Introduction

Motor development is a rapid process of change in the observable motor behaviours during the early years of
growth and maturation (Haywood & Getchell, 2010; Payne & Issacs, 2008). During early infancy, involuntary
reflexes set a foundation of motor behaviour. These reflexes are vital for infant survival and successful
acquisition of voluntary motor control (Haywood & Getchell, 2010). Over the first year of life, sub cortical
reflexes are replaced with increased voluntary control, or cerebral cortical motor control, dictated by neural
development (Haywood & Getchell, 2010). In comparison to a fully developed brain, an infant’s brain is
approximately 25% of the size of adults, reaching 80% by 4 years of age (Haywood & Getchell, 2010; Payne
& Issacs, 2008). Coinciding with the rapid cerebral development is the increase in the number of dendrites per
neuron, myelination, and development of neuromuscular synapses (Haywood & Getchell, 2010); these changes
allow for improved motor coordination. The enhanced nerve conduction rates following myelination also
increases the ability of individuals to voluntarily control motor responses (McArdle et al., 2001).
During preschool and early elementary years, gross motor capabilities are refined. It is during these years the
nervous system is initially capable of integrating the neuromuscular patterns required for skillful execution of
motor skills. The span of development during elementary school years is very important for motor
development. During these years mastery of gross motor skills is necessary for progression into more complex
games, physical activities and sport form (Ulrich, 2000). The following section details the expected motor
development of both object control and locomotor capabilities.

Gross Motor Skill Development

Gross motor movements, the observable result of motor development, involve a cumulative effort of larger
muscle groups (Haywood & Getchell, 2010). Examples of gross motor movements are running, jumping,
throwing, and catching. Fine motor skills, though not often measured in the field of kinesiology, are essential
to the progression of gross motor skills. Throwing a ball for example, is initially controlled by gross motor
control, and improves as fine motor control, such as finger dexterity or control of the rotator cuff, allows for
improved accuracy and precision (Payne & Issacs, 2008).
Early mastery of object control, and locomotor skills have shown to be predictive of both the intensity and
habitual participation in physical activity during adolescents (Barnett et al., 2009). The following paragraphs
discuss the expected development of locomotor and object skill development.
Locomotor skill development.
Development of walking. Walking, the pre-requisite skill to: running, jumping and skipping, is a
developmental process which begins between 9-17 months of age, and matures over a period of 2-6 years
(Payne & Issacs, 2008). The most notable increase in walking capabilities is in the rapid increase in speed over
the first 6 months of walking, which has been associated with increases and proficiency in walking gait
(Haywood & Getchell, 2010). Running, the natural progression of walking, initially develops between 1.5-2.5
years of age, with a large percentage of children acquiring a mature motor pattern (e.g. running) by age 10
(Haywood & Getchell, 2010; Payne & Issacs, 2008).
Development of jumping. Jumping, the upward propulsion of the body, initially develops in the form of the
standing long jump, between the ages of 1.5-2 years. Inexperienced jumpers lack an appropriate preparatory
phase and display difficulty efficiently absorbing impact during landing (Payne & Issacs, 2008). Improvements
in jumping capabilities usually appear between 6-9.5 years of age in conjunction with greater muscular
strength and coordination of both the upper and lower body. By 10 years, a mature pattern is typically
achieved (Payne & Issacs, 2008).
Development of hopping. The skill of hopping is the repeated upward propulsion of the body on one foot
(Ulrich, 2000). Hopping is a more challenging variation of jumping due to the additional challenge of balance
and leg strength. Hopping is most often accomplished in the advanced form by 5-7 years of age. Girls typically
develop hopping capabilities approximately six months before of boys (Haywood & Getchell, 2010). This
early skill development of girls has been speculated to be the result of environmental influence or socialization
(Wrotniak, Epstein, Dorn, Jones, & Kondilis, 2006). Few children under age 3 years develop the capability to
continually hop on one leg in one continuous bout. Hopping is a skill that develops during and past the
kindergarten years (Haywood & Getchell, 2010).
Development of galloping, sliding, and skipping. Galloping, sliding, and skipping are asymmetric FMS,
which consist of combinations of stepping, hopping, or leaping (Payne & Issacs, 2008). The gallop is often the
first skill attempted. Aspects of the gallop emerge shortly after running at approximately 2 years of age, prior
to the development of hopping ability at age 3-4, and shortly followed by sliding. Mastery of the gallop, hop,
and slide, begins to develop in the dominant leg first, progressing into unilateral control (Haywood & Getchell,
2010). Skipping ability develops at approximately 4-7 years of age although challenges in the performance of
skipping are commonly seen throughout the kindergarten years (Haywood & Getchell, 2010).The late
development of skipping is most likely due to the required motor coordination and combination of a forward
step and a hop on the same foot, while alternating the lead foot (Haywood & Getchell, 2010; Payne & Issacs,
2008).
Development of object control skills.
Object control skills begin to develop early in infancy. With the ability to walk upright and independently,
manipulation skills begin to be refined as the hands become free to explore the surrounding environment. Early
on in FMS development the skills of manipulation or object control develop with improvements in both eye-
hand, and eye-foot coordination (Payne & Issacs, 2008). Fundamental manipulative or object control skills
include throwing, catching, striking, dribbling, and kicking. The following sections will describe the
development of object control motor skills measured in the TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000).
Development of throwing. Throwing, the most complex of the skills listed, can be accomplished underhand,
side arm, or overhand. Developmentally, the primary adaptations in ability involve a purposeful and
coordinated preparatory phase (Payne & Issacs, 2008). Initial attempts of throwing emerge between 1.5-3
years, with mature capabilities developing by 5.5-8.5 years (Haywood & Getchell, 2010). As a child
approaches a mature motor pattern, an improved coordination between the back swing, torso rotation, and a
progression from homo-lateral to an oppositional leg movement develops (Haywood & Getchell, 2010; Payne
& Issacs, 2008).
Development of catching. Early attempts of catching occur between the ages of 1.5-3.5, with improvements
occurring by 5 years of age, and advanced patterns developing between 5.5-7 years (Haywood & Getchell,
2010). The most notable progression of catching is the ability to anticipate the objects trajectory, while
maintaining control over the object as it enters the arms (Haywood & Getchell, 2010).
Development of striking and kicking. The skills of striking and kicking are fundamental movements which
involve the projection of an object such as a ball, with a part of the body or an external implement. The skill of
kicking utilizes the lower leg to propel an object. The skill of striking utilizes an external implement such as
baseball bat, or racquet to project another object. Striking capability usually begins between the ages of 2-3
years, improving between 3-7 years, and advanced mature patterns developing between 7-9 years.
The skill of kicking as measured by the TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2000) is a coordinated skill of striking a ball with
the foot and running. Kicking capabilities begin with initial attempts occurring between 1.5-4 years, and
advanced mature patterns developing by the age of 6.5-8.5 (Payne & Issacs, 2008). In the development of both
kicking and striking, initial attempts are marked with ineffective preparatory back swings, and an absence of
coordination between the upper and lower body (Haywood & Getchell, 2010).
Development of dribbling. Dribbling, in the most advanced form, is accomplished with the ball being pushed
with the hand, and the arm remaining out- stretched to meet and absorb the ball on the return bounce (Payne &
Issacs, 2008). During inexperienced early attempts, between 5-8 years, the child strikes or slaps the ball
instead of pushing the ball to the ground. The slapping pattern at the inexperienced level leads to an
uncontrollable flight pattern of the ball, and difficulties maintaining control (Payne & Issacs, 2008).

3-Year Old Children:

 Are still using right and left hands interchangeably because they have not yet determined
which hand is dominant.
 Are cooperative for teachers and caregivers, but challenging for parents. At times, it may seem
like nothing pleases a 3 year old!
 Are able to express fears. They may swing between different feelings, like shyness or
boldness.
 Might not need daytime naps anymore. But, they still wet the bed at night-time.

4-Year Old Children:

 Are very interested in their own world. They talk a lot and ask many ―why?‖ questions.
 Question about difficult subjects.
 Four year olds tend to be very persistent in their explorations and learning.
 They are fascinated with bowel movements and use bathroom language and humour, like
―poo-poo head‖.
 May swear and curse, but need to learn what the words mean and why not to use them.
 Begin to have favourite playmates and sometimes exclude certain children from their play
group.

5-Year Old Children:

 Begin to assert their autonomy. They may openly challenge parents or authority figures by
saying ―Make me!‖
 Can have defiant and aggressive behaviour, but still feel indecisive. An emotional outburst
may escalate beyond the child’s control.
 Are learning social graces and manners. But, they still talk with their mouth full of food, suck
their thumb, pick their nose or bite their nails.
34
 Have difficulty admitting that they have done anything wrong. They may take things that don’t
belong to the (Nancy, 2010).

2.2.1 Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive development (1952)

The most well-known and influential theory of cognitive development is that of Swiss

psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget's theory, first published in 1952, grew out of decades of

extensive observation of children, including his own, in their natural environments as opposed to the

laboratory experiments of the behaviorists. Piaget (1952) posits that all children begin life with roughly

the same skills and with built-in drives and strategies to adapt to their surroundings. He also postulates

that they encounter highly similar environments in many important respects; a social environment where

there is child care by adults, siblings and friends are usually present. Accordingly, since all children

confront similar environments with the same initial cognitive skills, their cognitive development should

move through similar stages.

Although Piaget was interested in how children reacted to their environment, he proposed a more

active role for them than that suggested by learning theory. He envisioned a child's knowledge as

composed of schemas, basic units of knowledge used to organize past experiences and serve as a basis for

understanding new ones. An intellectual advancement in the preschool years is the emergence of a theory

of the mind. Young children have been found to acquire early understandings about what the mind is and

how it works. They develop theories about emotions, motives and intentions, and knowing and

remembering. These early theories are formulated by children of all cultures, and even by some children

with challenging conditions.

Schemas are continually being modified by two complementary processes that Piaget termed

assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process of taking in new information by

incorporating it into an existing schema. In other words, people assimilate new experiences by relating

them to things they already know. On the other hand, accommodation is what happens when the schema

itself changes to accommodate new knowledge. According to Piaget, cognitive development involves an
ongoing attempt to achieve a balance between assimilation and accommodation that he termed

equilibration.

At the center of Piaget's theory is the principle that cognitive development occurs in four distinct,

universal stages, each characterized by increasingly sophisticated and abstract levels of thought. These

stages always occur in the same order, and each builds on what was learned in the previous stage. They

are as follows:

Sensorimotor stage (infancy). In this period, which has six sub-stages, intelligence is demonstrated

through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited, but developing,

because it is based on physical interactions and experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about

seven months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing

new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage. Pre-

operational stage (toddlerhood and early childhood): In this period, which has two sub stages, intelligence

is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are

developed, but thinking is done in a non-logical, non-reversible manner. Egocentric thinking

predominates.

Concrete operational stage (elementary and early adolescence): In this stage, characterized by

seven types of conservation (number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, and volume), intelligence is

demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.

Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Formal operational stage (adolescence

and adulthood): In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to

abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35 percent of high

school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally

during adulthood.

The most significant alternative to the work of Piaget has been the information-processing

approach, which uses the computer as a model to provide new insight into how the human mind receives,

stores, retrieves, and uses information. Researchers using information-processing theory to study
cognitive development in children have focused on areas such as the gradual improvements in children's

ability to take in information and focus selectively on certain parts of it and their increasing attention

spans and capacity for memory storage. For example, researchers have found that the superior memory

skills of older children are due in part to memorization strategies, such as repeating items in order to

memorize them or dividing them into categories.

Infancy

As soon as they are born, infants begin learning to use their senses to explore the world around

them. Most newborns can focus on and follow moving objects, distinguish the pitch and volume of sound,

see all colors and distinguish their hue and brightness, and start anticipating events, such as sucking at the

sight of a nipple. By three months old, infants can recognize faces; imitate the facial expressions of others,

such as smiling and frowning; and respond to familiar sounds.

At six months of age, babies are just beginning to understand how the world around them works.

They imitate sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice, recognize parents, fear strangers, distinguish between

animate and inanimate objects, and base distance on the size of an object. They also realize that if they

drop an object, they can pick it up again. At four to seven months, babies can recognize their names.

By nine months, infants can imitate gestures and actions, experiment with the physical properties

of objects, understand simple words such as "no," and understand that an object still exists even when they

cannot see it. They also begin to test parental responses to their behaviour, such as throwing food on the

floor. They remember the reaction and test the parents again to see if they get the same reaction.

At 12 months of age, babies can follow a fast moving object; can speak two to four words,

including "mama" and "papa"; imitate animal sounds; associate names with objects; develop attachments

to objects, such as a toy or blanket; and experience separation anxiety when away from their parents. By

18 months of age, babies are able to understand about 10–50 words; identify body parts; feel a sense of

ownership by using the word "my" with certain people or objects; and can follow directions that involve

two different tasks, such as picking up toys and putting them in a box.

Toddlerhood
 Between 18 months to three years of age, toddlers have reached the "sensorimotor" stage of

Piaget's theory of cognitive development that involves rudimentary thought. For instance, they understand

the permanence of objects and people, visually follow the displacement of objects, and begin to use

instruments and tools. Toddlers start to strive for more independence, which can present challenges to

parents concerned for their safety. They also understand discipline and what behaviour is appropriate and

inappropriate, and they understand the concepts of words like "please" and "thank you."

Two-year-olds should be able to understand 100 to 150 words and start adding about ten new

words per day. Toddlers also have a better understanding of emotions, such as love, trust, and fear. They

begin to understand some of the ordinary aspects of everyday life, such as shopping for food, telling time,

and being read to.

Preschool

Preschool ages three to six are at the "pre-operational" stage of Piaget's cognitive development

theory, meaning they are using their imagery and memory skills. They should be conditioned to learning

and memorizing, and their view of the world is normally very self-centered. Preschoolers usually have

also developed their social interaction skills, such as playing and cooperating with other children their

own age. It is normal for preschoolers to test the limits of their cognitive abilities, and they learn negative

concepts and actions, such as talking back to adults, lying, and bullying. Other cognitive development in

preschoolers are developing an increased attention span, learning to read, and developing structured

routines, such as doing household chores.

Piaget’s theory states that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go

through four stages of cognitive development. Santrock (2005) stated that Piaget believed that human

beings go through four stages in understanding the world. Each of these stages is age-related and consists

of distinct ways of thinking. Santrock (2005) narrated Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development as

follows; Sensorimotor Stage, 0-2 years of age, child learns through sensation and movement.

Pre-Operational Stage 2-7 years: Children begin to understand and master symbols (language) and draw

from past experiences to make assumptions about things and people in their world.
Concrete Operational Stage, 7-11 years: The child's ability to reason begins based on his/her own personal

experiences.

Formal Operational Stage, 11+ years: Children can speculate, understand abstract ideas, and develop

theories.

Other researchers have used adapted experimental methods to clarify what aspects of Theory of

the mind (TOM) younger children may have. For example, Joseph (1998), in a series of experiments that

probed 3- and 4-year-olds' understanding of involuntary behaviours and those performed intentionally

during pretend, concluded that 4-year-olds understood intention as a cause of action and that they did

represent pretend behaviours mentally, not merely as actions. He asserted that questions required more

sophisticated reasoning that resulted in an underestimation of children's TOM. Cassidy (1998) found that

more children are able to attribute a false belief to an agent when that belief is about something occurring

in pretend play but that a "reality bias" influences their ability to respond correctly in non-play situations.

Abu-Akel and Bailey (2001), in a TOM study comparing tasks using indexical language references (e.g.,

least abstract) to symbolic language references (e.g., requiring abstraction), found that a higher percentage

of 4-year-olds were successful in TOM tasks when indexical references were used.

In pretend play situations with parents, Kavanaugh, Eizenman, and Harris (1997) found that

children of 2½ show independent agency (making replica persons do pretend actions) and intersubjectivity

(having a shared understanding with another in a common activity). Sinclair (1996), using naturalistic

examples, asserted that young children's ability to use deception indicates that they have a theory of mind

at an earlier age than 4. In a longitudinal study, Jenkins and Astington (2000) observed children's joint

planning and role assignments during social pretence and found that their level of TOM predicted the

extensiveness of these abilities. They point out that a theory of mind is a gradual acquisition over the age

period from 2 to 6. Although children's development of mental representation is an important cognitive

achievement needed for academic skills such as reading comprehension and use of mathematical symbols,

longitudinal studies exploring relationships between children's pretence, theory of mind, and literacy,

mathematical, or other academic skills have not been reported. This body of theory and research has
raised many questions that need further exploration; it does suggest, however, that high-quality pretend

play is an important facilitator of perspective taking and later abstract thought

The relevance of this theory to this research is that the teacher must take cognizance of the past

teaching that early childhood level of education falls within the concrete operational stage, learning must

be concretize for learning to take place. Educational toys enhances the cognitive development skills of

preschool children so the teacher must ensure the availability and accessibility of these educational toys to

enhance cognitive development skills.