THERMAL COMFORT AND

HEAT TRANSFER
Human comfort indoors

The first question that must be answered before any design can begin is
how to define human thermal comfort
The best definition of human thermal comfort is a negative one; that is,
thermal comfort is the absence of thermal discomfort.

A thermally comfortable person feels nothing at all and he/she simply unaware
of the thermal environment.

This means that the space occupant is neither too warm nor too chilly, is not
uncomfortable due to stuffiness or drafts, is not conscious of perspiration (a
feeling of body wetness) and is not disturb by strong odors.
Ventilation is included in the concept of thermal comfort used here.

To achieve this desirable thermal environment, HVAC designers rely on the

flexible HVAC system and on the automatic temperature control system of the
human body.
 Body temperature control

Human beings are constant-temperature (warm-blooded) creatures, with a normal

deep body temperature of 98.6°F (37°C).
We emphasize that this is an internal temperature, because the external skin
temperature can vary from a low of about 40°F (4.4°C) to a high of about 106°F
(41.1°C).

The amount of heat generated by the body depends on the person’s activity.
The energy is produced by metabolizing (‘burning’) the food we eat and is therefore,
referred to as the body’s metabolic rate.
The entire process is known as metabolism.

A major factor is the need to get rid of the

heat we generate as a by—product of our
metabolic systems.
The heat we produce varies from about
100W at rest to about 1000W when
physically very active.
A seated adult male indoors in normal
conditions produces about 115W - about
90W of which is sensible heat and the
remaining 25W is latent heat.
Thermal comfort and heat transfer
To be thermally comfortable one must not feel too hot or too cold, or have any part of
the body too hot or too cold.
The physiological basis for this is that the amount of heat being produced by the
body is in balance with the heat loss, comfortably within the body’s control
mechanism.

There are several mechanisms which transfer

heat and therefore affect this balance.
Heat always flows from hot bodies to cold
ones.
Individuals may be gaining or losing heat
depending on the relative temperatures of
their bodies and their surroundings.
They may indeed be gaining heat through one
mechanism and simultaneously losing it
through another.
Rating frequency for overall thermal sensation in the office

The bioclimatic building type

has rating mean 4.31 and
standard deviation (SD) 0.801
whereas conventional
building type rating mean is
4.02 and SD 1.560. The peak
distribution curve for
conventional building is about
exactly at the neutral line
whereas that for bioclimatic
building is skews to the right or
in other word is skew towards
the positive categories.
Heat transfer mechanisms: day-time Heat transfer mechanisms: night-time
On a very hot day in the desert the air and sand are both likely to be
hotter than a person’s body.
The body is therefore heated by the sand on which one stands, by the air
and by the Sun.
Depending on the exact air and body temperatures, the only cooling
mechanism may be by evaporation through respiration and sweating.
The figure, illustrates the four heat transfer processes of conduction,
convection, radiation and evaporation/condensation.
These basic physical processes apply both to humans and buildings, and
we shall examine them in turn.
A condition reached when
heat gained by a body is
equal to heat lost from it. At
heat balance, the amount
of stored heat does not
change and the body
temperature remains
constant. In humans, heat
is exchanged with the
environment by radiation,
conduction, convection,
and evaporation. In
addition to external
sources of heat, heat is
also gained internally by
metabolism. During
exercise, metabolism
increases dramatically and
produces much heat.
Evaporation of sweat is the
major means of losing this
heat.
Comfort zone
 Heat

By definition:
Heat is a form of energy that flows from point at one temperature to
another point at a lower temperature.

There are two form of heat of concern in planning for comfort :

Sensible heat
Latent heat

In physics and thermodynamics,

heat (symbolized by Q) is any
transfer of energy from one body or
system to another due to a
difference in temperature.

Heat can flow spontaneously from

an object with a high temperature to
an object with a lower temperature.
Heat balance of the earth
Heat balance

Sensible heat Sensible heat is potential energy in the form of

thermal energy or heat.
Is an expression of the The thermal body must have a temperature higher
degree of molecular than its surroundings.
excitation of a given mass.
The thermal energy can be transported via
Such as exposure to conduction, convection, radiation or by a combination
radiation, friction between thereof.
two objects, chemical The quantity or magnitude of sensible heat is the
reaction, or contact with a product of the body's mass, its specific heat capacity
hotter object. and its temperature above a reference temperature.

In many cases the reference temperature is inferred

Sensible heat is that from common knowledge, i.e. "room temperature".
which we can ‘sense’ or Q = mc(T − T0)
feel; it is detectable
through changes in To make the meaning more explicit, it is the heat
temperature. given to a body, when the body is in such a state that
the heat gained by it doesn't convert to latent heat, or
the energy supplied is not used up to change the
state of the system (as in latent heat).
Latent heat
Heat that exchanges the state of matter
from solid to liquid to gas is called latent In thermo chemistry, latent heat is the
heat. amount of energy in the form of heat
The equation for latent heat is: released or absorbed by a chemical
substance during a change of state
(i.e. solid, liquid, or gas), or a phase
where: transition.
Q - is the amount of energy released
or absorbed during the change of The names describe the direction of
phase of the substance (in joules), heat flow from one phase to the next:
solid → liquid → gas.
M - is the mass of the substance,
L - is the specific latent heat for a
particular substance (J kg-1).
In other words, specific latent heat is
found when energy is divided by
mass.

Latent heat is the heat taken up or

released at a fixed temperature
during a change of phase.
Two latent heats (or enthalpies) are typically described: latent heat of fusion
(melting), and latent heat of vaporization (boiling).
Thermal transmittance
Heats are conducted through the solid parts of the wall or floor or roof.
It is radiated across cavities and from the outside surface by wind passing across
that surface.
The overall rate of transmission is known as the thermal transmittance.
It is the heat in watts that will be transferred through 1m2 of the construction when
there is a different of 1K between the temperature of the air on the inside and the
temperature of the air on the outside.
This is called the U-values or air-to-air heat transmittance coefficient. It units are
W/m2K1. These coefficients are calculated from the conductivity (k) of the material
and the surface resistance of each material.

Thermal resistance
Building material present resistance to the flow of heat. The resistivity (r) mKW-1
of material in the inverse of the conductivity; i.e. 1/λ and resistance, R (m2KW-1)
of a given thickness of the material is the product of resistivity and the thickness in
meters.
The heat transfer by conduction Q is proportional to the temperature difference
and the heat flow area, whereas Q is inversely proportional to the distance
through which conduction occurs.
Heat transfer
Heat transfer through a solid material is referred to as
conduction. FOURIER’S Law in one-dimension with
constant thermal properties is given by
Q = -kA dT
dx

K - is thermal conductivity in units of Btu/[h.ft2/(oF/ft)] which converts to

Btu/(h.ft.oF) or SI unit W/(m.K)
A - is the area which heat flows ft2 or m2
dT/dx - is evaluated at point x where the rate of heat transfers to be determined

Steady conduction in plane wall

Q = kA T1 – T2
Fourier’s law can be integrated in Cartesian ∆x
coordinates along a path of constant Q. For
the case below, if the temperature depends
only on x, if there are no heat sources in
k - thermal conductivity Btu/(h.ft.oF) [W/(m.K)]
the material and if the thermal conductivity T1 - higher temperature
can be taken as constant (assumption for T2 - lower temperature
most building materials). A - area through which conduction occurs
∆x - thickness of material in which conduction occurs
Expressed slightly differently this is

Q = T1 – T2
∆x / (kA)
The dominator is often called the resistance to heat transfer

R = ∆x
(h.°F )/Btu(K/W)
kA

By analogy with electric resistance, which serves as the

proportionality constant between voltages and current in Ohm’s law.
If one takes the temperature difference in the numerator of eq;

Q = T1 – T2
∆x / (kA)
To be driving force analogous to voltage
and heat flow to be analogous to current
flow, then R is the thermal analog of Rth = ∆x = AR (h.ft2.oF)/Btu [(m2.K)/W]
electric resistance. The commonly used k
term R-value is the unit thermal
resistance:
 U-value and R-value
Another convenient measure
of thermal conductance is
called the unit conductance,
or U value. It is just the
inverse of the R-value:

U= 1 r= 1
Rth reciprocal k

The use of Rth or U to solve a

given problem depends on
which is more convenient.
Resistivity (r) is an alternative
index of conduction in materials
and is the reciprocal of thermal
conductivity.
Examples:
1. The cavity wall of a house has outer and inner brickwork leaves each 125 mm
with a 50 mm air gap between them and a 16 mm inside layer of plaster. The
relevant values of thermal conductivity, in W/m°C, are: brickwork 0.73, plaster
0.46. The standard thermal resistances, in m2°C/W, are: outside surface 0.005,
inside surface 0.123, air gap 0.18.

Calculate the U-value of the existing wall.

Calculate the U-value of the wall if the cavity is completely filled with urea
formaldehyde (k = 0.026 W/m°C).
a)2. A brickwork wall measures 5m x 3.5m in overall length and height. The wall
contains one window 1500mm by 800mm and one door 1900mm by 800mm.
The U-values, in W/m°C, are: brickwork 0.95, window 5.6, and door 3.4.
Calculate the average U-value of this wall.
3. A cavity wall is constructed as follows: brickwork outer leaf 105 mm, air gap 25
mm, expanded polystyrene batt 25 mm, aerated concrete block inner leaf 100 mm,
plasterboard 10 mm. The relevant values of thermal conductivity, in W/m °C, are:
brickwork 0.84, polystyrene 0.035, concrete block 0.19, and plasterboard 0.16. The
standard thermal resistances in m2 °C/W are: outside surface 0.005, inside surface
0.123, air gap 0.18.

Calculate the U-value of this wall.

Calculate the U-value of the same wall sited in a position of severe exposure for
which the outside surface resistance is 0.03 m2 °C/W.

4. Compare the U-values obtained in question 2 and 3 with the U-values required in
current building regulations. Comment on the suitability of the walls for different
purposes.

5. Compare the U-values of single glazed window made up of one sheet of 4 mm

glass with a double glazed window made up of two sheets of 4 mm glass, which
have 5 mm airspace between them. The thermal conductivity of the glass is 1.022
W/m °C. The standard thermal resistances, in m2 °C/W, are: outside surface 0.005,
inside surface 0.123, airspace 0.11. Comment on the significance of the thermal
resistance provided by the glass layers. Comment on the effect of the window
frames.
6. A brickwork wall measures 5 m x 2.8 m in overall length and height. The wall
contains one window 1400 mm by 800 mm and one door 1900 mm by 750 mm. The
U-values, in W/m°C, are: brickwork 0.95, window 5.6, and door 3.4. Calculate the
average U-value of this wall.

7. A pre-cast wall panel is to have the following cross section: 100 mm of dense
concrete, a layer of expanded polystyrene, and 125 mm of lightweight concrete. The
values of thermal conductivity, in W/m°C are: dense concrete 1.45, expanded
polystyrene 0.034, lightweight concrete 0.23. The standard thermal resistances, in
m2°C/W, are: outside surface 0.005, inside surface 0.123, calculate the minimum
thickness of polystyrene required to give the wall panel a U-value of 0.6 W/m°C.

8. A domestic pitched roof of tiles on felt sacking, with a plasterboard ceiling, has a
U-value of 1.9 W/m°C. Calculate the minimum thickness of fiberglass insulation in
the roof space required to give the roof a new U-value of 0.6 W/m°C. The thermal
conductivity of the fiberglass quilting used is 0.04 W/m°C.

9. A wall has a U-value of 2.5 W/m°C. The thermal resistance of the inside surface
layer is 0.123 m2°C/W. The inside air temperature is 18°C and the outside air
temperature is 0°C. Calculate the temperature on the inside surface of the wall.
Take Home Exercise
Sepanjang musim panas selama 30 minggu, sebuah rumah teres mengalami
kadar purata kehilangan haba fabrik sebanyak 2500 W/hari dan haba ventilasi
sebanyak 1300 W/hari. Rumah tersebut diduduki oleh lima orang yang
memasak menggunakan dapur gas. Tingkap-tingkapnya pula berukuran 4m2
menghadap ke timur, 6m2 menghadap ke selatan, 8m2 menghadap ke utara
dan 4m2 menghadap ke barat. Dengan merujuk nilai perolehan haba musim
panas dalam Jadual 1 dan 2 kira kehilangan haba, perolehan haba dan haba
yang diperlukan oleh rumah tersebut.
Approximate energy flows in a house (Sunday at home)
Approximate energy flows in an air- conditioned office with summer cooling loads.
Generic control measures
There are eight main methods of control which you can use:

a) Control the heat source

• Don't only consider this in relation to air temperature.
• Reduce/increase temperature, humidity, radiant heat load or air movement.
• Insulate the source of heat or cold.

b) Control the environment

• Replace hot air with cold, or replace cold air with hot, as required.
• Humidify or dehumidify the air as required.
• Increase air movement by ventilation or air conditioning.
• Reduce draught discomfort by directing the ventilation or air movement so
that it doesn't blow directly onto the workers.