Chapter 3

Flow Past Immersed Body

(Introduction to Boundary Layer Theory)
Boundary layer theory

o Boundary Layer Thickness

o Displacement Thickness
o Momentum Thickness
The larger the Reynolds number, the thinner the
boundary layer along the plate at a given x-location.
Boundary Layer Theory
At a given x-location, the higher the
Reynolds number, the thinner the boundary
layer.

Flow visualization of a laminar flat plate boundary

layer profile. Photograph taken by F. X. Wortmann
in 1953 as visualized with the tellurium method.
Flow is from left to right, and the leading edge of the
flat plate is far to the left of the field of view.
Displacement Thickness
Displacement Thickness
The boundary layer affects the
irrotational outer flow in such
a way that the wall appears to
take the shape of the
displacement thickness. The
apparent U(x) differs from the
original approximation
because of the “thicker” wall.
For a laminar flat plate
Displacement thickness is
boundary layer, the
the imaginary increase in
displacement thickness is
thickness of the wall, as seen
roughly one-third of the 99 by the outer flow, due to the
percent boundary layer effect of the growing
thickness. boundary layer.
Momentum Thickness
Von Karman Momentum
Equation
• The momentum integral equation for the boundary layer flow on a
flat plate is:

• The following boundary conditions must be satisfied for any

assumed velocity distribution:
 at the surface of the plate 𝑦 = 0, 𝑢 = 0, 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 at the outer edge of boundary layer 𝑦 = 𝛿, 𝑢 = 𝑈
𝑑𝑢
𝑦 = 𝛿, =0
𝑑𝑦
Von Karman Momentum
Equation

4.91
Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradients
When the flow in the inviscid and/or irrotational outer
flow region (outside of the boundary layer) accelerates,
U(x) increases and P(x) decreases.
We refer to this as a favorable pressure gradient.
It is favorable or desirable because the boundary layer
in such an accelerating flow is usually thin, hugs
closely to the wall, and therefore is not likely to
separate from the wall.
When the outer flow decelerates, U(x) decreases, P(x)
increases, and we have an unfavorable or adverse
pressure gradient.
As its name implies, this condition is not desirable
because the boundary layer is usually thicker, does not
hug closely to the wall, and is much more likely to
Boundary layers with nonzero pressure gradients separate from the wall.
occur in both external flows and internal flows: (a)
boundary layer developing along the fuselage of an
airplane and into the wake, and (b) boundary layer
growing on the wall of a diffuser (boundary layer
thickness exaggerated in both cases).
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 The boundary layer along a body
immersed in a free stream is typically
exposed to a favorable pressure
gradient in the front portion of the body
and an adverse pressure gradient in the
rear portion of the body.

The closed streamline indicates a region of recirculating flow called a separation bubble.

Examples of boundary layer separation in regions of adverse pressure gradient: (a) an airplane wing at a
moderate angle of attack, (b) the same wing at a high angle of attack (a stalled wing), and (c) a wide-

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angle diffuser in which the boundary layer cannot remain attached and separates on one side.
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■ DRAG AND LIFT
• A body meets some resistance when it is forced to move
through a fluid, especially a liquid.
• A fluid may exert forces and moments on a body in and
about various directions.
• Drag: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the
flow direction.
• The drag force can be measured directly by simply
attaching the body subjected to fluid flow to a calibrated
spring and measuring the displacement in the flow
direction.
• Drag is usually an undesirable effect, like friction, and we
do our best to minimize it. High winds knock down trees, power
• But in some cases drag produces a very beneficial effect lines, and even people as a result of the
and we try to maximize it (e.g., automobile brakes). drag force.

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Lift: The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the
direction normal to the flow tend to move the body in that direction,
and their sum is called lift.
The fluid forces may generate moments and cause the body to
rotate.

The pressure and viscous

forces acting on a two-
dimensional body and the
resultant lift and drag
forces.

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It is much easier to force a
streamlined body than a
blunt body through a fluid.

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 Airplane wings are shaped and positioned
to generate sufficient lift during flight
while keeping drag at a minimum.
Pressures above and below atmospheric
pressure are indicated by plus and minus
signs, respectively.

(a) Drag force acting on a flat plate parallel to the flow depends on wall shear only.
(b) Drag force acting on a flat plate normal to the flow depends on the pressure only and
is independent of the wall shear, which acts normal to the free-stream flow.

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The drag and lift forces depend on the density of the fluid, the upstream velocity, and the size, shape,
and orientation of the body.
It is more convenient to work with appropriate dimensionless numbers that represent the drag and lift
characteristics of the body.
These numbers are the drag coefficient CD, and the lift coefficient CL.

A frontal
area

dynamic
pressure

In lift and drag calculations of some thin During a free fall, a body
bodies, such as airfoils, A is taken to be the reaches its terminal
planform area, which is the area seen by a velocity when the drag
person looking at the body from above in a force equals the weight of
direction normal to the body. the body minus the
buoyant force.
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■ FRICTION AND PRESSURE DRAG
• The drag force is the net force exerted by a fluid on a body in the direction of flow due to the
combined effects of wall shear and pressure forces.
• The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress is called the skin friction drag (or just friction
drag) since it is caused by frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to pressure is called the
pressure drag (also called the form drag because of its strong dependence on the form or shape of
the body).

• The friction drag is the component of the wall shear force in the direction of flow, and
thus it depends on the orientation of the body as well as the magnitude of the wall shear
stress.
• For parallel flow over a flat surface, the drag coefficient is equal to the friction drag
coefficient.
• Friction drag is a strong function of viscosity, and increases with increasing viscosity.
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Drag is due entirely to friction drag for a flat
plate parallel to the flow; it is due entirely to
pressure drag for a flat plate normal to the flow;
and it is due to both (but mostly pressure drag)
for a cylinder normal to the flow. The total drag
coefficient CD is lowest for a parallel flat plate,
highest for a vertical flat plate, and in between
(but close to that of a vertical flat plate) for a
cylinder.

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