ME220 Mechanics of Materials Laboratory Notes J. L. Ding and G. L. Sheldon School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering Washington State University Reprinted with permission, all rights reservedTable of Contents Course Information Introduction Tension Test Impact Test Fatigue Test Measurement of Elastic Modulus By Wave Propagation Torsion Test EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS OF BRIDGE TRUSS 9. Combined Stress 10. Thin-walled Pressure Vessel Experiment 11. Photoelasticity PAPYN> ON (3) (7) (20) (29) (41) (48) (62) (74) (88) (91)1. Course Information Catalog description: Mechanical behavior of materials and application to engineering structures, Proroquisitos: CE215 or cl Prerequisites by topic: 1) statics 2) stress, strain, principal stresses, and principal strains: Postrequisites: recommended for ME444 Credit Required Textbooks: 1. Mechanics of Materials Laboratory Notes, J. L. Ding and G. L. Sheldon, WSU Students Book Co-poration (required) Objective: (1) To provide the stusents with hands-on experience in various material testing and experimental stress analysis methods, and engineering data analysis and report wnting (2) Te familiarize the students with various types of mechanical behavior in response to different loading conditions. ‘Outcomes: The students will 1) gain hands-on experience in conducting tension, torsion, impact, and fatigue tests, 2) gain hands-on experience in using strain gages for one and two dimensional stress analysis. 3) be able to extract mechanical properties of materials from tension, torsion, impact, and fatigue test data 4) appreciate the difference between the ductile and brittle behavior of materials and the environmental effects including temperature on such behavior. 5) be able to apply Hooke’s law in one and two dimensional stress analysis. 6) be able to logically artange, present, and summarize findings in a witten report Contribution to mé ting the professional component: Engineering topics. Rolationship of course to program objectives: Program objectives: 1 and 2. Program outcomes: a,b, g, and k.ME220 - Mechanics of Materials Laboratory TEST TITLE: DATE OF TEST: DATE REPORT SUBMITTED: NAME: SECTION: (cover page)SUMMARY (summary page)2.Introduction Mechanics of Materials is generally the name applied to a discipline in which the stress, strain and deflections of loaded structural elements are considered, This set of Laboratory Notes is to present the experimental side of tis subject. ‘The experiments performed in this lab fall into two categories. One is the determination of the material properties and the other is experimental stress analysis. Material selection and stress analysis are the two most important processes for structural design work. The experiments in the fist category, namely tension test, torsion test, impact test, fatigue test, and acoustic wave test allows you to gain some understanding on how some commonly used materials properties, such as elastic modulus, yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility etc, are determined. These ‘experiments also allow you to see how the deformation and fracture behavior of the materials are affected by the types of loading, €.. tension versus torsion and static ‘versus dynamic; temperature; composition and heat treatment; and material geometry. ‘The experiments in the second category focus on two experimental stress analysis techniques. One is the sain gage technique and the other is photoelastcty technique. Jn the Deflection of Beam experiment, we will demonstrate how strain gage can be used for one dimensional stress analysis. in the Combined Stress Experiment, we will show how it can be used for tyo dimensional stress analysis. The photoelasticity experiment demonstrates another very useful stress analysis technique based on optics,3.Tension Test 3.4: INTRODUCTION ‘Tension testis a mostly commonly used test to determine the material properties under static load. Many material properties which are critical for engineering design, such as elastic modulus, strength, and ductility etc, are obtained from the tension test. 33 : TEST METHOD In our experiment, we use the so-called button head round bar specimen to do the test, A sketch of the specimen is shown below. 1.3.1 button-head round bar specimenBoforo we start the test, we need to put two reference marks, called gage points, on the specimen, The distance between the gage points is called gage length, which is the reference length for measuring the deformation of the specimen. Let the initial gage length and inital diameter of the specimen be 1,(2 inch in our experiment) and Dy respectively. Alter the specimen is stretched by load P, the gage length is increased to Land the diameter decreased to D. The difference, AL=L-Leis called elongation. During the experiment, the load P is measured by a device called “load cel” and the elongation by "extensometer". Wat come out from both the load cell and extensomter are voltages which are proportional to load and elongation respectively. Therefore before we start the experiment, we need to calibrate the load cell and extensometer to determine tis proportionality constant or calibration constant. 3.3: ANALYSIS OF THE DATA In order to obtain the material properties from the P vs. aL data, we need to covert P and AL into engineering stress (a) and engineering strain () fst. «is defined (psi) = PCB)! Ay Cin?) were 4y isthe inal cress sectional area (= pj) and vs defined as Shown in Fig. 1.2 is a cvs. ¢ relation for a typical hot-rolled, low-carbon steel! material from which we can determine the following material properties:ULTIMATE TENSILE ‘STRENGTH UPPER YIELD STRENGTH PLASTIC STRAIN FOR MATERIAL, LOADED TO STRESS AT POINT A ELASTIC STRAIN FOR MATERIAL ‘LOADED TO STRESS AT POINT A ENGINEERING STRESS, (c) psi ENGINEERING STRAIN, (¢) in/in Figure 3.2: Engineering stross - stra relation for a ty I hot-rolled, low carbon steol. (2) upper yield strength (psi) (S,) (©) lower yield strength (psi) (©) (ultimate) tensile strength (Ss) (4) modulus of elasticity (E) (psi): the slope of the intial straight tine(©) modulus of resilience : The total area underneath the initial straight line. Let ey be the engineering strain at 6, Then the modulus of resilience can be calculated as, Lee, Nace that «has the ur of fecaterth and «hes the unt of lengverth. So the modus of sence hs the unit of fercexlengthengt’ energy per unt vue (6) modus of oughress: The tll area under the o v8. © uve, which can be coproxnated by (2/4, hare s 18 the engineering strain at Face. Notice tht toughness agen has the unt of enery pr unt vlime I gvs an ncaton on how ‘much energy that can be absorbed by the material before it fractures, (0.2% 002) offetyeld strength: This is @ conventional definition of yield strength {tis useful especially for those materials which do not exhibit distinct upper and lower vield stresses as for low carbon steel, For example, the stress strain curves of aluminum alloys show 2 smooth transition from elastic (linear) to plastic (nontinear) region instead of distinct upper and lower yield point To understand this definition, we need first to define plastis strain and elastic strain. Elastic strain is a recoverable strain, ite. when the load is released, this part of the strain is fully recovered, Plastic strain is @ permanent strain, i, it will not be recovered after the load is released. Ifthe stress is below the yield strength, the material behaves elastically, ic. all the strain is recoverable or elastic. For metals, the relation between o and « is finear (a straight line) in the elastic range, ic. a = E e, When the stress goes beyond the yield strength, the material becomes plastically or permanently deformed, and the total strain consists of ‘elastic and plastic strains, The elastic strain isthe part of strain that can be recovered ifthe load is released (note that the unloading path isa straight line parallel to the elastic line since no plastic deformation occurs during unloading, see Figure 12), and follows Hooke's law, «= of. The plastic strain isthe part of the strain whichis left permanently in the specimen, In other words, © = taint + sptte = OIE + cpm, 0.2% offset yield strongth is basically the engineering stress at which eanic=0.2%=0,002. After you plot your © vs. e curve, mark the point (on the « axis) where strain is equal to 0.254=0.002. From that point, draw a straight line paralla! to the elastic line and find the intersection point wth o vs. © curve, The stress at the intersection point is the 0.2% offset yield strength (6) Ductitty: (G1); Percentage elongation in two inches at fracture. ‘The ductity of a material i its abilty to deform under load and can be measured by either a length change or an area change. ‘The percent elongation. which is the percent strain to fracture, is given by i geelongation = 22" «109 = 241x100 ty i where Li is the length between gage marks at fracture. We should note that this {quantity depends on the gage length used in measuring L, as nonuniform deformation occurs in a certain regior of the specimen during necking just prior to fracture, hence, the gage length should aways be specified (62) Percentage reduction in area at facture ‘The percent reduction in area is cross-sectional area measurement of ductility defined asYoraduetion= r= 100 where Avs the cross-sectional area at fracture. Note ris not sensitive to gage length and is somewhat easier t obtain, only a micrometer is required 3.4 True stress (c-) and true strain (c;) Since the cross sectional area and the gage length keep changing during the test, the engineering stress which is based on the constant intial cross sectional area and engineering strain whichis based on the inital gage length do not represent the true stress oF tue strain, To correct this situation, true stress (a) and tue stain (er) quantities are used The tre stress (is defined with respect othe curent area, ke ao -8 rat, where A is the current area. The true strain is defined with respect to the current gage lenath L. Since the current gage length keeps changing, it can be defined incrementally Where de;’s the increment ofthe true strain, and dl. is the increment of the gage length “The above equation canbe integrated as fem teedIn actual applications, instead of keeping measuring the current cross sectional area A and current gage length L during the test, we typically determine the true stress and true strain (c) from the engineering stress and engineering strain, i. o, =o(l48) and 6, =In(l +2) ‘The derivation is based on the assumption that volume is conserved during deformation, ie. AsLa = AL or LiLa= AdlA, With the above assumptions, ¢, can be rewritten as t ylat = te) hy ty Jo* Ab iy ye) Similarly o, can be written as PP aA "hy or (+s) Note that the assumpticn of volume conservation is only true in the plastic range of CEC 488 0 _—————$ Card IEEE 488 Bus Strain gage Card | 1 Ib Test Apparatus ower [Power Supply | || with strain gage Fig. 8.3 COMPUTER-AIDED DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM 9.2.3 Analysis of Bridge Truss Using Strain Gages Ideally the memters of a pinjoined truss can only support either tension or wamipression, Le, uniaxial long. The strain gage mounted on @ truss member ean be used fo measure the axial strain of the particular member. Once strain is measured, we can agply the Hooke's law for uniaxial stress condition, Le. o = Be, to determine the axial stress. We can also calculate axial force by multiplying axial stross by the cross sectional area, For the tuss its desirable to measure the axial load in several members ofthe truss and compare these values with analytical results. The electric strain gages have already been mounted in the truss at positions shown on the following laboratory sheets, The truss is fabricated using pin-ended links, however, because af friction and binding of the joints iis stil possible for a small amount of bending to be present. This bending load will cause errors in the axial strain measurements,‘The Wheatstone Bridge circuit enables us to arrange the gage connections in such a way that only average axial strains are measured, the strains due to bending loads are cancelled,LABORATORY SHEET ‘TRUSS DEFLECTION Object: To analyze a simple pinjointed frame using equilibrium equations, and to check validity of analysis by experimental measurements with strain gages. Procedure: A small bridge truss fabricated from aluminum (E= 10x10 psi) tubing is supplied, The truss is fxed on one end and supported on rollers on the other; two loading hangers are mounted on joints C and E as shown below. Strain gage locations ae indicated in figure bebw. Note: All gages shown in the figure are actually two gages mounted diametrically ‘opposed to cancel bending strains and measure only direct tensile strains. Note: All russ members are of equal length. 41, Apply a 10 Ib freload to each hanger to achieve an equilibrium position, 0Measure the offset voltages from the strain gages using the computer and data logger. Apoly assigned load to each hanger, ie. Pt = 25 Ib, and P2 = $0 Ib Measure the voltages from the strain gages to find the axial strains in the membersLAB REPORT ‘TRUSS DEFLECTION Pre-Lab Report ‘Attach another sheet showing both the calculations and answers for the theoretical strain in members 1 (AB), 3(BD), 5(CD), 7 (CE), 11(EG) using Pi = 25 lb, Pa =50Ib. Note: Analyze the truss using half of the applied load because the truss consists of two layers and each layer shares half of the loads. REPORT 4, Summary 2. Caleulations 41. Uist the truss properties as follows. ‘TRUSS PROPERTIES ‘Truss Material ‘Young's Modulus, psi Member Cross-Sectional Area sq. inches Gage Factor, Test Loads: Py 2. Using the anaysis techniques that you leamed from Statics or Mechanics of Materials, detamine forces and strains caused in the members, 1(AB), (BD), 5(CD), 7 (CE), 11(E), by load Pr and Pe acting together. 3, Construct graphically the vector force polygon for joints C & E. The polygon ‘must close because the joint isin equilibrium. n4, Present the experimental data and the calculation results in the following format ‘Member | Member Strain | Member Strain | Percentage (calculated) | (Experiment) error infin invin '5. Compare the ebove results with those determined experimentally 3. Discussion 1. How well do the analytical and experimental results compare? And What are the reasons forthe differences in the analytical and experimental values? 2. Does it appear that bending loads are present in any member? Why may this occur? 4, Conclusion9. COMBINED STRESS 9.4 INTRODUCTION In the bridge truss experiment, we have demonstrated the use of strain gage to determine the stra stress, and force in each truss member. Each member of a pin- joined truss is subjected to a uniaxial stress loading condition as encountered in simple tension test as shown in “igure 9.1. Under uniaxial loading condition, the Hooke's law is o=Fe FIGURE 9.1 THE TENSILE TEST In practice, most of the structures are subjected to three dimensional loading which could result from a combination tension or compression, bending, andor torsion fas shown in Figure 9.2. The stress distribution is in general non-uniform, Le. the stress varies from point to poi To define the stress at a point, say point O in Figure 82, we can imagine point © as a small cube with each side being acted upon by a surface traction measured ine per unit area basis, The traction on each side can be decomposed into one nermal and two shear components, For example, on the surface whose normal isin the fositive x direction, the normal traction is, and the two sheartraction components are ,, and +... The stress at a point can be defined in terms of all the traction acting on this cube and can be put in a matrix from as follows. Ox Ty Tz ty Oy tye a |tx Tay oz FIGURE 9.2 GENERAL THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRESS STATE ‘As a result of conservation of angular momentum, we can show that +, and t,, Ifwe can determine the above 3x3 stress matrix, we can determine the principal stresses and maximum shear stresses. This information can then be used in dejgn. Recall that the commonly used failure theories are based on ether principal stress of maximum shear stress. ‘The three dimensonal stress state as specified by the above 3x matric is very difficult to measure, However, on a free surface, the 3x3 stress matrix can be reducedtoa 2x2 matrix. For example, assume z direction is normal to the free surface. Since there is no traction on free surface, «. and the stress matrix becomes ox try O} tyr Ay olersinoy [% f] ® This is the so-called plane stress. The plane stress can be measured by strain gages quite easily and ths isthe purpose of the current experiment. It should be reminded that strain gage is a device that measures strain, So Hooke’s law has to be used to convert the strain gage reading into stress. Once the 2x2 stress matrix is determined, the principal stresses, a, and a, and maximum shear stress can be easly determined by the use of Moth's circle relation as shown in Figure 8.3. t FIGURE 9.3 Mohr’s Circle. ‘The stress states with respect to the principal directions and maximum shear stress directions are shown in Figure 9.4 6, \ é = "2 ey! FIGURE 9.4 A GENERAL TWO-DIMENTIONAL STRESS STATE AND STRESSES RESULTING FROM ELEMENT ROTATION 410.2 Theoretical Background For Plane Stress Measurement By Strain gages For plane stress leading, the corresponding strains are the normal or elongation strains ©, and «, and the shear strain y.,. Since the electric strain gages will measure only normal strains (c), not shear strains (y), we need to measure three normal strains ata point to determine the three stains ¢,, £, and y, at @point. This follows directly from the equations that give strain in a direction a (c,),oviented at an angle 0 from the x axis, a8 shown inthe figure below, when strains along the x and y axes, £, and e,, and the shear strain y,, are known, y x Figure 9.6 Strain gage orientation relative to x direction n‘This equation is derived in most Strength of Materials books and is as follows. ~«, Jeos20 +L, sin20 @ If we measure three strains, #9, 42, &,, at three different angles 6, 6;, 6, we can substitute the values in the above equations and obtain three equations to solve for ¢,, and 7, and 7_—, Can then be calculated from «,, : 1 2nd 7, sing the Mohv’s Circle equation A special type of electric strain gage called a rosette is available for measuring the tree normal strains a a point. These rosettes are simply three strain gages, of the type used in the last laboratory, mounted one directly on top ofthe other, and oriented at precise angular relationship wth respect to each other. Several types of rosettes are available, the most common being a rectangular rosette wth 45° between gages and a dotta rosette with 60° between gages. ‘Once the principal strains are found the principal stresses follow directly fom the Hook relations, considering the Poisson effect: BE ‘or more conveniently, the inverse of these oo fSctE me) (esve)E oa)where E is the elastic modulus and v is Poisson's rato. ‘The shear stress-strain relation is completely independent of the normal stress- strain relation and is given by iy where G is the shear modulus of the material is equal to £/[2(1+v)]. Hence rot Gy: ROCA tat Fg IS also equal to L(c;~c:) Note that the above relations are a special case of the Hooke's law for plane stress. In general, for plane stress ar two dimensional stress, 7”LABORATORY SHEET COMBINED STRESS Object: To ilusvate tte use of rosette strain gages and computer-aided data ‘acquisition system in determining the plane stress experimentally. To illustrate the application of superposition in finding analytically the slress due to a combination of normal and shear loads, Procedure: A closed-end stee! tube is provided with fitings for internal pressurization with hydraulic oI is mounted in a cradle so there is no restraint to axial or hoop expansion. One end of the tube is fixed; the other is attached to a lever arm so an axial torque can be applied t> the tube, Rectangular and delta strain gage rosettes are applied to the surface of he tube. The configuration is shown below Tube outaide dianeter = 1.00" Tube inside diameter = 0.37" ”The block diagram of the computer-aided data acquisition system is shown below. HP 3497A Data Logger ‘Computer ‘eee CHC 488 1/0) Card IEEE 488 Bus Strain gage Card ee | Test Apparatus Power Supply | with rosettes ‘The procedure follows. 4. Ensure that the data logger is connected to the IEEE-488 port on the PC and. turned on, that the 6 strain gages and the external excitation power supply is on land connected to zhe data loggers strain gage board. (The TA should do this before the lab stats.) 2, Ensure that the afpropriate software is installed on the PC to allow Excel to ‘communicate with the data logger. In this case the CEC-IEEE software isin the DLL ieee_32m.dllin the windows folder, (The TA should do this before the lab starts.) a3. Using your favorite method (i.e. double clicking the Excel file *.../combined strainttemplate for combined strain.x) start the “template” data acquisition Excel spreadsheet from the ME320 folder. Enable the macros when prompted 4. Here are the basic steps to acquit the stains after starting Excel with the template fa, Replace allthe user data with your own name and date b, Move the “active cell’ to the first “ted line of text. Ensure that the test fixture is untoaded, Take the fist set of data by clicking on the large "button". When you click the "take dat button, the computer wil run a ‘Visual Basle Macro, which will request voltages from the data logger; the voltages wi be displayed on the spreadsheet, inthe row starting atthe current active cel . Load the test fixture with a torsion load, Record the load 4, Move the active cell tothe second “red” line of text. Take the tosion- loaded readings, by again clicking the button. Again the voltages are displayed and strains calculated by the spreadsheet . Pressurize he tet fixture. The test fixture wll loose some pressure after you fist pressurize it; allow about 5 minutes for the pressure to stabilize before taking the readings, You could use this time to view and understand the Mohr’ circles drawn in the spreadsheet forthe torsion consition Record the pressure. 24. Move the active cell othe third “red” line of text. Take the pressurized load readings, 1, Move the active cell tothe last ne of red" text. Keeping the pressure in the cylinder reload the test fixture wth the torsion load. Take the lat set cf readings, it would be best take these lat two readings as close together as possible, to minimize pressure changes. i. Save the spreadsheet using “save as" to save itto your disk, Spreadshoot Calculations The spreadsheet wil calculate the stain on the 6 strain gages of the to rosettes, The principal strains, and the acute angle from the axis of gage 1 will also be calculated and displayed. The principalstrain data, and acute angles wl be used to “draw Mohr's circles fr the three load sondtions for both rosettes. “The voltages are converted into strains ‘e" using the following equations: —Noutan” Vout 7 oe, - 7 Fev) Where Vour = Voltage acrossbridge Viv = Voltageinput tobridge F = Gage Factor provided by the gage manufacturer ‘The principle strain is calculated using the following equations: Rectangular Rosette: 6ext[eves (eres) Gerer-es) | Delta Rosette: cuent[arervert Aerea) ered ara] Vile-e,) Ou TAN SeLAB REPORT COMBINED STRESS Pre-Lab Report: (1/8) For the “methodology” part, draw a flow chart showing how the strain rosette data will be used to determine the principal stresses and maximum shear stress. Lab Report 4. Summary 2, Results 1. Draw a block diagram of the data acquisition system, 2. Computer outputs, 3, Tabulate the test results as follows Torque only (a) Pressure only (b) Sum of (in-to) (si) (a) and (0) (experiment) (experiment) gage 1 gage 2 gage 3 gage 4 gage gage 6 Combined Torque and Pressure (experiment) ‘4, Tabulate the principal strains measured from delta and rectangular strain gage rosettes as follows (forthe combined loading only) a i Deka rosette Ractangular rosette) as5. For each strain gage rosette, calculate the corresponding o}, 0, and tra using the measured ¢ and «;. The Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ratio for steel are 30x10° psi and 0.25 respectively 6. Calculate the theoretical o,, 03, and ama using the thick and thin-walled pressure ‘vessel equations. Review of thick and thin walled pressure vessel equations: es ee Thick-waled tube (outer surface) Thinswalled tube (outer surface) ro Principal stresses: «1, =(c, +2,)/2#{l@, -@,)/2} + Maximum shear stress: 1, =, -0,)/2P +2°}? Where: fo outer radius inner radius f= mean radius al thickness. lar moment feta of tho tube [> /2)e!P = pressure T rque a, = axial stress. = Circumferential stress hear stress 7. Tabulate the results fram steps 5 and 6 as follows. Experiment (delta) : 7 = 1 Experiment (rectan) Thickwallcale. | Thinswall cale 3, Discussion 4. Comment on the superposition principle applied in the current experiment. 2, Compare analytical ard experimental results 3, Discuss any sources of error in the analytical calculations, 4, Discuss any sources of error in the experimental method. '5, Which technique do you feel is the most accurate? 4, Gonelusion410, THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL EXPERIMENT LABORAORY SHEET Object : To practice the use of strain gage for stress analysis and determine the pressure of the fluid contained within an aluminum beverage can Procedures: 4. Install strain gages on the surface of the can along the circumferential direction as shown below. 2, Connect and balance the strain gage indicator 3. Open the can to relieve the pressure 4, Read the indicated strain and calculate the pressure that was relieved 5. Carefully measure the diameter and the thickness ofthe can, AnalysisFollowing the equetions given on chapter 9, for a thin-walled pressure vessel, the axial and circumferential stesses are given by @, = pr'/2t, and o, =20, = pr/t For plane stress condition, «, and «,=Ss-%o, (2) id nts, @) ‘Substitution of oF and @,, into Eans. (1) and (2) yields pressure P in terms of either &, or £28 follows P=26e, ir-2v) =21Be, r2—¥)] ”LAB REPORT ‘THIN.WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL EXPERIMENT Lab Report 4, Summary 2, Results a. Tabulate the results ofthe pop can experiment as follows. Diameter Thickness Circumferential Stain b, Caloulate the pressure based on the measured strain (E and v for aluminum are 10x10° psi and 0.33 respectively) 3. Discussion 1. Do some research to see if you could find some information on the range of pressure inside the beverage can and comment on your results, 2, Acircular shaft with radius ris subjected to a torque T. The modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of the shaft are E and v respectively. Show how a single strain ‘gage mounted in the 45° direction with respect to the longitudinal axis can be ‘employed to determine the applied torque. In other words, write Tin terms of E, v | f and «, where eis the reading of the strain gage. 4, Gonelusion11, PHOTOELASTICITY 44.4 INTRODUCTION ‘The photoelastic technique is one of the most powerful experimental stress analysis techniques. The technique is valuable because it gives an overall picture o the stress field, quickly showing regions of stress intensification. In adition, the direction of principal stresses is abo easily determined, Like all experimental techniques, photoelasticty requires some practice to yield accurate results; in particular, the determination of the principal stessesa, and o, on the interior of the model requires considerable effor. In this experiment we wil be interested only in determining the sttess on the Boundary othe model where one of the principal stresses is zero. In the photoelastic method a model ofthe shape tobe investigated is made from 2 suitable transparent material. The model is then loaded in @ manner similar to the actual part and an accurate description ofthe stress magnitude and directions obtained bby measuring the change in optical properties ofthe transparent model. These changes in properties are measured by viewing the model in a special equipment called a polariscope, so named Eecause polarized light or ight vibrating in single plane only, is used ‘The property of the model material that makes it suitable fr stress feld studies is termed birefringence, The effects ofthis property are as folows 1. A polarized light beam passing through a birefingent material becomes spit into two components, parallels to each direction ofthe principal stress axes, o2. These split polarized beams are out of phase by an amount that is dependent of the difference of the principal stresses, ie. to (2, -2,) at a point on the loaded model. In this experiment because of time limitations we wil not be concemed with the theoretical background explaining the relation between stress in the model and the related optical effects, but simply note how the engineer can quickly use photoctastcty to deterine stress concentrations. We will use the polariscope in what Is termed a circularly polarized ligh: configuration. In this configuration the model is located between the polarizing elements as sketched below povarmer 4 PLATE v4 PLATE ANALYZER LGHT source MODEL Fig. 11.1 BASIC POLARISCOPE CONFIGURATION ‘We nate in the stetch above that special fiters called polarizers are used, one each end of the polariscepe. Inside these fiters is another set of polarizing fiters called quarter-wave, (1/4), pletes. These elements can be arranged so the background light is either light, called light eld, or completely extinguished, called dark field, 2‘When the loaded model is viewed in this type polariscope, a fringe pattem ‘termed an isochomatic pattem is apparent These patterns are the loci of constant principal stress difference. That is, if we know the calibration constant K of the photoelastic material then\ (e,-¢,)=kn where n is the fringe order at any point in the model. In interpreting a fringe pattem then, itis necessary to know the fringe order at the point of interest, Each dark band, for a dark field arranger t corresponds to an integral (0, 1, 2, 3, etc) fringe order. In this experiment, we are simply interested in the maximum fringe order at the radii. The {tinge order can be determined in at least two ways. One method is to count the fringe order to the point of interast by beginning atthe point of zero fringe order such as a free Unloaded corner. At such a comer =o, =0, hence o, =o; land n must be zero. The second method is to observe to increase in fringe order at the point of interest as the odel is slowly loaded from zero load. aLARGE RADIUS 3/8"D - 2 HOLES Fig, 11.2 Photoelasticity modelFig. 11.3 Photoolastic model as viewed in polarioscope. Fringe order is 0 at arp corner and 2 in narrow leg.LABORATORY SHEET PHOTOELASTICITY Object: To determine experimentally the stress concentration due to a step in a fat plate. rocedure: 1. A photoelastic model as shown in Fig. 11.2is provided 2, Carefully mount the mode! is the load frame and arrange the polarioscope in a céreular configuration witha dark field, (The instructor wll help here). 3, Load the plastic riodel unt! the second order fringe appears in the smaller leg. The specimen will appear dark with no load applied. As load is applied, it will gt ight then dark again. This's the fist order finge, Continued loading causes another light band to appear than again dark in the small eg. This is the required second order ‘ringe. Further loading may break the specimen,LAB REPORT PHOTOELASTICITY Pre-Lab Report REPORT 4, Summary 2, Results 4. Make a drawing ofthe specimen (Refer Fig. 11.2, change 7-"to 72) . Attach a copy f Figure 11.3. . Indicate the fringe orders forthe fringes shown in Figure 11.3. 4. On the drawing of the specimen, show the directions of the nonzero principal stresses in the smaller leg and at the two radi Estimate the stiess concentration factor at each of the two radii based on the measured Finge vider. 9, Discussion Comments on phetoelasticity as a stress analysis tool, as compared to strain Gage technique. 4, Conclusion o”