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Clin Liver Dis. 2014 May ; 18(2): 281–291. doi:10.1016/j.cld.2013.12.001.

Pathophysiology of Portal Hypertension

Yasuko Iwakiri, Ph.D.
Section of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of
Medicine, New Haven, CT

Abstract
Portal hypertension is a major complication of liver disease, which results from a variety of
pathological conditions that increase the resistance to the portal blood flow into the liver. The
primary cause of portal hypertension in cirrhosis is an increase in intrahepatic vascular resistance
due to massive structural changes associated with fibrosis and increased vascular tone in the
hepatic microcirculation. As portal hypertension develops, the formation of collateral vessels and
arterial vasodilation progress, which results in increased blood flow to the portal circulation.
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Eventually the hyperdynamic circulatory syndrome develops, leading to esophageal varices or

ascites. This review article will summarize the factors that increase 1) intrahepatic vascular
resistance and 2) the blood flow in the splanchnic and systemic circulations in liver cirrhosis.
Finally, the future directions of basic/clinical research in portal hypertension will be discussed.

Keywords
Hyperdynamic circulation; fibrosis; cirrhosis; nitric oxide; lymphatic system; splenomegaly

Introduction
Portal hypertension is a detrimental complication resulting from obstruction of portal blood
flow, such as cirrhosis or portal vein thrombosis. 1, 2 In liver cirrhosis, increased intrahepatic
vascular resistance to the portal flow elevates portal pressure and leads to portal
hypertension (Figure 1). Once portal hypertension develops, it influences extrahepatic
vascular beds in the splanchnic and systemic circulations, causing collateral vessel
formation and arterial vasodilation. This helps to increase the blood flow into the portal
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vein, which exacerbates portal hypertension and eventually brings the hyperdynamic
circulatory syndrome. 1, 2 Consequently, esophageal varices or ascites develops. This review
article will discuss recent advances in understanding of factors that contribute to: 1) an
increase in intrahepatic vascular resistance and 2) an increase in blood flow in the
splanchnic and systemic circulations, and 3) the future directions of basic/clinical research in
portal hypertension.

© 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1080 LMP, 333 Cedar Street, Section of Digestive Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 U.S.A.
Phone #: 203-785-6204 Fax #: 203-785-7273 [email protected].
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 Iwakiri Page 2

I. Intrahepatic circulation
An overview—The primary cause of portal hypertension in cirrhosis is an increase in
intrahepatic vascular resistance. In cirrhosis, increased intrahepatic vascular resistance is a
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result of massive structural changes associated with fibrosis/cirrhosis and intrahepatic

vasoconstriction2-4. It is reported that intrahepatic vasoconstriction accounts for at least 25%
of increased intrahepatic vascular resistance. 5 Phenotypic changes in hepatic cells, such as
hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), are known to
play pivotal roles in increased intrahepatic vascular resistance and have been studied
intensively. This section summarizes important factors that increase intrahepatic vascular
resistance in liver fibrosis/cirrhosis.

1. Endothelial cell dysfunction—LSECs are the first line of defense protecting the liver
from injury2, and the cells exert diverse effects on liver functions including blood clearance,
vascular tone, immunity, hepatocyte growth6, and angiogenesis/sinusoidal remodeling.7, 8
Therefore, LSEC dysfunction could lead to impaired vasomotor control (primarily
vasoconstrictive), inflammation, fibrosis, and impaired liver regeneration1, 9, all of which
facilitate the development of liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension.

Decreased vasodilators: Nitric oxide (NO) is likely the most potent vasodilator molecule
known today. In cirrhotic livers, NO production/bioavailability is significantly diminished,
which contributes to increased intrahepatic vascular resistance.2, 9-12 At least two
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mechanisms explain the decreased NO production. First, the NO synthesizing enzyme

endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) is inhibited by negative regulators (such as caveolin-1),
which are up-regulated during cirrhosis; as a result, NO production decreases.11 Details
regarding eNOS regulation in liver cirrhosis can be found elsewhere.2, 12 Second, oxidative
stress is increased in cirrhosis. LSECs receive oxidative stress in response to a wide variety
of agents, such as bacterial endotoxins, viruses, drugs, and ethanol.13-15 During cirrhosis,
increased superoxide radicals spontaneously react with NO to form peroxynitrite (ONOO-),
an endogenous toxicant16, thereby decreasing NOs bioavailability as a vasodilator.13
Antioxidant molecules such as vitamin C14, vitamin E17, superoxide dismutase (SOD)15, 18,
and N-acetylcysteine19, have been shown to ameliorate intrahepatic vascular resistance and
portal hypertension.

Increased vasoconstrictors: In cirrhosis, not only are vasodilators decreased, but

vasoconstrictors, such as thromboxane A2 (TXA2), are also increased. TXA2 is produced by
the action of COX-1 in LSECs.20 The activity of COX-1 increases in cirrhotic livers, which
results in greater quantities of TXA2 and thereby increased intrahepatic vascular resistance.
Inhibition of TXA2 by the prostaglandin H2/TXA2 receptor blocker, SQ-29548, or blocking
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COX-1 activity by the COX-1 inhibitor, SC-560, attenuates the increased intrahepatic
vascular resistance.20, 21 ET-1 is another important vasoconstrictor when it binds to
receptors on HSCs.22-24

2. Activated hepatic stellate cells—HSCs are perisinusoidal and pericyte-like cells,

and reside in the space between LSECs and hepatocytes. In response to liver injury, HSCs
are activated and transformed into myofibroblasts, which start to express several pro-
inflammatory and fibrotic genes. Importantly, HSCs become contractile in an activated
state. 22, 25-27 Increased recruitment of these activated HSCs around newly formed
sinusoidal vessels increases intrahepatic vascular resistance in cirrhosis (Figure 2). 8, 28, 29
Therefore, activated HSCs play a crucial role in the development of portal hypertension due
to their contractile phenotype.

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Furthermore, activated HSCs display a decreased response to vasodilators, such as NO.30 In

addition, ET-1,which is increased in cirrhosis, enhances the contractions of HSCs.25-27
Increased ET-1 production and decreased NO production in cirrhotic livers, therefore,
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augment intrahepatic resistance to the portal blood flow through activated HSCs, which
facilitates the development of portal hypertension. However, the manipulation of ET
receptors with ET receptor antagonists is complex due to their differential vasoactive effects
based on their cellular locations.

3. Angiogenesis in the liver—In portal hypertension, angiogenesis plays a crucial role

in intrahepatic circulation. An increased number of vessels in the fibrotic septa and the
surrounding regenerative nodules has been observed in cirrhotic livers.31 Activated HSCs
and/or other myofibroblasts such as portal myofibroblasts are thought to promote
angiogenesis in liver cirrhosis. In fact, activated HSCs activate LSECs by releasing
angiogenic factors, such as angiopoietin8, 32, 33 and vascular endothelial growth factor
(VEGF).34

Irregular flow patterns, which are generated as a result of splitting (or intussusceptive)
angiogenesis, may contribute to an increase in intrahepatic vascular resistance. In splitting
angiogenesis, the two opposing walls of a capillary stretch and connect to each other,
forming an intraluminal pillar. The junctions of the opposing endothelial cells are
restructured, and the growth of the pillar is promoted. Finally, the capillary splits into two
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new vessels.35 It has been reported that conditional Notch 1 knockout mice develop splitting
angiogenesis, nodular regenerative hyperplasia, and portal hypertension. LSECs from these
knockout mice exhibit reduced endothelial fenestrae. These observations indicate that Notch
1 is necessary for LSEC fenestration, and that the absence of Notch 1 leads to pathological
angiogenesis, the development of nodular regenerative hyperplasia, and portal
hypertension.36

II. Extrahepatic circulation

An overview
Once portal hypertension develops, porto-systemic collateral vessels form. Blood from the
digestive organs diverts into these collateral vessels, but portal blood flowing from the
splanchnic circulation increases to compensate for the blood escaping into the collateral
vessels. Increased portal blood flow exacerbates portal hypertension. Furthermore, arterial
vasodilation in the splanchnic and systemic circulations observed in cirrhosis helps to
increase the blood flow to the portal vein. Therefore, reducing the collateral vessel formation
alone would not ameliorate portal hypertension. Inhibiting arterial vasodilation in the
splanchnic circulation to reduce blood flow to portal vein together is important in the
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treatment of portal hypertension.2 This section discusses the mechanisms of collateral vessel
formation and arterial vasodilation in the splanchnic and systemic circulations in cirrhosis
with portal hypertension.

1. Collateral vessel formation

Porto-systemic collateral vessels develop in response to an increase in portal pressure. These
collateral vessels form through the opening of pre-existing vessels or angiogenesis37, 38, and
are known to cause serious complications, including variceal bleeding and hepatic
encephalopathy.2, 39, 40 A change in portal pressure is thought to be detected first by the
intestinal microcircular vascular bed, followed by arteries of the splanchnic circulation.41
Subsequently, these vascular beds generate various angiogenic factors, such as VEGF42-44
and placental growth factor (PlGF)45, which promote the formation of porto-systemic
collaterals.

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Studies in experimental models of portal hypertension and cirrhosis have shown that porto-
systemic collaterals are reduced by 18 to 78% with treatment by anti-VEGFR246, a
combination of anti-VEGF (rapamycin)/anti-PDGF (Gleevec)47, anti-PlGF45, apelin
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antagonist48, sorafenib49, 50, and a cannabinoid receptor 2 agonist.51 However, the reduction
of these collaterals does not necessarily decrease portal pressure because it does not
substantially change the blood flow to the portal vein. Therefore, the concomitant mitigation
of arterial vasodilation is also needed to reduce portal pressure.

2. Arterial vasodilation in the splanchnic and systemic circulations

Vasodilation—NO is the most important vasodilator molecule that contributes to
excessive vasodilation observed in the arterial splanchnic and systemic circulations in portal
hypertension. Experimental models of portal hypertension with or without cirrhosis have
shown that other vasodilator molecules, such as carbon monoxide (CO), prostacyclin (PGIs),
endocannabinoids, and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) are also
induced.2, 9, 12 The identity of EDHF is currently unknown, and the candidates include
arachidonic acid metabolites [epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET)], potassium ions (K+),
components of gap junctions, or hydrogen peroxide.2

An increase in portal pressure triggers eNOS activation and subsequent NO overproduction.

Changes in portal pressure are detected at different vascular beds depending on the severity
of portal hypertension.41 A small increase in portal pressure is sensed first by the intestinal
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microcirculation and increases VEGF production with a subsequent increase in eNOS levels
in the intestinal microcirculation. When portal pressure further increases and reaches a
certain level, vasodilation develops in the arterial splanchnic circulation (i.e., the mesenteric
arteries). It is postulated that mechanical forces including cyclic strains and shear stress,
which are caused by an increased blood flow associated with an increased portal pressure,
activate eNOS and lead to NO production.41, 46, 52-54 Subsequently, vasodilation develops in
the arterial systemic circulation (i.e., the aorta).

Hypocontractility—Hypocontractility, decreased contractility to vasoconstrictors, is a

characteristic of the arterial splanchnic and systemic circulations in portal hypertension. This
phenomenon occurs largely due to the presence of excessive vasodilator molecules (i.e.,
NO) and the resulting excessive arterial vasodilation, but is to some degree attributable to
various molecules produced in smooth muscle cells and neurons. Those molecules include
endocannabinoids (vasodilators)55, 56, neuropeptide Y57, urotensin II58, 59, angiotensin60,
and bradykinin61, 62 (all vasoconstrictors), with the vasodilators increased and the
vasoconstrictors decreased.
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Neural factors—Neural factors are postulated to be involved in the development of the

hyperdynamic circulatory syndrome, especially through the sympathetic system.57, 63, 64 It is
reported that sympathetic nerve atrophy/regression observed in the mesenteric arteries of
portal hypertensive rats contributes to vasodilation and/or hypocontractility of those
arteries.65, 66 The role of neural factors in decreased contractile responses has not yet been
fully understood and is an important area to be explored.

Structural changes of arteries—The thinning of arterial walls is observed in the

splanchnic and systemic circulations of rats with cirrhotic livers.67, 68 While this arterial
thinning results from hemodynamic changes caused by portal hypertension, it may also
sustain arterial vasodilation and worsen portal hypertension.2, 24 While NO plays a role at
least in part, the molecular mechanisms responsible for arterial thinning remain to be fully
elucidated.

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III. Future directions

An overview
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Four important areas in the study of portal hypertension that have not been sufficiently
explored are specified.

1. Microflora/bacterial translocation
In recent years, an accumulating body of evidence suggests the importance of gut microflora
and bacterial translocation for the pathogenesis of a variety of diseases. Due to the
anatomically-close location and the connection through the vascular system, the liver is
continuously exposed to microbial products from the gut.69 It has been known that bacterial
translation is closely related to the development of ascites.70 In addition, small changes in
portal pressure are first sensed in the intestinal microcirculation. Increased portal pressure
caused by portal hypertension may influence the gut–liver axis, further advance the
pathology of liver fibrosis/cirrhosis, and exacerbate portal hypertension itself. Therefore, gut
microflora may have an important role in a pathological loop that develops and maintains
portal hypertension. Additionally, microflora may influence cytokine/chemokine production
in the liver, which may also exacerbate portal hypertension.

2. Stem cell therapy

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Stem cell therapy has received considerable attention as an alternative to liver

transplantation. Indeed, studies have shown that stem cell transplantation improved liver
functions in cirrhotic patients71, 72 as well as experimental models of liver cirrhosis.73, 74
While stem cell therapy has shown promising effects on the amelioration of liver fibrosis
and portal hypertension, more studies are still needed.

3. The lymphatic system

The lymphatic system plays a central role in ascites and edema formation.75 Further, an
association between lymphangiogenesis and portal hypertension has been reported.76
However, the detailed role and mechanisms of the lymphatic system in liver cirrhosis and
portal hypertension are largely unknown, and these are important areas to be explored.77, 78

4. Splenomegaly
Spleen stiffness has recently received considerable attention as an indicator of portal
hypertension79 because it can be examined by non-invasive imaging systems such as
transient elastrography80 and acoustic radiation force impulse imaging.79, 81 Some studies
also suggest that spleen stiffness could predict the presence of varices79-81 or ascites.82 An
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experimental model of cirrhosis with portal hypertension has demonstrated that portal
pressure positively correlated with the spleen size.42

In addition, a study using rats with partial portal vein ligation (PVL) showed that fibrosis
and angiogenesis in the spleen was accompanied with splenomegaly induced by PVL, and
that administration of rapamycin, an immunosuppressive agent, reduced splenomegaly as
well as fibrosis and angiogenesis in the spleen.83 Currently, the detailed mechanisms of how
portal pressure induces splenomegaly remain to be fully elucidated.

Summary/Conclusion
With our knowledge of vascular biology, our understanding of the pathogenesis of portal
hypertension has significantly advanced, revealing how vascular abnormalities both inside
and outside the liver contribute to portal hypertension.84 To ameliorate portal hypertension,

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first and foremost, a decrease in intrahepatic vascular resistance in cirrhotic liver is needed.
Therefore, an increased production of vasodilator molecules in LSECs and a decrease in
HSC contraction are important. For example, induction of apoptosis of enhanced activated
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HSCs85, 86, thereby decreasing contractile HSCs, could be a useful therapeutic strategy to
decrease portal pressure.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grant R01DK082600 from the National Institutes of Health.

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Key Points
• The primary cause of portal hypertension in liver cirrhosis is increased
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intrahepatic vascular resistance.

• A reduction of intrahepatic vascular resistance could ameliorate portal
hypertension.
• Arterial vasodilation in the splanchnic and systemic circulations worsens portal
hypertension.
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Figure 1.
Portal hypertension leads to the development of the hyperdynamic circulatory syndrome,
characterized by decreased mean arterial pressure (MAP), decreased systemic vascular
resistance (SVR) and increased cardiac index (CI).
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Figure 2. Activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in liver cirrhosis increase intrahepatic vascular
resistance
Quiescent HSCs are vitamin A storage cells and found in normal livers. In response to
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fibrogenic stimuli, such as transforming growth factor beta, HSCs are activated to become
myofibroblasts, which exhibit a contractile and fibrogenic (collagen-producing) phenotype.
These activated HSCs, located underneath liver sinusoidal endothelial cells, exert a
contractile effect on the hepatic microcirculation, resulting in an increase in intrahepatic
resistance.
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