CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. COMPOSITE MATERIALS

A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials that

results in better properties than those of individual components used alone. In contrast to
metallic alloys, each material retains separate chemical, physical and mechanical properties.
The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and stiffness, combined
with low density, when compared with bulk materials, allowing for a weight reduction in the
finished part. The two constituents are reinforcement and a matrix. The reinforcing phase
provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases, the reinforcement is harder, stronger and
stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement is usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate
composites have dimensions that are approximately equal in all directions. They may be
spherical, platelets, or any other regular or irregular geometry. Particulate composites tend to
be much weaker and less stiff than continuous fiber composites, but they are usually much
less expensive. Particulate reinforced composites usually contain less reinforcement (up to 40
to 50 volume percent) due to processing difficulties and brittleness.

The length-to-diameter (l/d) ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly. The
continuous phase is the matrix, which is a polymer, metal, or ceramic. Polymers have low
strength and stiffness, metals have intermediate strength and stiffness but high ductility, and
ceramics have high strength and stiffness but are brittle. The matrix (continuous phase)
performs several critical functions, including maintaining the fibers in the proper orientation
and spacing and protecting them from abrasion and the environment. In polymer and metal
matrix composites that form a strong bond between the fiber and the matrix, the matrix
transmits loads from the matrix to the fibers through shear loading at the interface. In ceramic
matrix composites, the objective is often to increase the toughness rather than the strength and
stiffness; therefore, a low interfacial strength bond is desirable.

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1.1.1. TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATRIX MATERIALS
There are three main types of composite matrix materials ceramic, metal and polymer
matrix

 Ceramic matrix: Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite

materials. They consist of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a
ceramic fiber reinforced ceramic (CFRC) material. The matrix and fibers can consist of any
ceramic material. CMC materials were designed to overcome the major disadvantages such as
low fracture toughness, brittleness, and limited thermal shock resistance faced by the
traditional technical ceramics.
 Metal Matrix: Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials that contain at
least two constituent parts – a metal and another material or a different metal. The metal
matrix is reinforced with the other material to improve strength and wear. Where three or
more constituent parts are present, it is called a hybrid composite. In structural applications,
the matrix is usually composed of a lighter metal such as magnesium, titanium, or aluminum.
In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common. Typical
MMC's manufacturing is basically divided into three types: solid, liquid, and vapor.
Continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibers are some of the materials that can be
embedded in a metallic matrix material. MMCs are fire resistant, operate in a wide range of
temperatures, do not absorb moisture, and possess better electrical and thermal conductivity.
They have also found applications to be resistant to radiation damage, and to not suffer from
out gassing.
 Polymer Matrix: Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) can be divided into three sub-
types, namely, thermoset, thermoplastic, and rubber. Polymer is a large molecule composed of
repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. PMC's consist of a polymer
matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase. They are cheaper with easier
fabrication methods. PMCs are less dense than metals or ceramics, can resist atmospheric and
other forms of corrosion, and exhibit superior resistance to the conduction of electrical
current.

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 1.1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMPOSITES

Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases embedded in a continuous

phase. The discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the continuous phase and
is called the ‘reinforcement’ or ‘reinforcing material’, whereas the continuous phase is termed
as the ‘matrix’. Properties of composites are strongly dependent on the properties of their
constituent materials, their distribution and the interaction among them. The composite
properties may be the volume fraction sum of the properties of the constituents or the
constituents may interact in a synergistic way resulting in improved or better properties. Apart
from the nature of the constituent materials, the geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size
and size distribution) influences the properties of the composite to a great extent. The
concentration distribution and orientation of the reinforcement also affect the properties.

The shape of the discontinuous phase (which may by spherical, cylindrical, or rectangular
cross-sanctioned prisms or platelets), the size and size distribution (which controls the texture
of the material) and volume fraction determine the interfacial area, which plays an important
role in determining the extent of the interaction between the reinforcement and the matrix.

Concentration, usually measured as volume or weight fraction, determines the

contribution of a single constituent to the overall properties of the composites. It is not only
the single most important parameter influencing the properties of the composites, but also an
easily controllable manufacturing variable used to alter its properties. The orientation of the
reinforcement affects the isotropy of the system.

1.2. METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials that contain at least two
constituent parts, a metal and another material or a different metal. The metal matrix is
reinforced with the other material to improve strength and wear

Metal matrix composites possess some attractive properties, when compared with organic
matrices. These include (i) strength retention at higher temperatures, (ii) higher transverse
strength, (iii) better electrical conductivity, (iv) superior thermal conductivity, (v) higher
erosion resistance etc. The main advantage of metal matrix composite are they have Low

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 transverse strength, Good corrosion resistance, Low operational temperature limits, Low
thermal conductivities, Low electrical conductivities.

Good elastic modulus properties can be achieved by the unidirectional incorporation of

fibers or whiskers in the metal matrix even though the bonding between them may be poor.
But, strong metallic matrices rather than weak metal or polymer matrices are essential for
good transverse modulus and shear strength. Carbon/graphite fibers have been used with
metal matrices on a laboratory / experimental scale only, because most basic fabrication
techniques involve high temperatures which have detrimental effects on the fiber. However,
research on these lines is continuing in view of the potential of the composites.

1.2.1 TYPES OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

a) Aluminum Matrix Composites

b) Magnesium Matrix Composite
c) Titanium Matrix Composite
d) Copper Matrix Composites
a) Aluminum Matrix Composites

This is the widest group of Metal Matrix Composites. Matrices of Aluminum Matrix
Composites are usually based on aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys and on the alloys of 2xxx
and 6xxx series.

Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) are reinforced by:

 Alumina (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC) particles (particulate Composites) in

amounts 15-70 vol%;
 Continuous fibers of alumina, silicon carbide, Graphite (long-fiber reinforced
composites)
 Discontinuous fibers of alumina (short-fiber reinforced composites)

Aluminum Matrix Composites are manufactured by the following fabrication methods:

 Powder metallurgy(sintering)
 Stir casting
 Infiltration

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The following properties are typical for Aluminum Matrix Composites:

 High strength even at elevated temperatures

 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity)
 Low density
 High thermal conductivity
 Excellent abrasion resistance.

Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) are used for manufacturing automotive parts (pistons,
pushrods, brake components), brake rotors for high speed trains, bicycles, golf clubs,
electronic substrates, cores for high voltage electrical cables.

b) Magnesium Matrix Composite

Magnesium Matrix Composites are reinforced mainly by silicon carbide (SiC) particles
(particulate composites)

The following properties are typical for Magnesium Matrix Composites:

 Low density
 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity)
 High wear resistance
 Good strength even at elevated temperatures
 Good creep resistance

Magnesium Matrix Composites are used for manufacturing components for racing cars,
lightweight automotive brake system, aircraft parts for: gearboxes, transmissions,
compressors and engine.

c) Titanium Matrix Composite

Titanium Matrix Composites are reinforced mainly by: Continuous monofilament silicon
carbide fiber (long-fiber reinforced composites); Titanium boride (TiB2) and titanium carbide
(TiC) particles (particulate composites). Powder metallurgy (sintering)is used for fabrication
of Titanium Matrix Composites.

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 The following properties are typical for Titanium Matrix Composites:

 High strength
 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity)
 High creep resistance
 High thermal stability
 High wear resistance

Titanium Matrix Composites are used for manufacturing structural components of the
jet’s landing gear, turbine engine components (fan blades, actuator pistons, synchronization
rings, connecting links, shafts, discs), automotive engine components, drive train parts,
general machine components.

d) Copper Matrix Composites

Copper Matrix Composites are reinforced by: Continuous fibers of carbon (**C**), silicon
carbon (SiC), tungsten (W), stainless steel 304 (long-fiber reinforced composites); Silicon
carbide particles (particulate composites). Powder metallurgy (sintering) and infiltration
technique are used for fabrication Copper Matrix Composites.

The following properties are typical for Copper Matrix Composites:

 Low coefficient of thermal expansion

 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity)
 Good electrical conductivity
 High thermal conductivity
 Good wear resistance.

Copper Matrix Composites are used for manufacturing hybrid modules, electronic relays,
electrically conducting springs and other electrical and electronic components.

Hybrid composites are a new generation of metal matrix composites that have the potentials
of satisfying the recent demands of advanced engineering applications. These demands are
met due to improved mechanical properties, amenability to conventional processing technique
and possibility of reducing production cost of aluminum hybrid composites. So, we are using
hybrid metal matrix composite in our project.

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 1.3. Fabrication Methods of Metal Matrix composites

In recent years, the potential of metal-matrix composite (MMC) materials for significant
improvement in performance over conventional alloys has been recognized widely. However,
their manufacturing costs are still relatively high. There are several fabrication techniques
available to manufacture the MMC materials: there is no unique route in this respect. Due to
the choice of material and reinforcement and of the types of reinforcement, the fabrication
techniques can vary considerably. The processing methods

used to manufacture particulate reinforced MMCs can be grouped as follows.

A) Liquid-phase fabrication methods

B) Solid-phase fabrication methods

C)Two phase (solid/liquid) processes

Which include Rheocasting and Spray Atomization Normally the liquid-phase fabrication
method is more efficient than the solid-phase fabrication method because solid-phase
processing requires a longer time. The matrix metal is used in various forms in different
fabrication methods. Generally, powder is used in pneumatic impaction and the powder
metallurgy technique, and a liquid matrix is used in liquid-metal infiltration, plasma spray,
spray casting, squeeze casting, pressure casting, gravity casting, stir casting, investment
casting, etc. A molecular form of the matrix is used in electroforming; vapor deposition and
metal foils are used in diffusion bonding, rolling, extrusion, etc.

A) Liquid phase fabrication techniques

Most of the MMCs are produced by this technique. In this technique, the ceramic particles are
incorporated into liquid metal using various processes. The liquid composite slurry is
subsequently cast into various shapes by conventional casting techniques or cast into ingots
for secondary processing. The process has major advantage that the production costs of
MMCs are very low. The major difficulty in such processes is the non-wettability of the
particles by liquid aluminum and the consequent rejection of the particles from the melt, non-
uniform distribution of particles due to their preferential segregation and extensive interfacial
reaction. Liquid-metal infiltration, squeeze casting, compo casting, pressure casting, spray
code position, stir casting etc.

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  Stir Casting
The final distribution of the particles in the solid depends on material properties and process
parameters such as the wetting condition of the particles with the melt, strength of mixing,
relative density, and rate of solidification. The distribution of the particles in the molten
matrix depends on the geometry of the mechanical stirrer, stirring parameters, placement of
the mechanical stirrer in the melt, melting temperature, and the characteristics of the particles
added. An interesting recent development in stir casting is a two-step mixing process. In this
process, the matrix material is heated to above its liquids temperature so that the metal is
totally melted. The melt is then cooled down to a temperature between the liquids and solidus
points and kept in a semi-solid state. At this stage, the preheated particles are added and
mixed. The slurry is again heated to a fully liquid state and mixed thoroughly. This two-step
mixing process has been used in the fabrication of aluminum.

Fig 1: Stir Casting

 Squeeze Casting
Squeeze casting is also known as liquid metal forging is a combination of casting and forging
process.the molten metal is poured in the bottom half of the pre-heater die. As the metal starts
solidifying the upper half closes the die and applies pressure durimg the solidification process.
The amount of pressure thus applied I significantly less than used in forging, and part of the
grade detail can be produced. Coring can be used with this process o form holes and recesses.
The porosity iss low and mechanical properties are improved. Both the ferrous and non-
ferrous materials can be produced using this method.

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 B)Solid phase fabrication methods

There are several ways to fabricate MMC using solid-phase materials but among them
diffusion bonding and the powder metallurgy route are used widely. Diffusion bonding, hot
rolling, extrusion, drawing, explosive welding, Powder metallurgy route, pneumatic
impaction, etc.

 Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy is a term covering a wide range of ways in which the materials are
components are made from metal powders. Powder metallurgy process can avoid are greatly
reduce the need to use metal removal processes, thereby drastically reducing a yield loss in
manufacturing and often resulting in lower cost. Powder metallurgy is also used to make
undue materials impossible to melt or form in others ways.

Fig 2: Power Metallurgy

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 1.4 REINFORCEMENT
The reinforcement material is embedded into a matrix. The reinforcement does not always
server purely structural task. But it is also used to change he physical properties such as wear
resistance, Friction coefficient or thermal conductivity.
The reinforcement can be either continuous or discontinuous. Discontinues MMCs can be
isotropic. And can be worked with standard metal working techniques such as extrusion
forging or rolling.

1.4.1 Primary Reinforcement:

A primary reinforce, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforce, is a stimulus that does
not require pairing with a different stimulus in order to function as a reinforcement and most
likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival.
Examples of primary reinforces include food, water, and sex. Some primary reinforces, such
as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforces. While these primary
reinforces are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of
different primary reinforces varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus,
one person may prefer one type of food while another avoids it. Or one person may eat lots of
food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforce for both
individuals, the value of food as a reinforce differs between them.

Aluminium Oxide Reinforcement(Al2O3):

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), commonly referred to as Alumina, possesses strong ionic inter
atomic bonding giving rise to its desirable materials characteristics. Thus, this Al2O3 material
attracted significant attention to the researchers while producing AMC and many studies has
been carried out to investigate the mechanical and fatigue properties of Al2O3 reinforced
metal matrix composites to ensure the effective utilization of the AMC. The characterization
of MMC developed by stir casting method. Their study revealed that the stirring action helps
to produce smaller grain size MMC and maintains good bonding in Al2O3 particle-matrix
interface. Therefore, hardness and tensile strength of the composite increased.

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 Silicon Carbide Reinforced AMC(SiC):

The mechanical properties of SiC reinforced AMCs have been studied extensively. The
studies found that with the increase in reinforcement ratio, tensile strength, hardness and
density of AMC material increased, but impact toughness decreased. The factors affecting the
impact behaviour of SiC reinforced AMCs are particle clustering, particle cracking and weak
matrix-reinforcement bonding. The temperature dependency on the impact behaviour of Al-
MMC materials have also been investigated but the results found insignificant. The
performance of stir cast Al2O3 and SiC reinforced AMCs have been studied. The results
showed that the composite materials exhibit improved physical and mechanical properties,
such as high hardness, low coefficient of thermal expansion, high tensile strength and high
impact strength. The SiC particle reinforced AMCs exhibited lower wear rate compared to
Al2O3 particle reinforced AMCs. The wear behaviour of A356/25 SiC AMC has been
compared with grey cast iron and found that the wear resistance of the composite is higher
than the conventional grey cast iron and it is a very suitable material for brake drum. The
effects of particle clustering on the flow behaviour of SiC particle reinforced AMCs have
been investigated. The results revealed that during the tensile deformation, the particle
clustering has greater effects on the mechanical response of the matrix than the elastic
response and also the plastic deformation is affected very much. The higher percentage of
particles was fractured in the clustering region as compared to the particle random distribution
region. The inferior strain-life of the composite can be attributed to the low ductility and the
corresponding poor resistance to cyclic plasticity caused by the brittle reinforcement.

Boron Carbide Reinforced AMC(B4C):

Boron carbide (B4C) is one of the most promising ceramic materials due to its attractive
properties including high strength, low density, extremely high hardness (the third hardest
materials after diamond and boron nitride), good chemical stability and neutron absorption
capability. Therefore, this material possesses significant research interest in developing
MMCs. The major problem of developing B4C reinforced AMC is the agglomeration of the
B4C particles and their homogeneity in the matrix. Therefore, the manufacturing process of
B4C reinforced AMC has been widely investigated by many researchers. It was found that

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 feed rate was the most important parameter followed by the cutting speed to achieve optimum
surface quality.

Tungsten Carbide(WC):

Tungsten carbide (chemical formula: WC) is a chemical compound (specifically, a carbide)

containing equal parts of tungsten and carbon atoms. In its most basic form, tungsten carbide
is a fine gray powder, but it can be pressed and formed into shapes for use in industrial
machinery, cutting tools, abrasives, armour-piercing rounds, other tools and instruments, and
jewellery.

Tungsten carbide is approximately twice as strong as steel, with a Young's modulus of

approximately 530–700 GPa (77,000 to 102,000 ksi), and is double the density of steel—
nearly midway between that of lead and gold. It is comparable with corundum (α-Al2O3) in
hardness and can only be polished and finished with abrasives of superior hardness such as
cubic boron nitride and diamond powder, wheels, and compounds.

1.4.2 SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT:

The following are the important secondary reinforcement, that are listed below: -

a) Fly ash reinforcement

b) Wood rasp file reinforcement
c) Molybdenum reinforcement
d) Graphite reinforcement

a) Fly Ash Reinforced AMC

Fly ash particles are potential discontinuous disperse solids used in metal matrix composites
due to their low cost and low density reinforcement which are available in large quantities as
a waste by product in thermal power plants. Addition of fly ash particle as reinforcement in
MMCs is advantageous for obtaining higher structural homogeneity with minimum possible
porosity levels, good interfacial bonding, higher mechanical strength, uniform distribution of
reinforcement and act as a load bearing constituents. The major constituents of fly ash are
SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO. The effect of the three different stir casting methods on the

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 properties of fly ash particles reinforced Al-7Si-0.35Mg alloy. The three stir casting methods
are liquid metal stir casting, compo-casting and modified compo-casting followed by squeeze
casting. The compression strength of the composite fabricated by modified compo-casting
cum squeeze casting is improved compared to the matrix alloy. However, the tensile strength
was found to be reduced. A well dispersed and porosity free fly ash particle dispersed
composite was produced by the modified compo-casting cum squeeze casting process. The
electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness properties of the 2024 Al alloy-fly ash
composites. The composite has effective shielding property in the frequency range of 30
KHz- 1.5 GHz. But, the tensile strength of the composites decreased with the addition of fly
ash particulate. The wear resistance of Al MMC increases with the increase in fly ash content,
but decreases with increase in normal load and sliding velocity, and also observed that the
corrosion resistance decreases with the increase in fly ash content.

b) Wood Rasp File:

A rasp is coarse form of file used for coarsely shaping wood or other material. Typically
a hand tool, it consists of a generally tapered rectangular, round, or half-round sectioned bar
of case hardened steel with distinct, individually cut teeth.

USES:
 Rasp s come in a variety of shaped-rectangular, round, and half-round and vary in
coarseness from finest, “cabinet”, to most aggressive wood.
 They are used in woodworking for rapidly removing material and are easier to control
than a drawknife.
 The rough surfaces they leave may be smoothed with finer tools, such as single or
double-cut files.
 Farriers use rasps to remove excess wall from a horse’s hoof.
 Rasps are used in shaping alabaster. Saws and chisels are used to rough our alabaster
work.

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 c) Molybdenum:
Reinforcing a molybdenum matrix with appropriate oxide fibers slows down
oxidation of molybdenum at high temperatures. At the same time oxide fibers crystallized
from the melt determine high creep resistance of the composites at temperatures up to about
1300c. An analysis of the experimental data on creep rupture and matrix oxidation yields a
general idea of tailoring creep resistant refractory metal matrix composites of high fracture
toughness and sufficiently high gas corrosion resistance. To develop such composites, it is
necessary to reinforce a refractory metal with creep resistant fibers containing an element
providing gas corrosion resistance of the composite.
Molybdenum-bearing enzymes are by far the most common bacterial catalyst for
catalyst for breaking the chemical bond in atmospheric molecular nitrogen in the process of
biological nitrogen fixation. These are used in high pressure and high temperature
applications as pigments and catalysts.

d)Graphite:
Graphite archaically referred to as plumbago, is a crystalline allotrope of carbon, a
semimetal, a native element mineral, and a form of coal. Graphite is the most stable form of
carbon under standard conditions. Therefore, it is used in thermo chemistry as the standard
state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds.

Additives:
The advent of Additive Manufacturing (AM) has led to the production of optimized
parts, which are manufactured for design rather than designed for manufacture that
traditionally was the customary manufacturing practice. As such reduction of lead times on
new product development is becoming more and more common. Its usage has been driven
primarily by the needs of different industries like bioengineering to produce dental caps and
knee braces, automotive and aerospace engineering to produce complex parts with intricate
internal features. This has led to the rapid development of the technology from the initial
stages of rapid prototyping to the predominant development of the polymer manufacturing
and now investigations into different metallic systems.

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 1.4.3. REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS:

a. Silicon Carbide
Silicon carbide is also known as carborundum. Silicon carbide possess high strength, high
elastic modulus, high toughness and impact resistance, low sensitivity-to changes in
temperature or thermal shock, high surface durability, low sensitivity to surface flaws, high
electrical and thermal conductivity, minimum exposure to the potential problem of moisture
absorption resulting in environmental degradation and improved fabric ability with
conventional metal working equipment. The effects of the test temperature on the impact
behavior of all materials were not very significant.
b. Boron Carbide
Boron carbide is a robust material having excellent chemical and thermal stability, high
hardness and low density and it is used for manufacturing bullet proof vests, armor tank etc.
Hence, boron carbide reinforced aluminum matrix composite has grained more attraction with
low cost casting route.
c. Titanium Carbide
Titanium carbide is extremely hard refractory ceramic material, similar to tungsten carbide. It
has the appearance of black powder with the sodium chloride structure. Titanium carbide is
high elastic modulus, extreme hardness and temperature resistant properties, titanium carbide
ceramic particles are often used as reinforcement within the aluminum matrix. Titanium
carbide is also relatively inexpensive an exhibits good wetting characteristics in molten
aluminum.
d. Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum oxide is a chemical compound of aluminum and oxygen. Corundum is the
most common naturally occurring crystalline form of aluminum oxide. Rubies and sapphires
are gem-quality form of corundum. Aluminum oxide is an electrical insulator but has a
relatively high thermal conductivity for a ceramic material. Aluminum oxide is insoluble in
water. Aluminum oxide is responsible for the resistance of metallic aluminum to weathering.
e. Silver Nano Particles
Metal Nano particles are commonly used for surface modifications in fiber reinforced
polymer composites because of their large specific surface area and electronic, magnetic,
other related properties. Nano particles of silver of between 1nm and 100 nm in size, while

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 frequently described as being silver some are composed of a large percentage of silver oxides
due to their large ration of surface-to-bulk silver atoms.
f. Tungsten Carbide
Tungsten Carbide is the main raw material for the production of the cemented carbide. It is a
kind of black six square crystals, with metallic luster, hardness and diamond are similar, as
good conductors of electricity, heat. Tungsten Carbide is insoluble in water, hydrochloric acid
and sulfuric acid, mixed acid soluble in nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid. Tungsten Carbide
are pure, if the incorporation of a small amount of titanium, cobalt metal, can reduce the
brittleness. As Tungsten steel cutting tools, often by adding titanium carbide, tantalum carbide
or their mixture, in order to improve the anti-explosion capacity. Chemical properties of
Tungsten Carbide are stability.
g. Titanium oxide

Titanium oxide (TiO) is an inorganic chemical compound of titanium and oxygen. Titanium
oxide is also known as titania, is the naturally occurring oxide of titanium, chemical formula
TiO2. when used as pigment, it is called titanium white, pigment white 6 (PW6). Generally, it
is sourced from ilmenite, rutile and anatase. It can be prepared from titanium dioxide and
titanium metal at 1500 °C. It is non-stoichiometric in a range TiO0.7 to TiO1.3 and this is
caused by vacancies of either Ti or O in the defect rock salt structure. In pure TiO 15% of
both Ti and O sites are vacant. Careful annealing can cause ordering of the vacancies
producing a monoclinic form which has 5 TiO units in the primitive cell that exhibits lower
resistivity. A high temperature form with titanium atoms with trigonal prismatic coordination
is also known. Acid solutions of TiO are stable for a short time then decompose to give
hydrogen.

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 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

1. Yilmaz and Altintas [1994]. “The reinforcement particles can also be pre-treated by
heating”. For SiC oxidation, different researchers have used varying temperature and times:
1000°C for 1.5 h in air [Yilmaz and Altintas, 1994], 1100ºC for 1-3 h [Zhou and Xu, 1997],
850°C for 8 h Kevorkijan and Sustarsic, 1997]. Doel and Bowen, [1996] has chosen stainless
steel as the main crucible and stirrer material. The machine consisted of a four 45º flat bladed
stirrer and a crucible in a resistance heated furnace chamber. Stirring speed was varied from
200 to 500 rpm.
2. Muhammad Hayat Jokhioet. Al. investigates in 2012, “Manufacturing of Aluminum
Composite Material Using Stir Casting Process”. The 7xxx series aluminum matrix usually
contains Cu-Zn-Mg. Aluminum matrix manufactured by varying Cu, Zn and Mg percentage.
He investigates the effect of Al2O3reinforcement on aluminum 7xxx matrix on mechanical
properties using simple foundry melting alloying and casting route. The required quantities of
"Al2O3" particles were added in 2.5, 5, 10 and 15% weight percent. The experimental results
indicate that aluminum matrix cast composite can be manufactured via conventional foundry
method giving very good responses to the strength and ductility up to 10% "Al2O3"particles
reinforced in aluminum matrix. The high percentage of "Al2O3" up to 15% in alloy decreases
the tensile strength. High "Al2O3" particles in matrix requires.
3. G. G. Sozhamannanet AL investigates in 2012, “Effect of Processing Parameters on
Metal Matrix Composites: Stir Casting Process”. Conventional stir casting process has
been employed for producing discontinuous particle reinforced metal matrix composites for
decades. In the present study, aluminum metal matrix composites were fabricated by different
processing temperatures with different holding time to understand the influence of process
parameters on the distribution of particle in the matrix and the resultant mechanical
properties. The distribution is examined by microstructure analysis, hardness distribution and
density distribution. The particles were distributed uniformly in the processing temperature
750°C and 800°C. The particles agglomerations were found in the processing temperature of
700°C, 850°C and 900°C due to the changes of viscosity in liquid Al matrix.

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 4. Bai & Zhao (2010) studied the contribution, and “The effect of the micro-
structuralcharacteristics on tensile propertiesand fracture behavior of partially-squeeze
Al7075 alloy die casting in the as-cast and T6 heat-treated conditions”. The results show
that inferior tensile properties of the casting partially- squeezed part were caused by the -Al
cells with fragment, rosette, angular and globular shapes, while finer dendrites with smaller
secondary dendrite arm spacing and more rounded silicon particles corresponded to higher
tensile properties. After T6 treatment, tensile properties increased significantly due to the
spheroidization of silicon particle and consequently the reduction of stress concentration at
silicon/eutectic matrix interface.
5. Gopalakrishnan &Murugan (2012) attributed the “primary attraction of
practitioners and researchers to Metal matrix composite (MMC) to improved specific
strength, high temperature and wear resistance application”. Aluminum matrix reinforced
with titanium carbide (Al-TiC) was reported by the authors to have a good potential. In
composite fabrication, the main challenge, as noted by the authors is to produce this
composite in a cost-effective way to meet the above requirements. In the study, Al-TiC
castings with different volume fraction of TiC were produced in an argon atmosphere by an
enhanced stir-casting method.

6. M. Benachour, N. Benachour, and Benguediab, “Fatigue crack initiation of Al-

Alloys-Effect of Heat treatment condition”, International Journal of Mechanical, Aerospace
and Mechatronics Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 11, pp. 1195-1197, 2013.

7. H.B. Bhaskar and Abdul Sharief, “Tribological properties of Aluminum 2024 Alloy-
Beryl Particulate MMC’s”, Bonfring International Journal of Industrial Engineering and
Management Science, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 143-147, 2012.

8. Jayashree P .K , Gowri Shankar M.C , Achutha Kini, Sharma S.S and Raviraj
Shetty, “Review on Effect of Silicon Carbide (SiC) on Stir Cast Aluminum Metal Matrix
Composites” . The importance of composites as engineering materials is reflected by the fact
that out of over 1600 engineering materials available in the market today more than 200 are
composites. These composites initially replaced Cast Iron and Bronze alloys but owing to
their poor wear and seizure resistance, they were subjected to many experiments and the wear
behavior of these composites were explored to a maximum extent and were reported by
number of research scholars for the past 25 years. In the present study, based on the literature
review, the effect of Silicon carbide on Stir cast Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites is

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page | 18

 discussed. Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites with Silicon carbide particle reinforcements
are finding increased applications in aerospace, automobile, space, underwater, and
transportation applications. This is mainly due to improved mechanical and tribological
properties like strong, stiff, abrasion and impact resistant, and is not easily corroded. In the
present scenario, a review of different researchers has been made to consolidate some of the
aspects of mechanical and wear behavior of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites reinforced
with Silicon carbide particles in both untreated and precipitation hardened condition Vol.3,
No.3 2013.

9. G.Sivakaruna and Dr.P.Suresh Babu “ A Survey On Effects Of Reinforcement On

Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites”. In the recent years the use of composites is
increasing rapidly and likely to increase more rapidly in the future. In the present industrial
scenario Aluminum and its alloy based composites are having importance in the elevating
fields of engineering. Aluminum metal matrix composite (AMMC) are mostly preferred for
their density, high strength to weight ratio, hardness, corrosion resistance, fatigue and creep
resistance. Hence they are widely used in aerospace, automobile, marine, sports, electronic
and automation industries. The material makes as tailored material when it reinforced with
many materials for various application. Hence in this paper we present a survey on the effects
of different reinforcements on the mechanical and tribological behavior of AMMCs fabricated
by various methods.

10. Dipti Kanta Das, Purna Chandra Mishra,Saranjit and Swati Pattanaik ,
“Fabrication and Heat Treatment Of Ceramicreinforced Aluminum Matrix
Composites”. Ceramic-reinforced aluminum matrix composites have attracted considerable
attention in engineering applications as a result of their relatively low costs and characteristic
isotropic properties. Reinforcement materials include carbides, nitrides and oxides. In an
effort to achieve optimality in structure and properties of ceramic-reinforced metal matrix
composites (MMCs), various fabrication and heat treatment techniques have evolved over the
last 20 years. In this paper, the status of the research and development in fabrication and heat
treatment techniques of ceramic-reinforced aluminum matrix composites is reviewed, with a
major focus on material systems in terms of chemical compositions, weight or volume
fraction, particle size of reinforcement, fabrication methods and heat treatment procedures.
Various optical measurement techniques used by the researchers are highlighted. Also,

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 limitations and needs of the technique in composite fabrication are presented in the literature.
The full potential of various methods for fabricating ceramic-reinforced aluminum matrix
composites is yet to be explored.

11. Bala G Narasimha, Vamsi M Krishna and Dr. Anthony M Xavior, “A Review on
Processing of Particulate Metal Matrix Composites and its Properties”. In the past,
materials are confined only to monolithic type, but for the better physical, chemical and
triboloigical properties comparing to the monolithic materials composite materials are have
been evolved. Metal matrix composites have evoked a keen interest in recent times for
potential applications, because the characteristics of MMCs can be designed into the material,
custom-made, dependent on the application. From this potential, metal matrix composites
fulfill all the desired conceptions of the designer. Out of these Al/Al alloy based MMC’s are
gaining wider acceptance in many industries e.g. aerospace, automotive and automobile
industries due to their superior properties such as light weight, low density, high strength to
weight ratio, low cost, high quality and high performance etc. in structural materials. The aim
of this paper is to review the current research and development of Al matrix based MMC and
discusses the various existing and emerging processing techniques for the fabrication of
Aluminum matrix composites. The vortex (or mixing) method continues to be the most
popular processing method in use because of its operation, total production cost, and
suitability, while the infiltration, casting, and spray atomization and co-deposition techniques
receive less attention.

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 CHAPTER-3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation Of Al6082/sic

3.1 Aluminum 6082 Alloy

Aluminum alloy 6082 is am aluminum alloy, it is a medium alloy with excellent corrosion
resistance. It has highest strength of the 6000 series alloys. Alloy 6082 is known as a
structural alloy. In plate form, aluminum alloy 6082 is the alloy most commonly used for
machining. The higher strength of aluminum alloy 6082 has seen it replace 6061 in many
applications. The addition of a large amount of manganese controls the grain structure which
in turn results in a stronger alloy. It is difficult to produce thin walled, complicated extrusion
shapes in alloy 6082. The extruded surface finish is not as as smooth as other similar strength
alloys in the 6000 series. Al 6082 was bought from jeedimetla, Hyderabad.

Aluminum alloy 6082 is available in sheet and plate (typical stock availability),
aluminum 6082bar, 6082 is also available in drawn tube, tube and forging stock. Aluminum
6082 is typically used in highly stressed application, trusses, bridges, cranes, transport
applications, ore skips, beer barrels, milk churns.

Fig 3: Aluminum 6082/Sic composite plates

In the above figure we can see the aluminum is casted with silicon carbide with
different compositions. The aluminum was melted and made into liquid form by stir casting

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 processes and so that we will add the silicon carbide powered to the liquid aluminum. by
using of stir it is mixed will and the liquid composition is poured into the rectangle die.

Chemical Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti Cr A1
Composition

Al 6082 1.3 0.5 0.119 1.0 1.2 0.2 0.1 0.25 Balance

Table 1: chemical composition of Al 6082

In the above table we can find the chemical composition of Aluminum 6082 alloy. We
can see that in Al 6082 the silicon composition is more when compared to iron, copper and
zinc etc. if we compare with Al 7075 alloy the zinc composition is more when compare with
Al 6082.

Aluminum alloy 6082 is medium strength alloy with excellent corrosion resistance. Al
6082 is the alloy most commonly used for machining. as a relatively new alloy, the higher
strength of 6082 has seen it replacing of Al 6061 in many applications.

Properties of Al 6082

Density 2.71 g/cm3

Young’s modulus 71 GPa

Ultimate Tensile Strength 140-330 MPa

Yield Strength 90-280 MPa

Thermal Expansion 23.1 µm/m-K

Solidus 575 0C

3.2 SILICON CARBIDE(SIC)

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 Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and silicon. It was
originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical reaction of sand and carbon. Silicon
carbide is an excellent abrasive and has been produced and made into grinding wheels and other
abrasive products for over one hundred years. Today the material has been developed into a high
quality technical grade ceramic with very good mechanical properties. It is used in abrasives,
refractories, ceramics, and numerous high-performance applications. The material can also be
made an electrical conductor and has applications in resistance heating, flame igniters and
electronic components. Structural and wear applications are constantly developing.

Fig 5 : Silicon carbide (Sic) Particulates

Silicon carbide, also known as carborundum, is a unique compound of carbon and silicon and is
one of the hardest available materials.The chemical formula of silicon carbide is SiC. Its
molecular formula is CSi and its molar mass is 40.10 g/mol. It is a simple compound with the
carbon atom attached to silicon through a triple bond, leaving both atoms with a positive and
negative charge. However, the bonding between them has a predominantly covalent character,
rather than ionic. Solid silicon carbide exists in many different crystalline forms, with the
hexagonal crystal structure being the most commonly found one.

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Silicon carbide is composed of tetra hedra of carbon and silicon atoms with strong bonds in the
crystal lattice. This produces a very hard and strong material. Silicon carbide is not attacked by
any acids or alkalis or molten salts up to 800°C. In air, SiC forms a protective silicon oxide
coating at 1200°C and is able to be used up to 1600°C. The high thermal conductivity coupled
with low thermal expansion and high strength give this material exceptional thermal shock
resistant qualities. Silicon carbide ceramics with little or no grain boundary impurities maintain
their strength to very high temperatures, approaching 1600°C with no strength loss. Chemical
purity, resistance to chemical attack at temperature, and strength retention at high temperatures
has made this material very popular as wafer tray supports and paddles in semiconductor
furnaces. The electrical conduction of the material has lead to its use in resistance heating
elements for electric furnaces, and as a key component in thermistors (temperature variable
resistors) and in varistors (voltage variable resistors).

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Silicon carbide will not dissolve in acids or in bases, but is easily attacked by alkaline melts and
by most metal and metal oxide melts. For practical applications the temperature limits are 1.500
°C in an inert gas or reducing atmosphere. The impurities in technical silicon carbide primarily
consist of free C and SiO2 in varying amounts depending on the type of product. In addition,
some Si and Fe and small quantities of Al and Ca occur. Mol weight: 40.096.

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 Pure SiC is composed of 29.95 % C and 70.05 % Si. Silicon carbide is a very stable and
chemically inert compound. It is an extremely hard material , with Mohs hardness rating of
9,close that of diamond . It is also characterized by its high thermal conductivity , high –
temperature strength, low thermal expansion ,resistance to chemical reaction, and ability to
function as a semi conductor

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Extreme hardness, high thermal conductivity and low linear thermal expansion are some of the
properties that make silicon carbide an outstanding material in its main areas of usage. The
following physical data can be considered as guidelines for silicon carbide and poor silicon
carbide is obtained as colorless crystals, with a density of 3.21 g/ml and an extremely high
melting point 0f 2,730 °C it is more commonly found as a bluish-black ,iridescent crystalline
solid, due to small amount of iron or other impurities from the industrial production.

LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION

20–1000 °C 5.1 . 10-6/ °C
20–2000 °C 5.8 . 10–6/ °C

SPECIFIC HEAT

25 °C 0.67 J/g °C
1000 °C 1.26 J/g °C
Specific density 3.21 g/cm3
Bulk density 0.5–1.7 g/cm3

MELTING POINT

1687 k (1414°C,2577°F)

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 Silicon Carbide Properties
 Low density
 High strength
 Low thermal expansion
 High thermal conductivity
 High hardness
 High elastic modulus
 Excellent thermal shock resistance
 Superior chemical inertness

USES Of Silicon Carbide

 Fixed and moving turbine components

 Suction box covers
 Seals, bearings
 Ball valve parts
 Hot gas flow liners
 Heat exchangers
 Semiconductor process equipment

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 METHODS

3.4 STIR CASTING PROCESS

The stir casting methodology is relatively simple and low cost. This can usually be
prepared by fairly conventional processing equipment and can be carried out on a continuous
and semi continuous basis by the use of stirring mechanism.
The final distribution of the particles in the solid depends on material properties and process
parameters such as the wetting condition of the particles with the melt, strength of mixing,
relative density, and rate of solidification.

S.NO A B C D
Composition Al 6082 Al 6082+3%Sic Al 6082+6% Sic Al 6082+9% Sic

Table 2: weight percentage of Al 6082 and Sic Metal Matrix Composites(MMC)

In the above table you can see that Al 6082 with Sic in different compositions

Fig 5: Al 6082/Sic plates MMC by stir casting

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 The process of stir casting starts with placing empty crucible in the furnace. The heater
temperature is then gradually increased up to 800°C. Aluminum alloy is cleaned to remove dust
particles, weighed and charged in the crucible for melting. Required quantities of reinforcement
powder and magnesium powder are weighed on the weighing machine. Reinforcements are
heated for 45 minutes at a temperature of 500°C. When matrix was in the semisolid stage
condition at 650°C, 1 % by weight of pure magnesium powder is used as wetting agent. After
five minutes the scum powder is added which forms a scum layer of impurity on liquid surface
which to be removed. Heater temperature is then gradually increased to 800°C. At this heater
temperature stirring is started and continued for five minutes. Stirring rpm is gradually increased
from 0 to 300 RPM with the help of speed controller. Preheated reinforcements are added during
five minutes of stirring. Reinforcements are poured manually with the help of conical hopper.
The flow rate of reinforcements measured is 0.5 gram per second. Stirrer rpm is then gradually
lowered to the zero. Then molten composite slurry is poured in the metallic mould without
giving time for reinforcement to settle down at crucible bottom. Mould is preheated at 500°C
temperature for one hour before pouring the molten slurry in the mould. This is necessary to
maintain slurry in molten condition throughout the pouring. While pouring the slurry in mould
the flow of the slurry is kept uniform to avoid trapping of gas, also distance between crucible and
mould plays a vital role in quality of casting.

Fig 6: Stir casting machine

The distribution of the particles in the molten matrix depends on the geometry of the
mechanical stirrer, stirring parameters, placement of the mechanical stirrer in the melt, melting
temperature, and the characteristics of the particles added.

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 An interesting recent development in stir casting is a two-step mixing process. In
this process, the matrix material is heated to above its liquids temperature so that the metal is
totally melted. The melt is then cooled down to a temperature between the liquids and solidus
points and kept in a semi-solid state. At this stage, the preheated particles are added and
mixed. The slurry is again heated to a fully liquid state and mixed thoroughly. This two-step
mixing process has been used in the fabrication of aluminum.

3.4.1 Stir Variable Parameters

A key challenge in the processing of composites is to homogeneously distribute the

reinforcement phases to achieve a defect-free microstructure. Based on the shape, the
reinforcing phases in the composite can be either particles or fibers. The relatively low
material cost and suitability for automatic processing has made the particulate-reinforced
composite preferable to the fiber-reinforced composite for automotive applications. Following
are the process parameters of stir casting route.

A) Stirrer Design:

It is very important parameter in stir casting process which is required for vortex
formation. The blade angle and number of blades decides the flow pattern of the liquid metal.
The stirrer is immersed till two third depth of molten metal. All these are required for uniform
distribution of reinforcement in liquid metal, perfect interface bonding and to avoid
clustering.

B) Stirrer Speed:

Stirring speed is an important parameter to promote binding between matrix and

reinforcement i.e. wet ability. Stirring speed decides formation of vortex which is responsible
for dispersion of particulates in liquid metal. In our project stirring speed is 300 rpm.

C) Stirring Temperature:

Aluminum melts around 650°C, at this temperature semisolid stage of melt is present.
Particle distribution depends on change in viscosity. The viscosity of matrix is mainly
influenced by the processing temperature. The viscosity of liquid is decreased by increasing

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 processing temperature with increasing holding time for stirring which also promote binding
between matrix and reinforcement. Good wet ability is obtained by keeping temperature at
800°C.

D) Stirring Time:

As stirring promote uniform distribution of reinforcement partials and interface bond

between matrix and reinforcement, stirring time plays a vital role in stir casting method. Less
stirring leads to non-uniform distribution of particles and excess stirring forms clustering of
particles at some places. Stirring time is 5 minutes in our case.

E) Preheat Temperature of Reinforcement:

Casting process of AMC’s is difficult due to very low wet ability of alumina particles and
agglomeration phenomenon which results in non-uniform distribution and poor mechanical
properties. Reinforcement is heated to 500°C for 40 minutes. It removes moisture as well as
gases present in reinforcement.

F) Preheat Temperature of Mould:

Porosity is the major problem in casting. In order to avoid porosity preheating of mould is
good solution. It helps in removing the entrapped gases from the slurry to go into the mould.
It also enhances the mechanical properties of the cast AMC. Mold is heated to 500°C for one
hour.

G) Addition of Magnesium:

Addition of Magnesium enhances the wettability. However, increase the content above 1wt.
% increases viscosity of slurry and hence uniform particle distribution becomes difficult.

H) Reinforcement Feed Rate:

Non-uniform feed rate promotes clustering of particles at some places which causes the
porosity defect and inclusion defect, so to have a good quality of casting the feed rate of
powder particles must be uniform. The flow rate of reinforcements measured is 0.5 gram per
second.

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 I) Pouring of Melt:

Pouring rate and pouring temperature plays significant role in quality of casting. Pouring
rate of slurry must be uniform to avoid entrapping of gases. At this stage the temperature of
melt is 800°C. The distance between mould and crucible also plays vital role in quality of
casting. Apart from these size of reinforcement plays significant role in quality of casting.

Fig 7: Melting Al 6082 stir casting

In the above picture u can see aluminum heated and in is made into liquid form.
The liquid Al 6082 is poured into required die or mould. So that the plates are used for testing
purpose by machining the plates and cutting them into required shapes. Here we are finding
the mechanical properties of Al 6082 with Silicon Carbide.

S.NO Percentage of Silicon Carbide

1 Al 6082+0% Sic
2 Al 6082+3% Sic
3 Al 6082+6% Sic
4 Al 6082+9% Sic

Table 3: preparation of Al 6082 by adding Sic

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Preparation of AL6082/Sic Composites:

Fig 8: Silicon Carbide alloy Fig 9: Melted aluminum 6082

Fig 10: pouring liquid Aluminum into plates

Fig 11: plate die

Fig 12: Casted Aluminum 6082 with Sic MMC

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 3.5 TENSILE STRENGTH

Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) often shortened to tensile strength (TS), ultimate
strength, or Ftu within equations is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads
tending to elongate, as opposed to compressive strength, which withstands loads tending to
reduce size. In other words, tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart), whereas
compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together). Ultimate tensile strength is
measured by the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled
before breaking. In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength,
and shear strength can be analyzed independently.

Fig 13: Elongation of tensile test

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 Fig 14: Tensile Stress-Strain Diagram

Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a brittle
failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic
deformation and possibly necking before fracture.

The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering stress
versus strain. The highest point of the stress–strain curve (see point 1 on the engineering
stress–strain diagrams below) is the UTS. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does
not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as
the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the
temperature of the test environment and material.

Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important
in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite
materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood.

Tensile strength can be defined for liquids as well as solids under certain conditions. For
example, when a tree draws water from its roots to its upper leaves by transpiration, the
column of water is pu0lled upwards from the top by the cohesion of the water in the xylem,
and this force is transmitted down the column by its tensile strength. Air pressure, osmotic
pressure, and capillary tension also plays a small part in a tree's ability to draw up water, but
this alone would only be sufficient to push the column of water to a height of less than ten
meters, and trees can grow much higher than that (over 100 m).

Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. For some
non-homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force
or as a force per unit width. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit is the pascal
(Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the SI prefix mega); or,
equivalently to pascals, newtons per square metre (N/m²). A United States customary unit is
pounds per square inch (lb/in² or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi),
which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used in one country
(US), when measuring tensile strength.

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 3.6 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Fig 15: Universal testing machine

A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, [1] materials testing
machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength
of materials. An earlier name for a tensile testing machine is a tens meter. The "universal" part
of the name reflects that it can perform many standard tensile and compression tests on
materials, components, and structures (in other words, that it is versatile).

Use

The set-up and usage are detailed in a test method, often published by a standards
organization. This specifies the sample preparation, fixturing, gauge length (the length which
is under study or observation), analysis, etc.The specimen is placed in the machine between
the grips and an extensometer if required can automatically record the change in gauge length
during the test. If an extensometer is not fitted, the machine itself can record the displacement
between its cross heads on which the specimen is held. However, this method not only records
the change in length of the specimen but also all other extending / elastic components of the
testing machine and its drive systems including any slipping of the specimen in the grips.

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 Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing load on specimen. Throughout the
tests the control system and its associated software record the load and extension or
compression of the specimen Machines range from very small table top systems to ones with
over 53 MN (12 million lbf) capacity.

Fig 16: Specimen Before tensile test Fig17:

3.7 HARDNESS

Hardness is a measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape
change when a compressive force is applied. Some materials (e.g. metals) are harder than
others (e.g. plastics). Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong
intermolecular bonds, but the behaviour of solid materials under force is complex; therefore,
there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and
rebound hardness. Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain,
strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity.

Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and super hard
materials, which can be contrasted with matter. Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not
a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the resistance to indentation, and it is
determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation. More simply put, when
using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder the
material. Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or the area of the
indentation using one of over 12 different test methods.

The Rockwell hardness testing machine, as defined in ASTM E-18, is the most commonly
used hardness test method. You should obtain a copy of this standard, read and understand the

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 standard completely before attempting a Rockwell test. The Rockwell test is generally easier
to perform, and more accurate than other types of hardness testing methods. The Rockwell
test method is used on all metals, except in condition where the test metal structure or surface
conditions would introduce too much variations; where the indentations would be too large
for the application; or where the sample size or sample shape prohibits its use. 
The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced by a force/load
on an indenter. First, a preliminary test force (commonly referred to as preload or minor load)
is applied to a sample using a diamond or ball indenter. This preload breaks through the
surface to reduce the effects of surface finish. After holding the preliminary test force for a
specified dwell time, the baseline depth of indentation is measured. 
After the preload, an additional load, call the major load, is added to reach the total required
test load. This force is held for a predetermined amount of time (dwell time) to allow for
elastic recovery. This major load is then released, returning to the preliminary load.  After
holding the preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the final depth of indentation is
measured. The Rockwell hardness value is derived from the difference in the baseline and
final depth measurements. This distance is converted to a hardness number. The preliminary
test force is removed and the indenter is removed from the test specimen.
Preliminary test loads (preloads) range from 3 kgf (used in the “Superficial” Rockwell scale)
to 10 kgf (used in the “Regular” Rockwell scale). Total test forces range from 15kgf to 150
kgf (superficial and regular) to 500 to 3000 kgf (macro hardness). 

Fig 18: Finding Hardness of metal Fig 19: Hardness Machine

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 The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a
manor load followed by a major load. The minor load establishes the zero position. The major
load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The depth of penetration
from the zero datum is measured from a dial, on which a harder material gives a higher
number. That is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious
calculation involved in other hardness measurement techniques. t is typically used in
engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity arises from its speed, reliability,
robustness, resolution and small area of indentation. In order to get a reliable reading the
thickness of the test-piece should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation. Also,
readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface, because convex surfaces give
lower readings. A correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex surface is to be
measured.

3.8 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE

The optical microscope, often referred to as light microscope, is a type

of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small
samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented
in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very
simple, although there are many complex designs which aim to improve resolution and
sample contrast.

The image from an optical microscope can be captured by normal light-sensitive cameras
to generate a micrograph. Originally images were captured by photographic film but modern
developments in CMOS and charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras allow the capture
of digital images. Purely digital microscopes are now available which use a CCD camera to
examine a sample, showing the resulting image directly on a computer screen without the
need for eyepieces. Alternatives to optical microscopy which do not use visible light
include scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy.

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 Fig 19: Optical Microscope

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 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 TENSILE TEST

Tensile tests were used to assess the mechanical behavior of the composites and matrix alloy.
The composite and matrix alloy rods were machined to tensile specimens with a diameter
of6mm and gauge length of 30 mm. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to
tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section
starts to significantly contract. Shows the ultimate tensile strength of the composite specimens
and of the base alloy, along with standard deviation of tungsten carbide and graphite.It
follows from the graphs that the specimens show an increase in UTS. The increase in strength
can attributed to the addition which impart strength to the matrix alloy, there by enhanced
resistance to tensile stresses.

There is a reduction in the inter–spatial distance between particulates, which cause an increase
in the dislocation pile–up as the particulate content is increased. This leads to restriction to
plastic flow due to the random distribution of the particulate in the matrix, thereby providing
enhanced strength to the composites. The tensile strength is a function of volume fraction of
reinforcement. As volume fraction of reinforcement increases tensile strength of composite
increases. We can observe in the below figure the Al 6082 with TiO 2 make them into bar
elements for tensile test. So that we can observe the graph of the different percentage of the
TiO2 is mixed with the Al 6082 made into plates for test below graph you can see the yield
point, tensile strength and elongation pf the metal bars.

Fig 20: Metal bar before tensile test

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 Material Reinforcemen Composition Load at Tensile Yield Breaking
t Yield(KN) Strength Stress(N/mm2) Strength(N/m
Material (N/mm2) m2)
AL 6082+0%Sic 7.98 113.181 101.71 24.726
AL 6082 Silicon Carbide AL 6082+3% Sic 6.3 80.438 76.09 2.899
AL 6082+6% Sic 6.06 85.556 77.383 0.255
AL 6082+9% Sic 5.72 82.944 73.216 0.246

Table 4: Al 6082 with Sic bars breaking point and tensile strength

Fig 21: yield strength and ultimate tensile test

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 4.2 HARDNESS TEST

The Rockwell hardness test method, as defined in ASTM E-18, is the most commonly
used hardness test method. You should obtain a copy of this standard, read and understand the
standard completely before attempting a Rockwell test. The Rockwell test is generally easier
to perform, and more accurate than other types of hardness testing methods. The Rockwell
test method is used on all metals, except in condition where the test metal structure or surface
conditions would introduce too much variations; where the indentations would be too large
for the application; or where the sample size or sample shape prohibits its use. 

The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced by a

force/load on an indenter. First, a preliminary test force (commonly referred to as preload or
minor load) is applied to a sample using a diamond indenter. This load represents the zero or
reference position that breaks through the surface to reduce the effects of surface finish. After
the preload, an additional load, call the major load, is applied to reach the total required test
load. This force is held for a predetermined amount of time (dwell time) to allow for elastic
recovery. This major load is then released and the final position is measured against the
position derived from the preload. The indentation depth variance between the preload. Value
and major load value. This distance is converted to a hardness number.

Preliminary test loads (preloads) range from 3 kgf (used in the “Superficial” Rockwell scale)
to 10 kgf (used in the “Regular” Rockwell scale) to 200 kgs (used as a macro scale and not
part of ASTM E-18; see ASTM E-1842). Total test forces range from 15kgf to 150 kgf
(superficial and regular) to 500 to 3000 kgf(macrohardness). 

The increase in hardness of Al6082 /TiO 2 composite with increasing TiO2 content could be
due to the fact that the reinforcement material is much harder than that of the matrix material
for TiO2 and also could be due to better wettability of TiO2 by 6082matrix which leads to
good bonding between the matrix and reinforcement.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page | 42

 Fig 21: Before Hardness test and after the test

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 CHAPTER 5

REFERENCES

1. R. MadhuSudhan, N. Ramanaiah and K. Praveen Kumar, “Evaluating Optimal

Process Parameters in Dissimilar Friction Stir Welding of Al Alloys”, International
Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, Volume 4, Issue 2, pp. 204-208,
2014.

2. H.B. Bhaskar and Abdul Sharief, “Tribological properties of Aluminum 2024 Alloy-
Beryl Particulate MMC’s”, Bonfring International Journal of Industrial Engineering
and Management Science, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 143-147, 2012.

3. R. Karthigeyan, G. Ranganath and S. Sankaranarayanan, “Mechanical properties

and microstructure studies of Aluminum (7075) alloy matrix composite reinforced
with short Basalt Fiber”, European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 68. No. 4, pp.
606-615, 2012.

4. M. Benachour, N. Benachour, and Benguediab, “Fatigue crack initiation of Al-

Alloys-Effect of Heat treatment condition”, International Journal of Mechanical,
Aerospace and Mechatronics Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 11, pp. 1195-1197, 2013.

5. Mohan Reddy, M. Santosh Kumar and G. Venkara Ajay Kumar, “Improving

Mechanical properties of Al7075 alloy by equal channel angular extrusion process”,
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research, Vol.3, Issue 5, pp.2713-2716,
2013,
6. Indumati.B.Deshmanya and G.K. Purohit, “Prediction of hardness of forged
Al6082/Al2O3composites using factorial design of experiments”, International Journal
of Engineering Research and Applications, Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp. 84-90,2012.

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 CHAPTER 6

PHOTO GALLERY

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