LAMP & LED MATERIAL COSTS - Lamp life hrs pd days pa / lamps / Cost / Cost/10 Total Cost
MAINTENANCE ANALYSIS PERIOD hrs lamp life lamp yrs/lamp
Halogen life (est hrs @ lower current) 6,000 12 730 5 $22.20 $111.00 111,000
LED module cost 100,000 12 8333 0 $29.90 $- -
LED inset light , 6.6A life 100,000 12 8333 0 $29.90 $- -
LED IQ inset intelligent light 6.6 or 2A life 100,000 12 8333 0 $29.90 $- -
LED saving vs halogen 94,000 7603 5 -$7.70 $111.00 $111,000
LED IQ @ 2A saving vs halogen 94,000 7603 5 -$7.70 $111.00 $111,000
LABOUR COSTS - MAINTENANCE ANALYSIS PERIOD

Maintenance (callout time incl waiting, replacement, etc) Changeover $/10 yrs Cost x Qty
Halogen lamp (no. of lamps x time x hourly rate) $562.50 $562,500.00
LED replacement module $- $-
LED saving vs halogen $562,500.00
LED IQ 2A saving vs halogen $562,500.00
Total material & labour maintenance savings LED $673,500.00
Total material & labour maintenance savings LED IQ @ 2A $673,500.00

SAVINGS CALCULATIONS
SAVINGS (POWER) (kwh p.a.) Lights w per light kwh p.a. % kw
Halogen 1000 73.1 320,178 100.0% Halogen 6.6A
Inset light , 6.6A cost 1000 37.8 165,564 51.7% SafeLED 6.6A
Inset light, intelligent 6.6 or 2A cocst 1000 9.8 42,924 13.4% SafeLED IQ 2A
SAVINGS (CARBON) (tn) CO2 kg/kwh kwh p.a. total tn CO2 % tn

Halogen 1.22 320,178 390.6 100.0% Halogen 6.6A
Inset light , 6.6A cost 1.22 165,564 202.0 51.7% SafeLED 6.6A
Inset light, intelligent 6.6 or 2A cocst 1.22 42,924 52.4 13.4% SafeLED IQ 2A
SAVINGS (MAINTENANCE) $ Lights Total Man Hrs Total $ %

Halogen 1000 7,500 $1,313,856 100.0% Halogen 6.6A
Inset light , 6.6A cost 1000 - $331,128 25.2% SafeLED 6.6A
Inset light, intelligent 6.6 or 2A cocst 1000 - $85,848 6.5% SafeLED IQ 2A
PAYBACK PERIOD CALCULATION - N.P.V.

Time in years 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cash flow - LED inset (232,000) 102,611 102,611 102,611 102,611 102,611 102,611 102,611 102,611 102,611 102,611
light 6.6A
Cash flow -LED IQ inset (384,000) 130,581 130,581 130,581 130,581 130,581 130,581 130,581 130,581 130,581 130,581
light intelligent 6.6
or 2A
Cumulated Cashflow (129,389) (26,777) 75,834 178,445 281,056 383,668 486,279 588,890 691,501 794,113
- LED
Cumulated Cashflow - (253,419) (122,839) 7,742 138,322 268,903 399,483 530,064 660,644 791,225 921,805
LED IQ @ 2A
Payback period - LED in 3

years : LESS THAN
Payback period - LED 3
IQ @ 2A in years : LESS
THAN
NET PRESENT VALUE CALCULATION

Net Present Value - LED 560,337
Net Present Value - LED IQ @ 2A 624,308
INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN

Internal Rate of Return - LED 43.0%
Internal Rate of Return -LED IQ @ 2A 31.9%
TOTAL COST OVER LIFE BASED ON (10 YEARS) SAVING

Halogen $1,717,698
LED inset light 6.6A $923,585 $794,113
Halogen $1,717,698
LED IQ inset light, intelligent 6.6 or 2A $795,892 $921,805

CS4. AFL CABLING SYSTEMS: STANDARDS
COMPLIANCE FOR DEPTH OF CABLE
4.1 Background Series current cabling systems
AFL facilities at aerodromes provide visual guidance to To achieve the required light intensity outputs from
pilots of aircraft undertaking approach and departure the facilities, the international practice is to use series
procedures in low visibility and dark conditions. These current power supply systems in place of the normal
facilities include, amongst other things, runway lighting, parallel voltage systems (refer to International Civil
taxiway lighting and visual approach guidance facilities. Aviation Organisation Aerodrome Design Manual Parts
4 and 5 for further reference on these requirements).
The electrical cabling systems for these AFL facilities
are unique in having operating arrangements and The series current systems utilise ‘constant current’
installation requirements that are significantly different power supplies with a single ‘primary’ cable in the form
to that normally applicable to domestic, commercial of a loop carrying the current (amperage) to each light.
and industrial applications to which the AS/NZS 3000
The primary cables are normally isolated from earth
Standard is particularly directed.
and the mains supply.
The requirements of AFL are unique because:
The lights forming the AFL facilities are connected
»» AFL facilities usually include a large number of lights in series with the primary cable via series isolating
installed over long distances around the airfield. current transformers (SITs). SITs usually have a 1:1 ratio
with one SIT for each light so that when a light fixture
»» The light output from the various lighting facilities
lamp filament fails the primary circuit does not go
required to provide the same light output intensity.
open circuit ensuring that the remaining light fixtures
»» The light fixtures are generally required to mounted continue to operate.
either inset into the pavement or as elevated lights
with the light fixtures being no higher than 360 mm The series current systems provide the same light
above the surrounding ground level. intensity from each lamp connected to the system
because the same current (amperage) value passes
»» Specific power supply and control arrangements are
through each lamp filament in the facility.
normally provided at aerodromes to ensure these
requirements are met. The current (amperage) used for AFL systems is
»» The AFL facilities are located within specific security normally a maximum of 6.6 A although other current
control areas where access is limited and works are values are sometimes used (some systems use 20 A).
restricted and closely monitored. The series current value may be changed to lower
currents (amperages) by the power source to vary the
»» The provision of the AFL facilities at aerodromes is
intensity of the lights (lower current through the lamp
covered by Australian and international regulations
filaments) to allow the light output from the various AFL
and standards. The various recommendations and
facilities to match the current ambient light conditions.
requirements set down in those documents require
unique installation methodologies for the provision The series current systems have a number of significant
of power supply to those AFL facilities. operational advantages over the normal parallel voltage
systems. Depending on the size of the aerodrome and
the type of light fixtures, the cabling systems for these
facilities may require system supply voltages in excess
of 1,000 V, in which case the systems are deemed as
high voltage (HV) systems.
The power supply for the AFL series current systems is

provided by constant current regulators (CCRs) or mains
isolating transformers (MITs).

The CCRs and MITs both provide very low fault level This exemption allowing the use of the alternative
systems. installation methodology has been recognised by the
Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) and have been
CCRs and MITs may be required to provide HV outputs promulgated in the CASA Manual of Standards Part 139
to achieve the required series current values. Chapter 9.22.
The exemption has since been allowed to lapse and

4.2 History current installation practices have changed. However,
for operational and maintenance reasons it is desired to
Historically, the cabling systems for the AFL facilities continue with the installation of the cabling systems at
supplied by series current systems, or ‘constant current’ depths less than 750 mm.
power supply systems, have utilised installation
methodologies different to that required by AS 3000
(Wiring Rules) and AS 2067 (Substations and high 4.3 Previous installation methodology
voltage installations exceeding 1 kV AC).
Generally, the series current cabling systems utilised
As the series current systems and the cable used for special non-armoured cables either 3,000 V rated or
these systems was significantly different from normal 5,000 V with PE, XLPE or EPR insulation, PE or Nylon
electrical practice, and the systems were installed sheath, and a 62mm seven-stranded copper conductor.
within the airside restricted area of aerodromes where
strict control on access and all types of works are Where installed within the controlled and restricted
maintained, the Department of Civil Aviation (DCA) area of aerodromes the cables were normally installed
referred the matter to the Standards Association of direct buried with 450 mm cover or in heavy duty
Australia in 1958. conduits with 450 mm cover.
Committee EL/1, the committee responsible for the SAA

wiring rules, advised DCA in 1959 that it recommended 4.4 Current recommended installation
to all statutory authorities that such series current
installations be treated as ‘unusual installations’ that methodology
did not have to strictly comply with certain parts of the
Installation of the AFL cabling using the direct buried
wiring rules, provided appropriate precautions were
methodology has been found to be provide a reduced
observed.
capital cost but has major limitations for the ongoing
The exemption allowed unarmoured cable to be used serviceability of the facilities in that the cable is more
for high voltage and that the cable could be installed prone to damage and fault finding is very painstaking,
at a depth providing 450 mm cover over the cables in difficult and costly.
place of the standard 750 mm required for high voltage
The desired arrangement is now for installation of the
cables.
cables and SITs in pit and duct systems. This allows
It also allowed the cable to be buried directly in the easy installation of the cables, provides additional
ground without mechanical protection. mechanical protection for the cables and SIT, and
provides a major improvement in the maintainability of
The exemption was allowed only for the area of the the equipment.
installation within the ‘airside’ restricted portions of the
aerodrome movement areas and did not apply to public One major issue for pit and duct systems being used for
areas. HV equipment is that, to comply with AS/NZS 3000 Part
2 and AS 2067, the cables must be provided 750mm
The exemption was reaffirmed to the Department cover. Providing 750mm cover requires large pits to
of Aviation in 1983, and again to the Civil Aviation allow reasonable access for maintenance of the cables
Authority in 1993. and equipment. The provision of large pits, particularly
in the runway graded strip, creates issues such as
support for aircraft wheel loadings, as well as being of
very high cost.

Currently it is seen that the installation of AFL cabling Compliance by Specific Design and
in Class A type installation suitable for compliance with Installation
AS/NZS 3000 is the most desirable arrangement for AFL
systems. This arrangement allows the use of off the Part 1.9.4.1 of AS/NZS 3000:2007 wiring rules states:
shelf-type pits which generally meet the required for
installation of equipment in runway strips but requires “Certain electrical installations or portions of electrical
special consideration to comply with the electrical installations, because of their unusual requirements,
installation requirements. application or intended use, that cannot meet Part 2 of
this Standard, may use a specific design and installation
method as detailed below.”
4.5 Compliance with AS/NZS 3000 Such installations may be deemed suitable provided
Requirements that, having due regard to all the circumstances
associated with the intended application, they—
Australian Standards requirements
a satisfy the fundamental safety principles of Part 1 of
Clause 7.6 of AS/NZS 3000:2007 requires that electrical this Standard (AS/NZS 3000:2007); and
installations operating at high voltage shall be installed
b will result in a degree of safety from physical injury,
in accordance with the requirements of AS 2067:2008.
fire and electric shock not less than that which,
AS 2067:2008 Clause 4.2.9.1 cables requires that HV in other circumstances, would be achieved by
installed underground be buried at a depth of not less compliance with the particular requirements of this
than 750 mm with mechanical protection as specified in Standard; and
AS/NZS 3000:2007. c satisfy the other requirements of this Standard as
detailed in this Clause.
AS/NZS 3000:2007 Table 3.5 Underground Wiring
System Categories details the particular mechanical The remaining portions of such installations shall
requirements for the various cable types and details the comply with Part 2 of this Standard.”
installation requirements for Category A wiring systems,
Category B wiring systems and Category C wiring Acknowledgement and documentation
systems. requirements for the application of AS/NZS
Table 3.5; options for underground wiring systems 3000:2007 Part 1 Compliance by Specific
include (amongst other things): Design and Installation
a sheathed, armoured and served cables buried direct Part 1.9.4.2 of AS/NZS 3000:2007 wiring rules states:
in ground,
Any departures from Part 2 of this Standard must be
b insulated unsheathed cables installed in heavy duty
formally acknowledged by the owner or operator of the
conduit, and
installation.
c insulated and sheathed cables installed in heavy
duty conduit. Part 1.9.4.3 of AS/NZS 3000:2007 wiring rules states:
AS/NZS 3000:2007 Table 3.6 Underground Wiring The designer shall document the Part 1 design. Such
System - Minimum Depth of Cover specified that documentation shall be in the English language and
Category A and Category B wiring systems must have a detail:
minimum of 500 mm cover.
i why Part 2 of this Standard was not adopted; and
AS/NZS 3000:2007 Clause 3.11.4.5 Identification of ii the verification requirements that are required to
underground wiring requires the provision of orange be undertaken to ensure full compliance with this
marker tape to identify underground wiring systems. Standard; and
iii how compliance with Part 1 of this Standard is being
achieved; and

iv the owner or operator’s acknowledgment as to any Variation from the requirements of AS/NZS
departure from Part 2 of this Standard 7; and 3000:2007 Part 2
v any requirements where the design requires specific
installation use by the owner or operator of the The method of installation meets all of the material and
electrical installation and provide a copy of these installation requirements of AS/NZS 3000:2007 for LV
requirements to the owner or operator; and systems.
vi the verification undertaken to ensure full Where the system output voltage is HV (=>1,000 V), the
compliance with this Standard, and the results of method of installation meets the requirements of AS/
this verification. NZS 3000:2007 with the exception of the installation
Such documentation shall be retained by the designer depth of the cables required by AS/NZS 3000:2007
and also on-site at the electrical installation, by the Clause 7.6 and the subsequent requitement’s of AS
person with overall responsibility for the installation. 2067:2008 Clause 4.2.9.1, where the cable is required
to be provided with minimum depth of cover of 750
Part 1.9.4.4 of AS/NZS 3000:2007 wiring rules states: mm.
All parts of an electrical installation that do not Reason for the recommendation of AS/NZS
comply with Part 2 of this Standard shall be verified as 3000:2007 Part 1 Compliance by Specific
complying with the specific design and with Part 1 of
Design and Installation
AS/NZS 3000:2007 prior to being placed in service.
The AFL installations utilise series current systems
Part 1.9.4.5 of AS/NZS 3000:2007 wiring rules states:
that are unique in having operating arrangements and
Persons undertaking designs that depart from Part 2 of installation requirements not specifically addressed in
this Standard shall be competent. AS/NZS 3000:2007.
The lighting facilities have light fixtures installed over

Specific design and installation methodology
long distances around the aerodrome and incorporate
for AFL series current systems with a large number of lights separately located along the
aerodrome controlled and restricted areas runways and taxiways within the aircraft movement
area.
To take advantage of the AS/NZS 3000 Part 1 allowance
it is proposed to utilise cables rated at 5,000 V, with The light output from the numerous light fixtures within
a stranded 62mm copper conductor, EPR, PE or XLPE the particular facility is required to emit the same
insulation, and with a PE or HDPE sheath. intensity of light.
The cables shall be installed in heavy duty rigid orange Current transformers (SITs) are required for each
coloured conduit, compliant with the requirements of light adjacent to or near the light locations with the
AS/NZS 3000:2007, installed with a minimum depth of transformers being required to be installed in field
cover of 500 mm. mounted pits.
The conduit shall be installed with an orange PVC The requirements of AS/NZS 3000:2007 for depth of
warning tape above the conduit as required by AS/NZS cover for HV AFL series current systems are not met
3000:2007. due to the large number of size limited aircraft load
rated pits required to be installed within the aerodrome
movement area, the associated difficulty of installation
and maintenance of the cabling and SITs, and the nature
of operations at the airport requiring the urgent repair
of facilities in the event of equipment failure.
In addition, the nature of the airport operations

involves limited access to the aerodrome movement
area with immediate clearance of areas frequently
required.

Justification Fundamental safety principles
The AFL installations utilise series current systems Principle safety requirements details in AS/NZS
that are unique in having operating arrangements and 3000:2007 Part 1.5 include:
installation requirements not specifically addressed in »» Protection against dangers and damage;
AS/NZS 3000:2007.
»» Control and Isolation;
i Compliance with Part 2 of AS/NZS 3000:2007 is not »» Protection against electric shock;
being met only for the lighting and cabling systems
installed within the specific restricted aircraft »» Protection against thermal effects in normal service;
movement area where access is strictly controlled »» Protection against overcorrect;
with authorised personnel only allowed access; »» Protection against earth fault currents;
ii Works within the aerodrome movement area »» Projection against abnormal voltages;
are strictly controlled and due to the nature of
operations at the airport works are normally limited »» Protection against the spread of fire;
to good weather usually during the day; »» Protection against injury from mechanical
iii Works are continuously observed by Airport Safety movement; and
Officers who are familiar with the operation of the »» Protection against external influences.
aerodrome and the location of the facilities at the
aerodrome; The installation methodology of HV AFL cables within
the aerodrome controlled movement area detailed
iv Cable routes of the AFL cabling are normally
herein varies from the requirements of AS/NZS
identified by cable markers or clearly identifiable
3000:2007 only by the requirement for depth of cover.
due to the location of the transformer pits for the
lights. The installation methodology detailed herein does not
v Location of the field cables and light fixture increase the safety risk detailed in AS/NZS 3000:2007
equipment are recorded on ‘as constructed’ and does not change the principle safety requirements
drawings which are held by the aerodrome operator due to the particular system arrangements and
for future reference; operational procedures required to be in place in
the strictly controlled aerodrome movement area as
vi Field cabling and equipment location records are
detailed herein.
required to be kept up to date from the initial
installation and as changes occur;
vii Maintenance is undertaken by personnel familiar
with the theory, operation and maintenance of AFL
series current systems and familiar with the AFL
facilities at the particular aerodrome;
viii AFL systems are designed to be isolated from the
‘mains’ supply and from earth; and
ix AFL systems generally have very low fault level
(typically less than 10A).

CS5. SERVICEABILITY CHECKLIST
An aerodrome reporting officer (ARO) serviceability
inspection must be conducted each day that an airline
service operates at an aerodrome or in any case at least
twice a week.
Airports with dedicated maintenance staff would use

a list similar to that below. AROs may use this for their
serviceability inspections and pass information on as
required
5.1 Basic airport
AIRFIELD LIGHTING INSPECTION CHECKLIST

DATE: / / DURATION / WEEKLY
TYPE COLOUR STATUS LOCATION

RUNWAY LIGHTS WHITE OK / FAULTY
THRESHOLD LIGHTS GREEN OK / FAULTY
RUNWAY END LIGHTS RED OK / FAULTY
TAXIWAY EDGE LIGHTS BLUE OK / FAULTY
TAXIWAY HOLDING POINT LIGHT YELLOW OK / FAULTY
IWI LIGHTS WHITE OK / FAULTY
APRON FLOODLIGHTS WHITE OK / FAULTY
ACTION
FAULTS REPAIRED BY: / /
MAINTENANCE COMPLETED BY: / / HOURS:
UNABLE TO EFFECT REPAIRS AND FOLLOWING ACTION TAKEN
INSPECTION BY : / / TIME:

5.2 Intermediate airport
AIRFIELD LIGHTING INSPECTION CHECKLIST

DATE: / / DURATION / WEEKLY
TYPE COLOUR STATUS LOCATION

RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS WHITE OK / FAULTY
THRESHOLD LIGHTS GREEN OK / FAULTY
RUNWAY END LIGHTS RED OK / FAULTY
TAXIWAY EDGE LIGHTS BLUE OK / FAULTY
TAXIWAY CENTRELINE LIGHTS GREEN OK / FAULTY
TAXIWAY HOLDING POINT LIGHTS YELLOW OK / FAULTY
PAPI OK / FAULTY
IWI LIGHTS OK / FAULTY
APRON FLOODLIGHTS OK / FAULTY
ACTION
FAULTS REPAIRED BY: / /
MAINTENANCE COMPLETED BY: / / HOURS:
UNABLE TO EFFECT REPAIRS AND FOLLOWING ACTION TAKEN
INSPECTION BY : / / TIME:

CS6. COMMISSIONING CHECKLIST
MOS-139 Chapter 9.1.15 Commissioning of Lighting Systems refers. Typical checklists follow.
6.1 Airfield lighting commissioning checklist
EXAMPLE OF TYPICAL CHECKLIST

Location:
Project:
Reference:
Circuit: Validation Date: / /

RUNWAY LIGHTING COMMISSIONING
Dwg No. Pit No. Label Fitting Type Colour SIT Size Circuits Fitting Type Light Orientation Light on Mechanical Correct Checked Notes
Labelled as Installed Colour is of Light correct Installation currents set By
Per Spec As Per Correct Fitting is Circuit / Bolts
Drawings Correct Torqued
Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Value Amps

105
106
TAXIWAY LIGHTING COMMISSIONING
Dwg No. Pit No. Label Fitting Type Colour SIT Size Circuits Fitting Type Light Orientation Light on Mechanical Correct Checked Notes
Labelled as Installed Colour is of Light correct Installation currents set By
Per Spec As Per Correct Fitting is Circuit / Bolts
Drawings Correct Torqued
Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Value Amps

6.2 Precision approach path indicator (PAPI) commissioning checklist
EXAMPLE OF TYPICAL CHECKLIST

Location:
Project:
Reference:
Circuit: Validation Date: / /

108
COMMISSIONING
PAPI No. Required Check Check Level & Check all Check Check Covers Check Box PAPIGround Flight Test Checked By Notes
Lamp Wattage Foundation Tightness of Electronic Operation of Secured Angles Survey
Dimension Bolts Connections Lighting
Including
Cable Entry
Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Deg/Min Y/N Y/N
PAPI XX Box A

PAPI XX Box B
PAPI XX Box C
PAPI XX Box D
Current Settings for XX PAPI System (*These may change according to findings of flight test)
Intensity TYPE 1 2 3 4 5 6
Current (Amps) Design/Commissioned
Notes:
During the ground survey and flight test:
Check each intensity level is set to the design currents

prior to flight test.
Check PAPI system intensity matches runway lighting intensity for each stage setting during flight test. Adjust
as advised by flight test pilot and record commissioning currents.
Check for “on slope” for harmonisation with ILS glide slope, if present. Check horizontal beam splay meets
15 degrees.
Check the elevation angles of each box are set to design angles prior to flight test. Adjust as advised by flight
test pilot and record final setting angles. Place labels in each box recording these commissioning setting
angles. As part of the ground survey, check for obstacles in the OLS.
SIGN OFF: Installation Representative
Printed Name:

Signature: Date / /
SIGN OFF: Airport Representative
Printed Name:

Signature: Date / /

6.3 Apron Floodlighting 6.3.3 Definitions
Commissioning Methodology For the purposes of this procedure, the following
definitions apply:
Acknowledgement and thanks to Perth Airport.
PM
6.3.1 Purpose
Preventative Maintenance – Time based maintenance which
This document details the strategy for the maintenance encompasses the practice of periodically doing a task that
of all Perth Airport Apron floodlights from the will improve equipment reliability. PM can be described
perspective of; as lubrication, changing of a filter, cleaning, or intrusive
maintenance such as an major overhaul
»» Maintenance Methods
»» Levels of Service PdM
6.3.2 Scope Predictive Maintenance – Condition based maintenance
that encompasses periodically applying condition based
This procedure applies to the maintenance of all Perth monitoring technology such as vibration, oil analysis
Airport Apron Flood Lights. and adopting processes to detect the onset of failure.
PaM
Proactive Maintenance – Root caused maintenance,
but is not strictly maintenance oriented. It requires the
review of design, procurement, spares management,
start-up operation and maintenance for eliminating
the defects that are at the root cause of maintenance
requirements.
RM
Reactive Maintenance – Maintenance that is performed
only when it is identified that it is required, i.e. the
machine has stopped.
AU/OAU
Asset Utilisation/Overall Asset Utilisation. Percentage
of absolute perfect operation of a given process. For
example running a plant 8760 hours per year at 100% of
maximum, demonstrated, sustainable rate.

6.3.4 Governing standards 6.3.5 Calculation of grid size
Australian airfield apron flood lighting installations Governing Standards do not provide a recommended
are governed by regulatory and safety requirements grid size. There are a number of other industry norms
according to CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority) as that do provide guidance such as
detailed in the MOS (Manual of Standards) 139 Chapter
9. It is determined to base the minimum design for 1 Maximum grid size using AS 2560.1 2m
Perth Airport Apron Floodlighting on Code 3C Aircraft. 2 Maximum grid size using EN 12464-2 3.6m
The following are relevant excerpts from the standard: 3 Maximum grid size using AS 1680.5 5m
»» Apron floodlighting shall be provided on an apron
and on a designated isolated aircraft parking It can be seen in the table below that actual average
position horizontal and vertical lux based on various grid sizes
does not yield a considerable amount of difference
»» Apron floodlights shall be located so as to provide in actual readings, in fact the greater the grid size the
adequate illumination on all apron service areas, more conservative the readings.
with a minimum of glare to pilots of aircraft in
flight and on the ground, aerodrome and apron
controllers, and personnel on the apron Calculation Grid Size (m) Average Horizontal Average Vertical
»» The arrangement and aiming of floodlights shall be Lux Lux
such that an aircraft stand receives light from two or 2x2 40.93 22.47
more directions to minimise shadows. 3.6 x 3.6 41.12 22.32
»» The spectral distribution of apron floodlights shall 5x5 40.67 22.00
be such that the colours used for aircraft marking 10 x 10 39.47 21.43
connected with routine servicing, and for surface
and obstacle marking, can be correctly identified.
In the Australian airfield industry a 10m grid is
»» Horizontal luminance 20 lux with a uniformity ratio
commonly used and PAPL has adopted this same work
(average to minimum) of not more than 4 to 1; and
practice.
Vertical luminance 20 lux at a height of 2 m above
the apron in relevant directions. Other apron areas: Lux testing methodology
»» Horizontal luminance 50 per cent of the average The following is the methodology that Perth Airport has
luminance on the aircraft stands with a uniformity determined from MOS 139 section 9.16.1 for test Lux
ratio (average to minimum) of not more than 4 to 1. readings.
»» Each minimum luminance value mentioned in this »» Horizontal Light readings shall be measured at
Section is maintained luminance below which the ground level at each grid point.
actual value must not fall
»» Vertical light readings shall be taken 2m above
»» Each floodlight design must meet a target value ground level and in the direction of the light source
which allows for a depreciation and maintenance parallel to the parking centreline. (typically in the
factor that is appropriate for the particular floodlight same direction the Aircraft is facing)
system
Any other methodology used in the design of Apron
AS/NZS 3827.1 – Lighting System performance flood lighting on Aircraft parking bays will be confirmed
AS/NZS 3000 using the design methodology at commissioning, and
then verified using the PAPL methodology as per
MOS 139.

PAPL TESTING METHODOLOGY
Hor Horizontal
Luminance at
ground level
Hor Vertical
Luminance
parallel to
centreline in the
direction of the
light source 2m
above ground
APRON FLOODLIGHTING LIGHT READING TEST SHEET

Distance Meter Centre
50m 40m 30m 20m 10m 10m 20m 30m 40m 50m
From Stop Position Line
VERTICAL 4.9 7.5 7.1 5 5.1 5 5.1
Stop Bar
HORIZONTAL 23 40 45 28 26.1 18.5 24
VERTICAL 5.6 10 6.7 8 9 9 11
10m
HORIZONTAL 39.6 54.5 AB 47.8 35.7 32.7 36.4
VERTICAL 25.7 29.2 29.1 25.2 21.6 21.2 20
20m
HORIZONTAL 45.5 50.8 48.6 42.6 35.1 34.2 31.8
VERTICAL 35.5 35.8 34.8 29.7 27.7 25.6 26.3
30m
HORIZONTAL 43 42.6 39.7 36.1 31.8 28.8 28.7
VERTICAL 36.1 39.3 37.9 34.2 29.2 26.9 28.4
40m
HORIZONTAL 35.1 36.9 35 31.7 25.8 23.8 23.7
VERTICAL 34.2 35 34.2 32.6 31.3 27.4 28
50m
HORIZONTAL 26.1 27.6 26.2 24 23.6 19.8 20
VERTICAL 29.8 30 29.2 28.8 27.9 26.9 25.9
60m
HORIZONTAL 19.3 19.1 18.5 18.4 18 15.9 15.3
VERTICAL 24.5 25.6 26 27.3 28.6 27.8 27.5
70m
HORIZONTAL 13.9 14.3 14.6 14.9 14.93 14.1 13.4
Calculation Grid Size is 10 x 10m PASS 4:1 Ratio Climatic Conditions: CLEAR Percentage of Lights Operating: 100
LUX 23.69464 Testing Officer: Ian Diews

Vertical Average Intensity
LUX 28.99145 7.247864 Date: 20/05/2015 Test Instrument : GOSSEN MAVOLUX 5032B
Horizontal Average Intensity
Vertical Reading: Taken at 2m high with sensor facing Start Position co-ordinate:
direction of Centre Line. Horizontal Reading: Taken at
ground height with sensor facing up. BAY 53 63734.18 265576.99
Australian Airfield Apron flood lighting installations are

governed by regulatory and safety requirements according APRON FLOOD LIGHTING GRIDS
to CASA as detailed in MOS 139 Ch9. It is determined to
base the minimum design for Perth Airport Apron CAD FILE:
Floodlighting on Code C Aircraft A4
N: Lighting / lighting - Bay 53.dgn

6.3.6 Apron flood lighting maintenance Predictive maintenance plan
plan
Program of delivered PdM is as determined below:
The following details maintenance strategies for
Different methods have been trialled to most effectively
Apron Flood Lights. It is well documented that that
maintain and test to ensure compliance on the Aircraft
where PM, PdM, MMS and Planning are used as tools
Parking Bays.
to understand root cause, to prioritise resources,
to eliminate defects and to be proactive, result Bulk lamp changes were conducted over a period of
in most improved uptime or AU. This ‘reliability’ time when individual lamps failed on Apron flood
based maintenance approached is applied for the lighting towers. This practice was deemed unsuccessful
maintenance of Apron Floods. in terms of reliability and cost effectiveness due to new
lamp failures, and that it did not provide any noticeable
Preventative maintenance plan increase to Lux levels above what was already achieved.
»» Complete structural assessment of poles older Based on the above a decision has been made by the
than 25 years electrical department to maintain apron lighting with
differing strategies
»» Airside Apron Flood Light 1 Monthly Inspection
»» Periodic LUX testing on Specified Bays Some Bays will not undergo lux testing.
»» The Aircraft Lux Testing Schedule is located on the

Reactive maintenance plan PAPL Intranet. Below is the determination of the
above:
Apron floodlight outages are reported by:
»» Lux Level Readings on all high priority passenger
»» Night time inspections conducted by Operations loading bays every two years. Generally towers with
Safety Officers multiple lights.
»» Monthly inspections by the Electrical Department. »» Lux Level readings every 2 years on Low priority
parking bays with easy access and where it is more
These outages are logged on a monthly inspection cost effective to test than bulk lamp change
sheet.
»» Bulk replacement every two years on low priority
Once a month the inspection sheet detailing the parking bays where night time access is not practical
number and position of the apron flood lights will be in lieu of Lux testing.
reviewed and a decision made upon what lamps will be »» Any Aircraft parking bay that has been determined
replaced for the month. The actual decisions made will as requiring additional engineering by previous Lux
be based on: testing will not be re-tested until such time that the
»» Vicinity of the lamps to other lamps due for PM lighting has been re-designed and commissioned.
Failed lamps will be individually replaced as per the
»» Access to the lamps that need replacement normal maintenance regime.
»» Available resources
Future Works
»» Serviceability
Future work is also required outside of lux reading that
includes power quality to the apron flood lights. Not
only for the purposes of energy reconciliation, power
supplies to flood lights should be monitored in terms of:
»» Voltage
»» Current

6.3.7 MMS »» Control Type
»» Schematic Drawing Number
Apron flood lighting entry
»» Tower Label Fitted
All Apron Flood Lighting will be entered into the MMS »» Switch board legend
system where:
»» Catenary Installed
»» Asset Number will be issued by the MMS system »» Comments
with a suffix of ‘E’
»» Circuit metered Y/N
»» Asset Short Description will be the ‘Apron Flood'
»» XVIII. Electricity Meter Number
»» Asset Search Description will be the equipment
Number. 003 »» XXIX. Space for Meter Installation Y/N.
»» Asset Description is the location of the Asset –
which Apron it is located Inspection sheets
Inspection sheets have been developed for Apron flood
6.3.8 Process lighting that are task orientated and are the tool used
to ensure uniform reporting. The inspection sheets will
Spreadsheets
be managed by the Airfield Lighting group and held on
Until the introduction of MMS, Spreadsheets have been the intranet. Any outstanding works identified by the
developed by the Electrical Infrastructure Department inspection sheets, will have works orders raised against
that are used as the tool to plan and monitor the them using the WASP system. Remedial works will be
maintenance of the Apron Floodlighting. Details on planned and rescheduled for completion dependant on
every lamp and tower consist of: criticality.
»» Location Photometric testing

»» Installed Year Photometric testing is completed as part of the
»» Column Height Preventative maintenance program. All data is recorded
»» Column Type into a spreadsheet that is then stored on InSite.
»» Column Manufacturer Stock and stock management

»» Spigot Diameter
Perth Airport Electrical control and hold a small stock
»» Catenary of Apron flood lighting fittings / lamps and towers. This
»» Number of Fittings stock allows for the recovery from small unplanned
failures and to assist projects where the delivery is
»» Light Fitting Type and Manufacturer
business critical minimising risk in relation to long lead
»» Lamp Type time items.
»» Lamps per Fitting
Stock management is a key area that needs further
»» Twr Total Lamps work, in how it relates to:
»» Lamp Cat »» In House Stock
»» Ballast Type »» Just in Time Procurement
»» Ignitor Type
In both cases it is currently assumed that stock is
»» Control Gear Location transported, stored, rotated, installed and put into
»» Supply Point service (Start-up) in accordance with a strategy that
maximise the life of the lamp beyond the early infant
»» Circuit mortality failure.
»» C/B or Fuse Rating at base
»» ESS/NON ESS

Appendix 1 — Light loss factor
To understand best a maintenance strategy for
lighting the Light Loss Factor or Maintenance
Factor must first be understood. Consultation
with actual lamp supplier for the lumen
depreciation factor should be sort where the
following is provided as a guide.
Cleaning Luminaire Maintenance factor

interval/
IP2X min (a) IP5X min (a) IP6X min (a)
months
High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low
pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution
(b) (c) (d) (b) (c) (d) (b) (c) (d)
12 0.53 0.62 0.82 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.91 0.92 0.93
18 0.48 0.58 0.80 0.87 0.88 0.91 0.90 0.91 0.92
24 0.45 0.56 0.79 0.84 0.86 0.90 0.88 0.89 0.91
36 0.42 0.53 0.78 0.76 0.82 0..88 0.83 0.87 0.90
Appendix 2 — Proactive
maintenance
For completeness proactive maintenance in relation
to Apron Floods needs to remain in the forefront
of any maintenance strategy. The approach for the
implementation of Proactive Maintenance as it
applies to apron floods lies in the understanding of
new technology LED technology, management of
total cost of ownership that encompasses operating
costs, maintenance, storage of spare parts,
installation and start-up noting failures are likely to
occur at start-up.

Australian Airports Association
Unit 2/4 Brindabella Circuit I Canberra Airport
P: 02 6230 1110 F: 02 6230 1367

E: [email protected]
www.airports.asn.au

Airport Practice Note 11 Airfield Lighting Essentials

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AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

AIRPORT PRACTICE NOTE 11

ii AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS VERSION 1.0 - PUBLISHED NOVEMBER 2016

The AAA facilitates co-operation among all

This Airport Practice Note has been

Airport Light Consultant,

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 1

ABOUT THE AUSTRALIAN AIRPORTS ASSOCIATION 01

CHAPTER 2 ILLUMINATION THEORY 12

CHAPTER 3 CATEGORIES OF AIRFIELD LIGHTING SYSTEMS 19

CHAPTER 4 AIRFIELD LIGHTING SERIES CIRCUITS 23

CHAPTER 5 TRANSFORMERS AND CONSTANT CURRENT REGULATORS 27

CHAPTER 6 CABLE AND CONNECTIONS 34

CHAPTER 7 TAXIWAY LIGHTING 38

2 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

CHAPTER 10 PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATOR (PAPI) 53

CHAPTER 11 MOVEMENT AREA GUIDANCE SIGNS (MAG’s) 63

CHAPTER 12 MOUNTING FOR ELEVATED AND INSET LIGHTS

CHAPTER 13 ILLUMINATED WIND INDICATORS (IWI’s) 66

CHAPTER 14 ROTATING BEACONS & OBSTRUCTION LIGHTS 68

CHAPTER 15 CONTROL AND MONITORING SYSTEMS 72

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 3

CHAPTER 17 POWER SUPPLY FOR AFL SYSTEMS 79

CHAPTER 18 PORTABLE AND TEMPORARY LIGHTS 80

CHAPTER 20 SAFETY AND BEST PRACTICES 83

CHAPTER 21 CASE STUDIES 90

4 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

Background The history of airfield lighting

PLEASE NOTE: All figures, diagrams and images

Additionally, the AAA intends to update

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 5

6 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 7

8 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 9

10 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

UPS (uninterruptable power supply) usually provides

V (volt) is the potential difference between two points

VOR (very high frequency omnidirectional radio

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 11

2.1 Lighting The human eye has a non-linear sensitivity to visible

Red is the longest visible wavelength starting at 390 nm.

Figure 2.1: Visible light spectrum

gamma x-rays ultraviolet infrared rays radar FM TV shortwave AM

10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104

400 500 600 700

Figure 2.2: CIE phototopic response curve

12 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

Figure 2.3: CIE chromaticity diagram

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 13

14 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS 15

240O 300O -10

Figure 2.7: Isocandela diagram

16 AIRFIELD LIGHTING ESSENTIALS

Figure 2.8: Lamp characteristics

Life Lumens Efficacy Watts

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Percentage of Rated Lamp Voltage