Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-Products: Environmental Health Criteria 216
Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-Products: Environmental Health Criteria 216
Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-Products: Environmental Health Criteria 216
experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated
policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International
Labour Organisation or the World Health Organization.
DISINFECTANTS AND
DISINFECTANT BY-PRODUCTS
First draft prepared by G. Amy, University of Colorado, Boulder,
Colorado, USA; R. Bull, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, Washington, USA; G.F. Craun, Gunther F. Craun and
Associates, Staunton, Virginia, USA; R.A. Pegram, US
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, USA; and M. Siddiqui, University of Colorado, Boulder,
Colorado, USA
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ii
CONTENTS
PREAMBLE xv
iii
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
2.1 Background 27
2.2 Physical and chemical properties of common
disinfectants and inorganic disinfectant
by-products 28
2.2.1 Chlorine 28
2.2.2 Chlorine dioxide 31
2.2.3 Ozone 32
2.2.4 Chloramines 33
2.3 Analytical methods for disinfectant by-products
and disinfectants 33
2.3.1 Trihalomethanes, haloacetonitriles,
chloral hydrate, chloropicrin and
haloacetic acids 33
2.3.2 Inorganic disinfectant by-products 35
2.3.3 Total organic carbon and UV absorbance
at 254 nm 36
2.3.4 Chloramines 36
2.4 Mechanisms involved in the formation of
disinfectant by-products 37
2.4.1 Chlorine reactions 37
2.4.2 Chlorine dioxide reactions 39
2.4.3 Chloramine reactions 41
2.4.4 Ozone reactions 42
iv
2.5 Formation of organohalogen disinfectant
by-products 43
2.5.1 Chlorine organohalogen by-products 43
2.5.2 Chloramine organohalogen by-products 49
2.5.3 Chlorine dioxide organohalogen
by-products 49
2.5.4 Ozone organohalogen by-products 50
2.6 Formation of inorganic disinfectant by-products 50
2.6.1 Chlorine inorganic by-products 50
2.6.2 Chloramine inorganic by-products 52
2.6.3 Chlorine dioxide inorganic by-products 52
2.6.4 Ozone inorganic by-products 53
2.7 Formation of non-halogenated organic disinfectant
by-products 53
2.7.1 Chlorine organic by-products 53
2.7.2 Chloramine organic by-products 55
2.7.3 Chlorine dioxide organic by-products 55
2.7.4 Ozone organic by-products 55
2.8 Influence of source water characteristics on the
amount and type of by-products produced 56
2.8.1 Effect of natural organic matter and UV
absorbance at 254 nm 56
2.8.2 Effect of pH 59
2.8.3 Effect of bromide 61
2.8.4 Effect of reaction rates 61
2.8.5 Effect of temperature 63
2.8.6 Effect of alkalinity 63
2.9 Influence of water treatment variables on the
amount and type of by-products produced 64
2.9.1 Effect of ammonia 64
2.9.2 Effect of disinfectant dose 65
2.9.3 Effect of advanced oxidation processes 65
2.9.4 Effect of chemical coagulation 66
2.9.5 Effect of pre-ozonation 67
2.9.6 Effect of biofiltration 68
2.10 Comparative assessment of disinfectants 69
2.11 Alternative strategies for disinfectant by-product
control 69
2.11.1 Source control 75
2.11.2 Organohalogen by-products 75
2.11.3 Inorganic by-products 75
v
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
3. TOXICOLOGY OF DISINFECTANTS 83
vi
4. TOXICOLOGY OF DISINFECTANT BY-PRODUCTS 110
vii
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
viii
4.2.3.6 Comparative pharmacokinetics
and metabolism 200
4.2.3.7 Mode of action 202
4.2.4 Higher molecular weight halogenated acids 203
4.3 Haloaldehydes and haloketones 205
4.3.1 Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde,
chloral) 206
4.3.1.1 General toxicological properties
and information on dose–response
in animals 207
4.3.1.2 Toxicity in humans 209
4.3.1.3 Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity 210
4.3.1.4 Comparative metabolism and
pharmacokinetics 215
4.3.1.5 Mode of action 217
4.3.2 Halogenated aldehydes and ketones other
than chloral hydrate 218
4.3.2.1 General toxicological properties
and information on dose–response
in animals 218
4.3.2.2 Toxicity in humans 222
4.3.2.3 Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity 222
4.3.2.4 Comparative pharmacokinetics
and metabolism 227
4.3.2.5 Mode of action 227
4.4 Haloacetonitriles 228
4.4.1 General toxicological properties and
information on dose–response in animals
and humans 228
4.4.2 Reproductive and developmental toxicity 229
4.4.3 Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity 231
4.4.4 Comparative pharmacokinetics and
metabolism 233
4.4.5 Mode of action 235
4.5 Halogenated hydroxyfuranone derivatives 236
4.5.1 General toxicological properties and
information on dose–response in animals 237
4.5.2 Toxicity in humans 239
4.5.3 Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity 239
4.5.3.1 Studies in bacteria and
mammalian cells in vitro 239
ix
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
x
5.2.1 Epidemiological studies of cancer and
disinfected drinking-water 285
5.2.1.1 Cancer associations in
ecological studies 286
5.2.1.2 Cancer associations in
analytical studies 288
5.2.1.3 Meta-analysis of cancer studies 317
5.2.1.4 Summary of results of cancer
studies 319
5.2.2 Epidemiological studies of cardiovascular
disease and disinfected drinking-water 322
5.2.2.1 Summary of results of
cardiovascular studies 324
5.2.3 Epidemiological studies of adverse
reproductive/developmental outcomes and
disinfected drinking-water 325
5.2.3.1 Summary of results of
reproductive/developmental
studies 328
5.3 Epidemiological associations between disinfectant
by-products and adverse health outcomes 328
5.3.1 Epidemiological studies of cancer and
disinfectant by-products 328
5.3.1.1 Cancer associations in
ecological studies 328
5.3.1.2 Cancer associations in
analytical studies 333
5.3.1.3 Summary of results of cancer
studies 342
5.3.2 Epidemiological studies of cardiovascular
disease and disinfectant by-products 344
5.3.2.1 Summary of results of
cardiovascular studies 344
5.3.3 Epidemiological studies of adverse
reproductive/developmental outcomes and
disinfectant by-products 344
5.3.3.1 Summary of results of
reproductive/developmental
studies 351
5.4 Summary 353
xi
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
xii
9. RESEARCH NEEDS 377
REFERENCES 383
xiii
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
* * *
A detailed data profile and a legal file can be obtained from the
International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, Case postale
356, 1219 Châtelaine, Geneva, Switzerland (telephone no. + 41 22 –
9799111, fax no. + 41 22 – 7973460, E-mail [email protected]).
xiv
Environmental Health Criteria
PREAMBLE
Objectives
xv
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
Scope
xvi
The EHC monographs are intended to assist national and
international authorities in making risk assessments and subsequent
risk management decisions. They represent a thorough evaluation of
risks and are not, in any sense, recommendations for regulation or
standard setting. These latter are the exclusive purview of national
and regional governments.
Content
Selection of chemicals
xvii
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
Procedures
xviii
EHC PREPARATION FLOW CHART
Commitment
Commitment to
to draft
draft EHC
EHC
Possible meeting
Revision as of a few experts
Draft sent to IPCS Responsible Officer (RO) to resolve
necessary
controversial issues
First
First Draft
Draft
Insertion of TG changes
Editing
Editing French/Spanish
translations of Summary
Graphics
Word-processing
Final editing
xix
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
When the Task Group has completed its review and the RO is
satisfied as to the scientific correctness and completeness of the
document, the document then goes for language editing, reference
checking and preparation of camera-ready copy. After approval by the
Director, IPCS, the monograph is submitted to the WHO Office of
Publications for printing. At this time, a copy of the final draft is sent
to the Chairperson and Rapporteur of the Task Group to check for any
errors.
xx
drafting of the documents. A comprehensive file of all comments
received on drafts of each EHC monograph is maintained and is
available on request. The Chairpersons of Task Groups are briefed
before each meeting on their role and responsibility in ensuring that
these rules are followed.
xxi
WHO TASK GROUP ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
CRITERIA FOR DISINFECTANTS AND DISINFECTANT
BY-PRODUCTS
Members
Secretariat
xxii
Mr N. Nakashima, Assessment of Risk and Methodologies,
International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
Representatives/Observers
xxiii
IPCS TASK GROUP ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
CRITERIA FOR DISINFECTANTS AND DISINFECTANT
BY-PRODUCTS
* * *
xxiv
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
xxv
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
xxvi
PAS periodic acid/Schiff’s reagent
PBPK physiologically based pharmacokinetic model
PFBHA O-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorobenzyl)-hydroxylamine
pKa log acid dissociation constant
PPAR peroxisome proliferator activated receptor
PPRE peroxisome proliferator responsive element
RR relative risk
SCE sister chromatid exchange
SD standard deviation
SDH sorbitol dehydrogenase
SE standard error
SGOT serum glutamate–oxaloacetate transaminase
SGPT serum glutamate–pyruvate transaminase
SMR standardized mortality ratio
SSB single strand breaks
TBA tribromoacetic acid/tribromoacetate
TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
TCA trichloroacetic acid/trichloroacetate
TCAN trichloroacetonitrile
TCPN trichloropropanone
TDI tolerable daily intake
TGF transforming growth factor
THM trihalomethane
TOC total organic carbon
TOX total organic halogen
TPA 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
UDS unscheduled DNA synthesis
UV ultraviolet
UVA254 UV absorbance at 254 nm
Vmax maximum rate of metabolism
WHO World Health Organization
xxvii
1. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION
1
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
2
Summary and Evaluation
Other than chlorine DBPs (in particular THMs), there are very
few data on the occurrence of DBPs in finished water and distribution
systems. Based on laboratory databases, empirical models have been
developed to predict concentrations of THMs (total THMs and THM
species), HAAs (total HAAs and HAA species) and bromate. These
models can be used in performance assessment to predict the impact
of treatment changes and in exposure assessment to simulate missing
or past data (e.g., to predict concentrations of HAAs from THM data).
3
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
1.2.1 Disinfectants
1.2.2 Trihalomethanes
4
Summary and Evaluation
Limited kinetic data are available for chloral hydrate. The two
major metabolites of chloral hydrate are trichloroethanol and TCA.
Trichloroethanol undergoes rapid glucuronidation, enterohepatic
circulation, hydrolysis and oxidation to TCA. Dechlorination of tri-
chloroethanol or chloral hydrate would lead to the formation of DCA.
DCA may then be further transformed to monochloroacetate (MCA),
glyoxalate, glycolate and oxalate, probably through a reactive
intermediate. No information was found on the other haloaldehydes
and haloketones.
1.2.5 Haloacetonitriles
3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX)
is the member of the hydroxyfuranone class that has been most
5
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
extensively studied. From animal studies, it appears that the 14C label
of MX is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and reaches
systemic circulation. MX itself has not been measured in blood. The
MX label is largely excreted in urine and faeces, urine being the
major route of excretion. Very little of the initial radiolabel is retained
in the body after 5 days.
1.2.7 Chlorite
The 36Cl from chlorite is rapidly absorbed. Less than half the
dose is found in the urine as chloride, and a small proportion as
chlorite. A significant proportion probably enters the chloride pool of
the body, but a lack of analytical methods to characterize chlorite in
biological samples means that no detailed information is available.
1.2.8 Chlorate
1.2.9 Bromate
1.3.1 Disinfectants
6
Summary and Evaluation
1.3.2 Trihalomethanes
7
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
Chloral hydrate was negative in most but not all bacterial tests
for point mutations and in in vivo studies on chromosomal damage.
However, it has been shown that chloral hydrate may induce structural
chromosomal aberrations in vitro and in vivo. Chloral hydrate has
been reported to cause hepatic tumours in mice. It is not clear if it is
the parent compound or its metabolites that are involved in the
carcinogenic effect. The two chloral hydrate metabolites, TCA and
DCA, have induced hepatic tumours in mice.
1.3.5 Haloacetonitriles
8
Summary and Evaluation
1.3.7 Chlorite
1.3.8 Chlorate
1.3.9 Bromate
9
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
1.4.2 Cancer
10
Summary and Evaluation
11
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12
Summary and Evaluation
1) Chlorine
2) Monochloramine
3) Chlorine dioxide
13
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
4) Trihalomethanes
14
Summary and Evaluation
per day. Using the incidence of kidney tumours in male mice from
this study, quantitative risk estimates have been calculated, yielding
a slope factor of 4.8 × 10–3 [mg/kg of body weight per day]–1 and a
calculated dose of 2.1 :g/kg of body weight per day for a risk level of
10–5. A slope factor of 4.2 × 10–3 [mg/kg of body weight per day]–1 (2.4
:g/kg of body weight per day for a 10–5 risk) was derived based on the
incidence of large intestine carcinomas in the male rat. The Inter-
national Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified BDCM
in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans).
15
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
NOAEL for liver toxicity and an uncertainty factor of 1000 (10 each
for inter- and intraspecies variation and 10 for the short duration of
the study and possible carcinogenicity). IARC has classified
bromoform in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to
humans).
5) Haloacetic acids
16
Summary and Evaluation
17
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
6) Chloral hydrate
18
Summary and Evaluation
7) Haloacetonitriles
19
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
8) MX
9) Chlorite
20
Summary and Evaluation
10) Chlorate
11) Bromate
21
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
The no-effect level for the formation of renal cell tumours in rats
is 1.3 mg/kg of body weight per day. If this is used as a point of
departure from linearity and if an uncertainty factor of 1000 (10 each
for inter- and intraspecies variation and 10 for possible carcino-
genicity) is applied, a TDI of 1 :g/kg of body weight can be calcu-
lated. This compares with the value of 0.1 :g/kg of body weight per
day associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of 10–5.
22
Summary and Evaluation
23
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
24
Summary and Evaluation
25
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
26
RESUME ET EVALUATION
439
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
440
Résumé et Évaluation
Autant qu’on sache, ce sont les THM, les HAA, les bromates et
les chlorites qui sont les SPC les plus fréquents et les plus intéressants
du point de vue de leurs effets sur la santé.
441
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
442
Résumé et Évaluation
2.1 Désinfectants
2.2 Trihalogénométhanes
443
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2.5 Halogénoacétonitriles
La 3-chloro-4-(dichlorométhyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX)
est, parmi les hydroxyfuranones, celle qui a été le plus largement
444
Résumé et Évaluation
2.7 Chlorites
2.8 Chlorates
2.9 Bromates
3.1 Désinfectants
445
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
chez l’Homme. Il s’agit toutefois de cas qui n’ont rien à voir avec une
exposition par consommation d’eau de boisson. On a relativement peu
étudié les effets toxiques que ces désinfectants peuvent avoir sur
l’Homme ou l’animal d’expérience lorsqu’ils sont présents dans l’eau
de boisson. Les quelques études dont on dispose indiquent que le
chlore, les solutions d’hypochlorite ainsi que la chloramine et le
dioxyde de chlore eux-mêmes ne sont probablement pas à l’origine de
cancers ou d’un quelconque effet toxique. On s’intéresse surtout aux
produits secondaires très divers qui résultent de l’action du chlore et
d’autres désinfectants sur les matières organiques naturelles présentes
dans presque toutes les eaux quelle que soit leur origine.
3.2 Trihalogénométhanes
446
Résumé et Évaluation
447
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
3.5 Halogénoacétonitriles
3.7 Chlorites
448
Résumé et Évaluation
3.8 Chlorates
3.9 Bromates
4. Etudes épidémiologiques
4.1 Cardiopathies
4.2 Cancer
449
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
450
Résumé et Évaluation
451
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
Des études ont été consacrées au lien qu’il pourrait y avoir entre
des grossesses à issue défavorable et la consommation d’eau chlorée
ou l’exposition à des THM. Un groupe de scientifiques qui s’est
récemment réuni sous l’égide de l’Environmental Protection Agency
des Etats-Unis a passé en revue les études épidémiologiques
consacrées à cette question et conclu que les résultats publiés ne
prouvent pas de manière convaincante que l’eau chlorée ou les THM
sont responsables d’accidents au cours de la grossesse.
452
Résumé et Évaluation
5. Caractérisation du risque
5.1.1 Toxicologie
1) Chlore
2) Monochloramine
453
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
3) Dioxyde de chlore
4) Trihalogénométhanes
454
Résumé et Évaluation
455
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
5) Acides halogénoacétiques
456
Résumé et Évaluation
les études à long terme sur l’animal (ces doses sont tout de même
beaucoup plus élevées que les concentrations présentes habituellement
dans l’eau de boisson), la vitesse de réplication des hépatocytes
normaux finit par diminuer fortement. On peut en déduire que les
hépatocytes normaux finissent par provoquer une régulation négative
des voies de stimulation par la DCA. Cependant, les cellules
modifiées, notamment celles qui expriment de grandes quantités de
protéines réagissant sur les anticorps c-Jun, ne semblent pas capables
de réguler négativement cette réponse. C’est pourquoi les cellules
porteuses de ce phénotype se divisent très rapidement dans les lésions
précancéreuses aux doses de DCA provoquant l’apparition de tumeurs
à très faible temps de latence. D’après les données les premières
données, il semblerait que cette modification permanente de la
naissance et de la mort cellulaires soit également nécessaire pour qu’il
y ait cancérisation des lésions. Les études dans lesquelles on fait
également intervenir un initiateur ou un promoteur tumoral appuient
cette interprétation.
457
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
458
Résumé et Évaluation
6) Hydrate de chloral
459
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
7) Halogénoacétonitriles
460
Résumé et Évaluation
8) MX
461
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
9) Chlorites
462
Résumé et Évaluation
10) Chlorates
11) Bromates
463
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
Chez le rat, la dose quotidienne sans effet est de 1,3 mg/kg p.c.,
si l’effet retenu est la formation de tumeurs rénales. Si l’on considère
qu’à partir de cette valeur la relation dose-réponse n’est plus linéaire
et en prenant une marge de sécurité correspondant à un facteur 1000
(un facteur de 10 à chaque fois pour tenir compte des variations intra-
interspécifiques plus un facteur 10 pour prendre en compte la cancéro-
génicité possible du composé), on peut fixer à 1 :g/kg p.c. la dose
journalière tolérable. Cette valeur est à rapprocher de la valeur de
0,1 :g/kg j–1 obtenue dans le cas d’un risque de cancer de 10–5 sur
toute la durée de l’existence.
464
Résumé et Évaluation
465
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
466
Résumé et Évaluation
467
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
468
Résumé et Évaluation
469
RESUMEN Y EVALUACION
470
Resumen y Evaluación
471
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
Los principales SPD del dióxido de cloro son los iones clorito
(ClO2–) y clorato, sin formación directa de SPD organohalogenados.
A diferencia de otros desinfectantes, los SPD más importantes del
dióxido de cloro proceden de la descomposición del desinfectante, y
no de la reacción con los precursores.
472
Resumen y Evaluación
Aparte de los SPD del cloro (en particular los THM), hay muy
pocos datos sobre la presencia de SPD en el agua tratada y los
sistemas de distribución. A partir de las bases de datos de laboratorio,
se han elaborado modelos empíricos para pronosticar las
concentraciones de THM (THM totales y sus especies), de AHA (AHA
totales y sus especies) y de bromato. Estos modelos se pueden utilizar
en la evaluación del rendimiento para predecir el efecto de los
cambios de tratamiento y en la evaluación de la exposición para
simular datos que falten o pasados (por ejemplo, para pronosticar las
concentraciones de AHA a partir de los datos relativos a los THM).
2.1 Desinfectantes
473
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
2.2 Trihalometanos
474
Resumen y Evaluación
2.5 Haloacetonitrilos
2.7 Clorito
475
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
2.8 Clorato
2.9 Bromato
3.1 Desinfectantes
3.2 Trihalometanos
476
Resumen y Evaluación
477
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
3.5 Haloacetonitrilos
478
Resumen y Evaluación
3.7 Clorito
3.8 Clorato
3.9 Bromato
479
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
4. Estudios epidemiológicos
4.2 Cáncer
480
Resumen y Evaluación
481
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
482
Resumen y Evaluación
1) Cloro
483
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
2) Monocloramina
3) Dióxido de cloro
4) Trihalometanos
484
Resumen y Evaluación
485
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
486
Resumen y Evaluación
5) Ácidos haloacéticos
487
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
488
Resumen y Evaluación
489
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
6) Hidrato de cloral
7) Haloacetonitrilos
490
Resumen y Evaluación
8) MX
491
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
9) Clorito
492
Resumen y Evaluación
10) Clorato
11) Bromato
493
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
494
Resumen y Evaluación
495
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
496
Resumen y Evaluación
(por ejemplo, THM más bien que AHA, especies cloradas más bien
que bromadas) que pueden sufrir cambios estacionales/temporales
(por ejemplo, en función de la temperatura, las características y la
concentración de la materia orgánica natural) y espaciales (es decir,
en la totalidad de un sistema de distribución). Cada desinfectante
químico concreto puede formar una mezcla de SPD; las
combinaciones de desinfectantes químicos pueden formar incluso
mezclas más complejas. Al formarse, la mayoría de los SPD son
estables, pero algunos se pueden transformar, por ejemplo, mediante
hidrólisis. En ausencia de datos sobre los SPD, se pueden utilizar en
su lugar la dosis de cloro (o la demanda de cloro), el carbono orgánico
total (o la absorción ultravioleta a 254 nm [UVA254]) o el bromuro
para estimar indirectamente la exposición. Aunque el carbono
orgánico total es un buen sustitutivo de los precursores orgánicos de
los SPD, la UVA254 proporciona información adicional sobre las
características de la materia orgánica natural, que pueden variar en
función de la zona geográfica. Se han identificado dos variables
fundamentales de la calidad del agua, el pH y la concentración de
bromuro, como factores que influyen de manera considerable en el
tipo y las concentraciones de SPD que se forman.
497
EHC 216: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-products
498
Resumen y Evaluación
499