Comparison Between Bladeelement Models of Propellers PDF
Comparison Between Bladeelement Models of Propellers PDF
Comparison Between Bladeelement Models of Propellers PDF
ABSTRACT
Blade-element models are the most common models for the analysis lB co-ordinate along the blade cross-sectional quarter chord
of propeller aerodynamics, performance calculations and propeller points
design. In spite of their simplicity these models are very efficient L lift per unit length
and accurate. Blade-element models use the local induced velocities M Mach number
as an input thus they should be combined with another model in n propeller’s angular speed (revolutions per second)
order to calculate these induced velocities. Various models are used Nb number of blades
for the calculation of the induced velocity, where the most popular p pressure at the far wake
ones include: momentum, simplified-momentum, lifting-line p pressure jump across the actuator disk
(prescribed and free wake), and vortex (McCormick and p1, p2 pressure of the flow entering and exiting the actuator
Theodorsen) models. The paper describes the various models, disk, respectively
compares their results and discusses the advantages and disadvan- pa ambient pressure
tages of each one. The results indicate that the Blade- Pz wake helical pitch
element/simplified-momentum model offers very good accuracy dQ torque of disk annulus
together with high efficiency. For propeller performance calculations r radial co-ordinate at the disk plane
during steady axial flight, where most of the cross-sections do not r radial co-ordinate at the far wake
experience stall, detailed and complicated models for calculating the Re Reynolds number
induced velocities do not show advantages over the simple blade- dT thrust of disk annulus
element/simplified-momentum model, xB, yB, zB, blade’s cross-sectional co-ordinates
Va–BE, Vt–BE axial and circumferential incoming cross-sectional veloc-
ities, respectively
VBE resultant cross-sectional velocity
NOMENCLATURE VF vehicle’s flight velocity
c chord w displacement velocity
Cl, Cd 2D lift and drag coefficients wa, wt, wr axial, circumferential, and radial induced velocity
~ components, at the disk plane
Cl corrected two dimensional lift
CT, CP thrust and power coefficients, respectively wa, wt axial and circumferential induced velocity components in
D propeller diameter the far wake
D drag per unit length of the blade wa–BE, wt–BE axial and circumferential induced velocity components at
J advance ratio the cross-section
K Theodorsen’s circulation function wa–Wake axial induced velocity in the wake
Paper No. 3277. Manuscript received 17 January 2008, revised 5 August 2008, second revision 26 August 2008, accepted 11 September 2008.
690 THE AERONAUTICAL JOURNAL DECEMBER 2008
. . . (6)
. . . (7)
. . . (10) (a) The pressure in the far wake, p [r(r)], is approximately equal
to the ambient pressure, pa:
(c) Equilibrium of forces in the radial direction, in the far wake:
. . . (16)
. . . (11) (b) The circumferential induced velocity in the far wake is similar
to the circumferential induced velocity just after the flow
crosses the disk. This approximation leads to the following
(d) Combining Bernoulli equations for a streamline before it enters equation:
the disk and in the wake:
. . . (17)
. . . (12)
After introducing these assumptions into Equations (9)-(15), the
(e) Conservation of axial momentum: system of seven equations is reduced into a system of only two
equations, as follows:
. . . (18)
. . . (13)
. . . (19)
(f) Conservation of mass along the control volume:
The above approximations also lead to the following well known
relation:
. . . (14)
. . . (20)
(g) Conservation of angular momentum — the torque which is
applied on the flow through an annulus r, by the actuator disk, In many cases Equations (18)-(19) are referred to as ‘the momentum
is equal to the change in the angular momentum of the flow model’, in the present paper they will be denoted the simplified-
crossing that annulus: momentum model.
One of the assumptions behind an actuator disk model includes an
. . . (15) ‘averaging’ of the phenomenon at any point of the disk. This
GUR AND ROSEN COMPARISON BETWEEN BLADE-ELEMENT MODELS OF PROPELLERS 693
Figure 4. Comparison between the results of momentum models and test results of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller II of Ref. 22).
averaging is equivalent to ‘smearing’ the phenomenon, namely circumferential induced velocity equals wt. Thus the value of the
assuming that the disk consists of an infinite number of blades. To circumferential induced velocity which is seen by each blade-
correct for this assumption, Goldstein’s coefficient of interference element, wt–BE (Fig. 1), is somewhere between zero and wt.
velocity, (r), is used(21). (r) is a function of the number of blades, In most cases the average is used:
Nb, radial co-ordinate, r, and the local inflow angle, (r). It is defined
as the ratio between the cross-sectional circulation of a single blade . . . (24)
in the case of a finite number of blades, B(r), and the total circu-
lation at that radial co-ordinate, in the case of an infinite number of
blades, B(r): Another approach was suggested by McCormick(11) who introduced a
correction to the cross-sectional angle-of-attack, expressing the
circumferential induced velocity variation through the disk.
. . . (21) In Fig. 4 the results of the two above described models (general-
momentum and simplified-momentum) are compared with test
results of a two bladed propeller (propeller II of Ref. 22). This figure
This effect is introduced into the momentum model by multiplying shows the thrust and power coefficients, CT and CP, respectively, as
the various induced velocity components by (r). Thus the equations functions of the propeller advance ratio, J. These parameters are
of the simplified-momentum model, Equations (18-19), become: defined as follows:
. . . (22)
. . . (25)
. . . (23)
. . . (26)
In the same manner (r) is also introduced into the general-
momentum model — Equations (9)-(15).
The circumferential induced velocity before the fluid enters the . . . (27)
disk plane is equal to zero. After the flow exits the disk plane the
694 THE AERONAUTICAL JOURNAL DECEMBER 2008
Figure 5. Comparison between the results of momentum models and test results of a
propeller having two swept blades, in axial flight (Propeller I of Ref. 22).
Figure 7. Comparison between the results of lifting-line models and test results of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller III of Ref. 22).
The lifting-line model was extended by Betz(25) for rotary wings Instead of finding the free wake geometry as discussed above, it is
(Fig. 6). By using a lifting-line model Betz defined the conditions for possible to adopt simplifying assumptions that define the entire wake
a maximum efficiency propeller. He used a variational approach and geometry based on certain parameters. These models are known as
after adopting a few assumptions he showed that the vortex sheets in prescribed wake models. In the case of propellers it is common to
the wake of an optimal propeller move axially backwards as rigid assume that each vortex filament in the wake has a helical geometry
screw surfaces. This result was later used by others, like Goldstein(26) with a constant radius and pitch. The radius is equal to the radial
who obtained an expression for the velocity induced by such a wake location of the origin of the trailing vortex filament at the disk plane.
in the case of lightly loaded propellers, or Theodorsen(10) who Regarding the pitch, pZ(r) , two common approaches are used:
extended Goldstein’s work to include the case of heavily loaded
propellers. (a) The induced velocity is neglected compared to the flight
The magnitude of the bound circulation, B, is a function of the velocity, VF, and the tangential blades’ velocity, .r . Thus the
radial co-ordinate r. The circulation magnitude of the trailing vortex wake’s pitch becomes:
filaments per unit spanwise length, T, is calculated based on the law
of conservation of circulation: . . . (29)
Figure 8. Comparison between the results of lifting-line models and test results
of a propeller having two swept blades, in axial flight (Propeller I of Ref. 22).
while using these two values are very small. (a) A prescribed wake model
Since the induced velocity (including its axial component) is a (b) A semi-prescribed wake model
function of the wake geometry, an iterative solution procedure (c) A free wake model
is required. Thus this method is denoted a semi-prescribed
wake model.
The differences between the three lifting-line models are negligible
and the agreement with the experimental results is good in general,
It is clear that the prescribed wake model is simpler and more except for swept blades at high pitch angles (possible reasons for
efficient than the semi-prescribed wake model. This model can that are discussed in Section 6).
become even more efficient by using semi-analytical methods to For lifting-line models, as in the two versions of the momentum
calculate the velocities induced by helical vortex filaments(28). model (general and simplified), the small differences between the
Nevertheless, in certain cases it is necessary to use free wake or the various lifting-line models do not justify the use of the more
semi-prescribed wake models in order to obtain good results. For complex ones, namely the free or semi-prescribed wake models, for
example, during static operation of propellers or for hovering rotors, the analysis of propellers at typical operating conditions.
a free wake model should be used since the free stream velocity is
equal to zero. However investigation of the static thrust case was
beyond the scope of the present work.
After the wake geometry has been defined by using one of the 5.0 VORTEX MODELS
above described models, it is necessary to combine the lifting-line Vortex models represent another method of calculating the induced
with the blade-element model. The induced velocity along the bound velocities along the blades. Here Theodorsen’s(10) and
vortex is calculated by using the Biot-Savart law. In certain cases McCormick’s(11) models will be discussed. These two models are
more complex models, rather than the simple Biot-Savart, are used, similar and are based on the same assumptions. Originally they were
including modeling of the vortex core(29). The induced velocities that developed for straight blades in axial flight, but they can be extended
are calculated using these methods, are projected onto the blade- to include moderately swept blades(19).
element cross-section. According to Betz the vortex sheets in the wake of an optimal
Figures 7 and 8 present comparisons between the results of lifting- propeller move axially backward as rigid screw surfaces. In this
line models and test results of a propeller with straight blades case(10,11,21,30) the resultant velocity of the vortex sheets is normal to
(propeller III of Ref. 22) and a propeller with swept blades (propeller the vortex surfaces, namely the resultant induced velocity in the far
I of Ref. 22). Results of three lifting-line models are shown: wake is normal to the resultant velocity there. Theodorsen(10) and
GUR AND ROSEN COMPARISON BETWEEN BLADE-ELEMENT MODELS OF PROPELLERS 697
. . . (35)
. . . (37)
later McCormick(11) went further and assumed that at the disk plane
the cross-sectional resultant induced velocity is also perpendicular to
the resultant velocity (Fig. 9) . . . (38)
It is now convenient to define the displacement velocity in the far
wake, w, It was shown previously, based on the momentum model
and certain assumptions, that the magnitude of the induced velocity
in the disk plane is half its magnitude in the far wake — Equations 5.2 McCormick’s model
(20) and (24). Therefore at the disk plane the magnitude of the
displacement velocity is assumed to be half its value in the far wake. McCormick’s model is similar to Theodorsen’s model and includes
Knowing the displacement velocity (and from it the inflow angle, ) the following expression for the circumferential induced velocity,
allows the calculation of the axial and circumferential components of wt–BE (r)(11):
the induced velocity.
. . . (39)
5.1 Theodorsen’s model
Theodorsen’s model is based on the earlier work of Goldstein(26). The By using Fig. 9 the following geometrical relation for the axial
main results of Theodorsen appear in the following expression for induced velocity is obtained:
the displacement velocity, w .
. . . (40)
. . . (31)
It is possible to obtain the aerodynamic loads along the blade by
(r) is the local solidity: using Equations (39) and (40), together with the blade-element
model.
. . . (32)
6.0 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE
Equation (31) presents a relation between the blade aerodynamic DIFFERENT MODELS
loading (the distribution of the lift coefficient) that is obtained from
the blade-element model, and the displacement velocity. The origin In the previous sections a few of the common blade-element based
of this expression is the Kutta-Joukowski theorem that relates models of propellers were described: momentum models, lifting-line
between the magnitude of the local circulation and the local lift models, and vortex models. As for the momentum and lifting-line
force. models, their main versions were presented and the results showed
K is Theodorsen’s circulation function which is a function of: the that for propellers in axial flight the differences between the various
number of blades, Nb, radial location of the blade-element, r/R, and versions are negligible. Thus the simplified-momentum model and
the advance ratio in the far wake, (the tangent of the pitch angle in lifting-line with prescribed wake, which are simpler and require
the far wake). smaller computer resources, will be considered in what follows.
is calculated by using the wake contraction coefficient, Y: Figures 10-12 present comparisons between the four models and
test results(22,32) of three propellers with straight blades in axial flight.
Figure 13 presents the efficiency, , of the propeller presented in
. . . (33) Fig. 12. Figure 14 shows a similar comparison for the propeller with
swept blades(22). It should be noted that the propeller of Ref. 32
Tabulated values for Y are given in the literature(31). reaches higher advance ratios and thus it increases the range of
There is a relation between K and Goldstein’s coefficient of inter- comparisons.
ference velocity, , which is given by the following equation(21): In all the cases the results of McCormick’s model give the lowest
values. Theodorsen's model over predicts the values, in comparison
with the test results, and agrees with the much more complicated
. . . (34) lifting-line model. The momentum model lies in between these models.
As the pitch angle increases, the differences between the results of
For lightly loaded propellers the pitch angle is constant along the the various models increase. This is due to the increase of the thrust
698 THE AERONAUTICAL JOURNAL DECEMBER 2008
Figure 10. Comparison between the various models and test results of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller II of Ref. 22).
Figure 11. Comparison between the various models and test results of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller III of Ref. 22).
GUR AND ROSEN COMPARISON BETWEEN BLADE-ELEMENT MODELS OF PROPELLERS 699
Figure 12. Comparison between the various models and test results of a four bladed propeller in axial flight (Ref. 32).
and power that result in an increase of the induced velocities and (c) normalised axial induced velocity, wa / R
consequently an increase of their influence on the results. In a
(d) normalised circumferential induced velocity, wt / R
similar manner, at low flight velocities the thrust and power increase
and again the induced velocities become more important. Thus, as (e) angle-of-attack,
the advance ratio decreases the differences between the results of
various models increase. As expected, at advance ratio J = 1.2 the thrust and power coeffi-
Propeller’s efficiency is defined as follows: cients are higher than at J = 1.7. The differences between the
maximal values of the thrust and power distributions in Figs 15 and
. . . (41) 16 agree with the differences between the total thrust and power
coefficient as presented in the previous comparisons: Theodorsen’s
and the lifting-line models give the higher values, McCormick’s
According to Fig. 13 McCormick’s model under predicts the test
model gives lower values, while the simplified momentum model
results, the lifting-line and Theodorsen’s models over predicts them,
lies in between. All the distributions exhibit the same behaviour
while the momentum model falls in between.
For swept blades (Fig. 14), as the pitch angle and advance ratio In contrary to the results presented in Figs 15 and 16
increase, most of the models over predict the test results. The elastic (Theodorsen’s and lifting-line models give similar results, while
torsion of the swept blades, as a result of the increased torsional McCormick’s results are significantly different, and the momentum
moment due to sweep, result in a smaller effective pitch angle in the results are in between), in Fig. 17 except for the results of
test, which may be the reason, at least partially, for the over McCormick’s model, all the other models give very close results.
prediction of the theoretical results. The only model that exhibits a The circumferential induced velocity, which is presented in Fig. 18,
fair agreement with the test results, at high advance ratios, is shows different trends: while the results of Theodorsen’s and lifting-
McCormick’s model that exhibits under prediction in the case of line models are similar, McCormick's model give much higher
straight blades. values while those of the momentum model are even higher.
A more detailed comparison between the different models is The angle-of-attack is shown in Fig. 19. The trends here agree
presented in Figs 15-19. For propeller II of Ref. 22, at two different very nicely with the trends in Figs 15 and 16. Thus the results for
advance ratios (J = 1.2 and J = 1.7), the distributions along the blade Figs 15-19 indicate that, in contrast to other rotary wings (for
of the following parameters are presented: example helicopter rotors), the influence of the circumferential
induced velocity on the blade-element calculations is not negligible
(a) thrust coefficient, dCT/d(r/R) and it cannot be neglected compared to the circumferential velocity
(b) power coefficient, dCp/d(r/R) due to rotation, .r.
700 THE AERONAUTICAL JOURNAL DECEMBER 2008
Figure 13. Comparison between the various models and test results of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Ref. 32).
Figure 14. Comparison between the various models and test results of a
propeller having two swept blades, in axial flight (Propeller I of Ref. 22).
7.0 CONCLUSIONS For forward flight of propellers, the differences between the results of
these two models are negligible. Three lifting-line models that differ in
A few of the most common blade-element based models were investi- their wake geometry modeling were investigated: prescribed, semi-
gated: momentum models, lifting-line models, and vortex models prescribed, and free wake models. Similar to the to momentum models,
(McCormick and Theodorsen). In the case of momentum models, the the differences between the results of these three models are negligible
general-momentum and simplified-momentum models were discussed. for the case of a propeller in forward flight.
GUR AND ROSEN COMPARISON BETWEEN BLADE-ELEMENT MODELS OF PROPELLERS 701
Figure 15. Comparison between the various models of the thrust coefficient distribution of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller II of Ref. 22).
Figure 16. Comparison between the various models of the power coefficient distribution of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller II of Ref. 22).
702 THE AERONAUTICAL JOURNAL DECEMBER 2008
Figure 17. Comparison between the various models of the axial induced velocity
distribution of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller II of Ref. 22).
Figure 18. Comparison between the various models of the circumferential induced
velocity distribution of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller II of Ref. 22).
GUR AND ROSEN COMPARISON BETWEEN BLADE-ELEMENT MODELS OF PROPELLERS 703
Figure 19. Comparison between the various models of the angle of attack distribution of a two bladed propeller in axial flight (Propeller II of Ref. 22).
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