Module-3

CS 306-COMPUTER NETWORKS

Module-III

Network layer – Routing – Shortest path routing, Flooding, Distance Vector Routing, Link
State Routing, RIP, OSPF, Routing for mobile hosts.

The Network Layer:

Responsible for delivering packets between endpoints over multiple links

• Concerned with getting packets from source to destination.

• The network layer must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths
through it.

• When source and destination are in ​different networks,​ the network layer (IP) must
deal with these differences.

Design Goals:

• The services provided by the network layer should be independent of the subnet
topology.

• The Transport Layer should be shielded from the number, type and topology of the

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subnets present.
STUDENTS
The network addresses available to the Transport Layer should use a uniform
numbering plan (even across LANs and WANs).

Network Layer Design Issues:

• Store-and-forward packet switching

• Services provided to transport layer

• Implementation of connectionless service

• Implementation of connection-oriented service

• Comparison of virtual-circuit and datagram networks

Store-and-Forward Packet Switching:

Hosts send packets into the network; packets are forwarded by routers

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Figure: The environment of the network layer protocols.

Services Provided to the Transport Layer:

1. Services independent of router technology.

2. Transport layer shielded from number, type, topology of routers.

3. Network addresses available to transport layer use uniform numbering plan even
across LANs and WANs

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Implementation of Connectionless Service:

● Datagram
● Virtual Circuit

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Figure: Routing within a datagram subnet

Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service:

Figure:Routing within a virtual-circuit subnet.

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Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram Networks:

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Routing Algorithms:
STUDENTS
The routing algorithm is that part of the network layer software responsible for deciding
which output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on.

➢ Static Routing
➢ Dynamic Routing
• Optimality principle

• Shortest path algorithm

• Flooding

• Distance vector routing

• Link state routing

• Hierarchical Routing

• Broadcast Routing

• Multicast Routing

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• Routing for Mobile Hosts

• Routing in ad hoc networks

Optimality Principle:

Before we get into specific algorithms, it may be helpful to note that one can make a general
statement about optimal routes without regard to network topology or traffic. This statement
is known as the ​optimality principle​.

As a direct consequence of the optimality principle, we can see that the set of optimal routes
from all sources to a given destination form a tree rooted at the destination. Such a tree is
called a ​sink tree ​and is illustrated in Fig. , where the distance metric is the number of hops.
Note that a sink tree is not necessarily unique; other trees with the same path lengths may
exist. The goal of all routing algorithms is to discover and use the sink trees for all routers.

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Figure: (a) A subnet. (b) A sink tree for router

Since a sink tree is indeed a tree, it does not contain any loops, so each packet will be
delivered within a finite and bounded number of hops. In practice, life is not quite this easy.
Links and routers can go down and come back up during operation, so different routers may
have different ideas about the current topology. Also, we have quietly finessed the issue of
whether each router has to individually acquire the information on which to base its sink tree
computation or whether this information is collected by some other means. We will come
back to these issues shortly. Nevertheless, the optimality principle and the sink tree provide a
benchmark against which other routing algorithms can be measured.

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Shortest Path Routing:

The idea is to build a graph of the subnet, with each node of the graph representing a router
and each arc of the graph representing a communication line (often called a link). To choose a
route between a given pair of routers, the algorithm just finds the shortest path between them
on the graph.

The concept of a ​shortest path ​deserves some explanation. One way of measuring path
length is the number of hops. Using this metric, the paths ​ABC ​and ​ABE ​in Fig. are equally
long. Another metric is the geographic distance in kilometers, in which case ​ABC ​is clearly
much longer than ​ABE​(assuming the figure is drawn to scale).

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Figure: The first five steps used in computing the shortest pathfromAtoD. The arrows
indicate the working node.

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Several algorithms for computing the shortest path between two nodes of a graph are known.
This one is due to Dijkstra (1959). Each node is labeled (in parentheses) with its distance
from the source node along the best known path. Initially, no paths are known, so all nodes a
relabeled with infinity. As the algorithm proceeds and paths are found, the labels may change
,reflecting better paths. A label may be either tentative or permanent. Initially, all labels are
tentative. When it is discovered that a label represents the shortest possible path from the
source to that node, it is made permanent and never changed thereafter. To illustrate how the
labeling algorithm works, look at the weighted, undirected graph of Fig.(a), where the
weights represent, for example, distance. We want to find the shortest path from ​A ​to ​D​. We
start out by marking node ​A ​as permanent, indicated by a filled-in circle. Then we examine,
in turn, each of the nodes adjacent to ​A​(the working node), relabeling each one with the
distance to ​A​. Whenever a node is relabeled, we also label it with the node from which the
probe was made so that we can reconstruct the final path later. Having examined each of the
nodes adjacent to ​A​, we examine all the tentatively labeled nodes in the whole graph and
make the one with the smallest label permanent, as shown in Fig. (b). This one becomes the
new working node. We now start at ​B ​and examine all nodes adjacent to it. If the sum of the

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label on ​B​and the distance from ​B ​to the node being considered is less than the label on that
node, we have a shorter path, so the node is relabeled.

After all the nodes adjacent to the working node have been inspected and the tentative label s
changed if possible, the entire graph is searched for the tentatively-labeled node with the
smallest value. This node is made permanent and becomes the working node for the next
round. Figure shows the first five steps of the algorithm. To see why the algorithm works,
look at Fig.(c). At that point we have just made ​E ​permanent. Suppose that there were a
shorter path than ​ABE​, say ​AXYZE​. There are two possibilities: either node ​Z ​has already
been made permanent, or it has not been. If it has, then ​E ​has already been probed (on the
round following the one when ​Z ​was made permanent), so the ​AXYZE ​path has not escaped
our attention and thus cannot be a shorter path. Now consider the case where ​Z ​is still
tentatively labeled. Either the label at ​Z ​is greater than or equal to that at ​E​, in which case
AXYZE ​cannot be a shorter path than ​ABE​, or it is less than that of ​E​, in which case ​Z and not
E ​will become permanent first, allowing ​E ​to be probed from ​Z

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Dijkstra's algorithm to compute the shortest path through a graph:

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Flooding:

Flooding​, in which every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing line except the one it
arrived on. Flooding obviously generates vast numbers of duplicate packets, in fact, an
infinite number unless some measures are taken to damp the process. One such measure is to
have a hop counter contained in the header of each packet, which is decremented at each hop,
with the packet being discarded when the counter reaches zero. Ideally, the hop counter
should be initialized to the length of the path from source to destination. If the sender does
not know how long the path is, it can initialize the counter to the worst case, namely, the full
diameter of the subnet

Distance Vector Routing:

Distance vector routing ​algorithms operate by having each router maintain a table (i.e, a
vector) giving the best known distance to each destination and which line to use to get there.

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These tables are updated by exchanging information with the neighbors. The distance vector
routing algorithm is sometimes called by other names, most commonly the distributed
Bellman-Ford ​routing algorithm and the ​Ford-Fulkerson ​algorithm, after the researchers
who developed it (Bellman, 1957; and Ford and Fulkerson, 1962). It was the original
ARPANET routing algorithm and was also used in the Internet under the name RIP.

Concept of Distance Vector Routing:

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In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table indexed by, and containing

one entry for, each router in the subnet. This entry contains two parts: the preferred outgoing

line to use for that destination and an estimate of the time or distance to that destination. The

metric used might be number of hops, time delay in milliseconds, total number of packets

queued along the path, or something similar.

Part (a) shows a subnet. The first four columnsof part (b) show the delay vectors received
from the neighbors of router​J .​A​claims to have a12-msec delay to​B​, a 25-msec delay to​C​, a
40-msec delay to​D​, etc. Suppose that​J​hasmeasured or estimated its delay to its neighbors,​A​,​I,
H​, and​K​as 8, 10, 12, and 6 msec,respectively.

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Figure:
(a) A subnet. (b) Input from
A
,
I
,

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H
,
K
, and the ne w routing
table for
J
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Consider how​J​computes its new route to router​G​. It knows that it can get to​A​in 8
msec,and​A​claims to be able to get to​G​in 18 msec, so​J​knows it can count on a delay of 26
msecto​G​if it forwards packets bound for​G​to​A​. Similarly, it computes the delay to​G​via​I​,​H​,
and​K​as 41 (31 + 10), 18 (6 + 12), and 37 (31 + 6) msec, respectively. The best of these
valuesis 18, so it makes an entry in its routing table that the delay to​G​is 18 msec and that
theroute to use is via​H​. The same calculation is performed for all the other destinations, with
thenew routing table shown in the last column of the figure

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Distance Vector Routing Table:

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Routing table Distribution:

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Updating Routing Table for Router A:

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Final Routing Table:

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Count-to-Infinity​Problem:
STUDENTS
From this figure, it should be clear why bad news travels slowly: no router ever has a value

more than one higher than the minimum of all its neighbors. Gradually, all routers work their
way up to infinity, but the number of exchanges required depends on the numerical value
used for infinity. For this reason, it is wise to set infinity to the longest path plus 1. If the
metric is time delay, there is no well-defined upper bound, so a high value is needed to
prevent a path with a long delay from being treated as down. Not entirely surprisingly, this
problem is known as the ​count-to-infinity ​problem.

Link State Routing:

Variants of link state routing are now widely used.The idea behind link state routing is simple
and can be stated as five parts. Each router must do the following:

1.Discover its neighbors and learn their network addresses.

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2.Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighbors.

3.Construct a packet telling all it has just learned.

4.Send this packet to all other routers.

5.Compute the shortest path to every other router.

In effect, the complete topology and all delays are experimentally measured and distributed
toevery router. Then Dijkstra's algorithm can be run to find the shortest path to every
otherrouter.

Learning about the Neighbors​:

When a router is booted, its first task is to learn who its neighbors are. It accomplishes this
goal by sending a special HELLO packet on each point-to-point line. The router on the other
end is expected to send back a reply telling who it is. These names must be globally unique
because when a distant router later hears that three routers are all connected to​F​, it is essential
that it can determine whether all three mean the same

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Figure . (a) Nine routers and a LAN. (b) A graph model of (a).

Concept of Link State Routing:

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Cost in link state routing:

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Link state packet:

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Building Link State Packets:

Building the link state packets is easy. The hard part is determining when to build them. One
possibility is to build them periodically, that is, at regular intervals. Another possibility is to
build them when some significant event occurs, such as a line or neighbor going down or
coming back up again or changing its properties appreciably

Figure (a) A subnet. (b) The link state packets for this subnet

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Figure: The packet buffer for router

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Distributing the Link State Packets:

The trickiest part of the algorithm is distributing the link state packets reliably. As the packets
are distributed and installed, the routers getting the first ones will change their routes.
Consequently, the different routers may be using different versions of the topology, which
can lead to inconsistencies, loops, unreachable machines, and other problems.

RIP:

● A simple intradomain protocol

● Straightforward implementation of Distance Vector Routing

● Each router advertises its distance vector every 30 seconds (or whenever its routing
table changes) to all of its neighbors

● RIP always uses 1 as link metric

● Maximum hop count is 15, with “16” equal to “​∞​”

● Routes are timeout (set to 16) after 3 minutes if they are not updated

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RIP Message format:
STUDENTS

RIP Messages:

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• Two types of messages:

● Request messages

• used to ask neighboring nodes for an update

● Response messages

• contains an update

RIP Problems:

• RIP takes a long time to stabilize

● Even for a small network, it takes several minutes until the routing tables have
settled after a change

• RIP has all the problems of distance vector algorithms, e.g., count-to-Infinity

• RIP uses split horizon to avoid count-to-infinity

• The maximum path in RIP is 15 hops

An Example of RIP:

• Routers advertise the cost of reaching networks.

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STUDENTS
In this example, C’s update to A would indicate that C can reach Networks 2 and 3
with cost 0, Networks 5 and 6 with cost 1 and Network 4 with cost 2.

OSPF:

OSPF is a standardized Link-State routing protocol, designed to scale efficiently to support

larger networks. OSPF adheres to the following Link State characteristics:

• OSPF employs a hierarchical network design using Areas.

• OSPF will form neighbor relationships with adjacent routers in the same Area.

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• Instead of advertising the distance to connected networks, OSPF advertises the status of
directly connected links using Link-State Advertisements (LSAs).

• OSPF sends updates (LSAs) when there is a change to one of its links, and will only send
the change in the update. LSAs are additionally refreshed every 30 minutes.

• OSPF traffic is multicast either to address 224.0.0.5 (all OSPF routers) or 224.0.0.6 (all
Designated Routers).

• OSPF uses the Dijkstra Shortest Path First algorithm to determine the shortest path.

Other characteristics of OSPF include:

• OSPF supports only IP routing.

• OSPF routes have an administrative distance is 110.

• OSPF uses cost as its metric, which is computed based on the bandwidth of the link.

OSPF has no hop-count limit.

The OSPF process builds and maintains three separate tables:

• A neighbor table – contains a list of all neighboring routers.

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• A topology table – contains a list of all possible routes to all known networks within an
area.

• A routing table – contains the best route for each known network.

OSPF Neighbors OSPF forms neighbor relationships, called adjacencies, with other routers in
the same Area by exchanging Hello packets to multicast address 224.0.0.5. Only after an
adjacency is formed can routers share routing information. Each OSPF router is identified by
a unique Router ID. The Router ID can be determined in one of three ways:

• The Router ID can be manually specified.

• If not manually specified, the highest IP address configured on any Loopback interface on
the router will become the Router ID.

• If no loopback interface exists, the highest IP address configured on any Physical interface
will become the Router ID.

Multicast Routing:

Some applications require that widely-separated processes work together in groups, for
example, a group of processes implementing a distributed database system. In these
situations, it is frequently necessary for one process to send a message to all the other

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rmembers of the group. If the group is small, it can just send each other member a
point-to-point message. If the group is large, this strategy is expensive. Sometimes
broadcasting can be used, but using broadcasting to inform 1000 machines on a million-node
network isinefficient because most receivers are not interested in the message (or worse yet,
they aredefinitely interested but are not supposed to see it). Thus, we need a way to send
messages towell-defined groups that are numerically large in size but small compared to the
network as awhole.Sending a message to such a group is called​multicasting​, and its routing
algorithm is called​multicast routing.

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Figure: (a) A network. (b) A spanning tree for the leftmost router. (c) Amulticast tree for
group 1. (d) A multicast tree for group 2.

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(a) Core-based tree for group 1.

(b) Sending to group 1.

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Routing for Mobile Hosts:

STUDENTS
Hosts that never move are said to be stationary. They are connected to the network by copper
wires or fiber optics. In contrast, we can distinguish two other kinds of hosts. Migratory hosts
are basically stationary hosts who move from one fixed site to another from time to time but
use the network only when they are physically connected to it. Roaming hosts actually
compute on the run and want to maintain their connections as they move around. We will use
the term ​mobile hosts​to mean either of the latter two categories, that is, all hosts that areaway
from home and still want to be connected. All hosts are assumed to have a permanent ​home
location​that never changes. Hosts also have a permanent home address that can be used to
determine their home locations, analogous to the way the telephone number 1-212-5551212
indicates the United States(country code 1) and Manhattan (212). The routing goal in systems
with mobile hosts is to make it possible to send packets to mobile hosts using their home
addresses and have the packets efficiently reach them wherever they may be. The trick, of
course, is to find them.

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Figure: A WAN to which LANs, MANs, and wireless cells areattached​.

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Registration Procedure:

1. Periodically, each foreign agent broadcasts a packet announcing its existence

andaddress. A newly-arrived mobile host may wait for one of these messages, but if
nonearrives quickly enough, the mobile host can broadcast a packet saying: Are there
anyforeign agents around?
2. The mobile host registers with the foreign agent, giving its home address, current
datalink layer address, and some security information

3. The foreign agent contacts the mobile host's home agent and says: One of your hosts
isover here. The message from the foreign agent to the home agent contains the
foreignagent's network address. It also includes the security information to convince
the homeagent that the mobile host is really there.

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4. The home agent examines the security information, which contains a timestamp,
toprove that it was generated within the past few seconds. If it is happy, it tells
theforeign agent to proceed.
5. When the foreign agent gets the acknowledgement from the home agent, it makes
anentry in its tables and informs the mobile host that it is now registered.
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 IP Addressing & Subnetting
▪IP Addressing
▪Subnetting
▪VLSM
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CIDR
▪ STUDENTS

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IP Addresses
● An IP address is an address used to
uniquely identify a device on an IP network.
● The address is made up of 32 binary bits
which can be divisible into a network
portion and host portion with the help of a
KTUsubnet mask. STUDENTS
● 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1
octet = 8 bits)
● Dotted decimal format (for example,
172.16.81.100)

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IP Address Classes

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IP Address Classes
● Class A: The first octet is the network
portion. Octets 2, 3, and 4 are for
subnets/hosts
● Class B: The first two octets are the
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network portion. Octets 3 and 4 are for
subnets/hosts
● Class C: The first three octets are the
network portion. Octet 4 is for
subnets/hosts
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Private Address Range
Address Class Reserved Address Space
Class A 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
Class B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
Class C 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

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Network Masks
● Distinguishes which portion of the
address identifies the network and which
portion of the address identifies the
node.
● Default masks:
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➢ Class A:
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255.0.0.0
➢ Class B: 255.255.0.0
➢ Class C: 255.255.255.0

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Subnetting
● Creates multiple logical networks that
exist within a single Class A, B, or C
network.
● If you do not subnet, you will only be
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able to use one network from your Class
A, B, or C network, which is unrealistic
● Each data link on a network must have a
unique network ID, with every node on
that link being a member of the same
network
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Benefits of Subnetting
1)Reduced network traffic
2) Optimized network performance
3) Simplified management
4) Facilitated spanning of large
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geographical distances

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IP Subnet-Zero
● This command allows you to use the
first and last subnet in your network
design.
● For example, the Class C mask of 192
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provides subnets 64 and 128, but with
the IP subnet-zero command, you now
get to use subnets 0, 64, 128, and 192

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How to create subnets
● Determine the number of required network IDs:
➢ One for each subnet
➢ One for each wide area network connection
● Determine the number of required host IDs per
subnet:
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➢ One for each TCP/IP host
➢ One for each router interface
● Based on the above requirements, create the
following:
➢ One subnet mask for your entire network
➢ A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
➢ A range of host IDs for each subnet

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Subnetting a Class A/B/C Address
● How many subnets does the chosen
subnet mask produce?
● How many valid hosts per subnet are
available?
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● What are the valid subnets?
● What’s the broadcast address of each
subnet?
● What are the valid hosts in each subnet?

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Practice Example #1C: 255.255.255.128 (/25)
Network 192.168.10.0
● How many subnets? Since 128 is 1 bit on (10000000),
the answer would be 21= 2.
● How many hosts per subnet? We have 7 host bits off
(10000000), so the equation would be 27– 2 = 126
hosts.
What are the valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128.
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●
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Remember, we’ll start at zero and count in our block
size, so our subnets are 0, 128.
● What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The
number right before the value of the next subnet is all
host bits turned on and equals the broadcast address.
For the zero subnet, the next subnet is 128, so the
broadcast of the 0 subnet is 127.
● What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers
between the subnet and broadcast address
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Logical Network
Implementation

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Practice Example #2C: 255.255.255.224 (/27)
Network 192.168.10.0
● How many subnets? 224 is 11100000, so our
equation would be 23 = 8.
● How many hosts? 25– 2 = 30.
● What are the valid subnets? 256 – 224 = 32.
We just start at zero and count to the subnet
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mask value in blocks (increments) of 32: 0, 32,
64, 96, 128, 160, 192, and 224.
● What’s the broadcast address for each subnet
(always the number right before the next
subnet)?
● What are the valid hosts (the numbers
between the subnet number and the
broadcast address)?
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Practice Example #2C: 255.255.255.224 (/27)
Network 192.168.10.0
Subnet 0 32 …………. 192 224
Address
First Host 1 33 193 225
Last Host 30 62 222 254
Broadcast 31 63 223 255
Address

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Practice Example #1B: 255.255.128.0 (/17)
Network 172.16.0.0
● Subnets? 21 = 2
● Hosts? 215– 2 = 32,766 (7 bits in the third
octet, and 8 in the fourth)
● Valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. 0, 128.
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Remember that subnetting is performed
in the third octet, so the subnet numbers
are really 0.0 and 128.0, as shown in the
next table
● Broadcast address for each subnet?
● Valid hosts?
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Practice Example #1B: 255.255.128.0 (/17)
Network 172.16.0.0
Subnet 0.0 128.0
First Host 0.1 128.1
Last Host 127.254 255.254
Broadcast 127.255 255.255

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Practice Example #2B: 255.255.240.0 (/20)
Network 172.16.0.0
● Subnets? 24= 16.
● Hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094.
● Valid subnets? 256 – 240 = 0, 16, 32, 48,
etc., up to 240.
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● Broadcast address for each subnet?
● Valid hosts?

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Practice Example #2B: 255.255.240.0 (/20)
Network 172.16.0.0
Subnet 0.0 16.0 ……….. 240.0

First Host 0.1 16.1 240.1

Last Host 15.254 31.254 255.254

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Broadcast 15.255 STUDENTS 31.255 255.255

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Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

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Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?
● 5 subnets needed
● Can be assigned as follows:
➢ netA: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30
➢ netB: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to
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➢ netC: 204.15.5.64/27 host address range 65 to
94
➢ netD: 204.15.5.96/27 host address range 97 to
126
➢ netE: 204.15.5.128/27 host address range 129 to
158
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Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

KTU STUDENTS

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 Variable Length Subnet
Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?
● Given the same network and requirements as in Sample
Exercise 1 develop a subnetting scheme using VLSM, given:
◦ netA: must support 14 hosts
◦ netB: must support 28 hosts
◦ netC: must support 2 hosts
◦ netD: must support 7 hosts

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●
◦
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netE: must support 28 host
Determine what mask allows the required number of hosts.
◦ netA: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 14 hosts
◦ netB: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts
◦ netC: requires a /30 (255.255.255.252) mask to support 2 hosts
◦ netD: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 7 hosts
◦ netE: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts

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Variable Length Subnet
Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?
● The easiest way to assign the subnets is to
assign the largest first. For example, you
can assign in this manner:
◦ netB: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30
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◦ netE: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to
62
◦ netA: 204.15.5.64/28 host address range 65 to
78
◦ netD: 204.15.5.80/28 host address range 81 to
94
◦ netC: 204.15.5.96/30 host address range 97 to
98 For more study materials>www.ktustudents.in
Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

KTU STUDENTS

For more study materials>www.ktustudents.in

CIDR
● Classless Interdomain Routing
● Improve address space utilization
● Routing scalability in the Internet
● For example, if an ISP owns network
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172.16.0.0/16, then the ISP can offer
172.16.1.0/24, 172.16.2.0/24,and so on to
customers. Yet, when advertising to
other providers, the ISP only needs to
advertise 172.16.0.0/16
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