Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth,

plant metabolism and their external supply. In 1972, Emanuel Epstein defined two criteria for an
element to be essential for plant growth:

1. in its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle.

2. or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite.
This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig's law of the minimum.[1] The essential plant nutrients
include carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients
including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil (exceptions include
some parasitic or carnivorous plants).
There are 17 most important nutrients for plants. Plants must obtain the following mineral nutrients
from their growing medium:[2]

 the
macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), magnesiu
m (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen(O), hydrogen (H)
 the micronutrients (or trace
minerals): iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybden
um (Mo), nickel (Ni)
These elements stay beneath soil as salt. So plants consume these elements as ion. The
macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities; hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon contribute
to over 95% of a plants' entire biomass on a dry matter weight basis. Micronutrients are present in
plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million, ranging from 0.1[3] to 200 ppm, or less than
0.02% dry weight.[4]
Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to that climate and soil with
sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle, without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer. However, if
the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to
promote vigorous growth and increase or sustain yield. This is done because, even with adequate
water and light, nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield.
 Farmer spreading decomposing manure to improve soil fertility and plant nutrition

Contents
  [hide] 

 1Processes
 2Functions of nutrients
o 2.1Macronutrients (derived from air and water)
 2.1.1Carbon
 2.1.2Hydrogen
 2.1.3Oxygen
o 2.2Macronutrients (primary)
 2.2.1Nitrogen
 2.2.2Phosphorus
 2.2.3Potassium
o 2.3Macronutrients (secondary and tertiary)
 2.3.1Sulfur
 2.3.2Calcium
 2.3.3Magnesium
o 2.4Micro-nutrients
 2.4.1Iron
 2.4.2Molybdenum
 2.4.3Boron
 2.4.4Copper
 2.4.5Manganese
 2.4.6Sodium
 2.4.7Zinc
 2.4.8Nickel
  2.4.9Chlorine
 2.4.10Cobalt
 2.4.11Aluminum
 2.4.12Silicon
 2.4.13Vanadium
 2.4.14Selenium
 3Nutrient deficiency
 4Nutrient status of plants
 5Plant nutrition in agricultural systems
o 5.1Hydroponics
 6See also
 7References
o 7.1Sources
 8External links

Processes[edit]
Plants take up essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (mainly consisting
of nitrogen and oxygen) through their leaves. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation
exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These
hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are
available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel
oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.
The root, especially the root hair, is the essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The structure and
architecture of the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake. Nutrient ions are transported to the
center of the root, the stele, in order for the nutrients to reach the conducting tissues, xylem and
phloem.[5] The Casparian strip, a cell wall outside the stele but within the root, prevents passive flow
of water and nutrients, helping to regulate the uptake of nutrients and water.[5] Xylem moves water
and mineral ions within the plant and phloemaccounts for organic molecule transportation. Water
potential plays a key role in a plant's nutrient uptake. If the water potential is more negative within
the plant than the surrounding soils, the nutrients will move from the region of higher solute
concentration—in the soil—to the area of lower solute concentration - in the plant.
There are three fundamental ways plants uptake nutrients through the root:

1. Simple diffusion occurs when a nonpolar molecule, such as O2, CO2, and NH3 follows a
concentration gradient, moving passively through the cell lipid Billayer membrane without
the use of transport proteins.
2. Facilitated diffusion is the rapid movement of solutes or ions following a concentration
gradient, facilitated by transport proteins.
3. Active transport is the uptake by cells of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient;
this requires an energy source, usually ATP, to power molecular pumps that move the ions
or molecules through the membrane.[5]
Nutrients can be moved within plants to where they are most needed. For example, a plant will try to
supply more nutrients to its younger leaves than to its older ones. When nutrients are mobile within
the plant, symptoms of any deficiency become apparent first on the older leaves. However, not all
nutrients are equally mobile. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are mobile nutrients while the
others have varying degrees of mobility. When a less-mobile nutrient is deficient, the younger leaves
suffer because the nutrient does not move up to them but stays in the older leaves. This
phenomenon is helpful in determining which nutrients a plant may be lacking.
Many plants engage in symbiosis with microorganisms. Two important types of these relationship
are

1. with bacteria such as rhizobia, that carry out biological nitrogen fixation, in which
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into ammonium (NH+
4); and
2. with mycorrhizal fungi, which through their association with the plant roots help to create a
larger effective root surface area. Both of these mutualistic relationships enhance nutrient
uptake.[5]
Though nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants harbour nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, so most plants rely on nitrogen compounds present in the soil to support their growth.
These can be supplied by mineralization of soil organic matter or added plant residues, nitrogen
fixing bacteria, animal waste, through the breaking of triple bonded N2molecules by lightning strikes
or through the application of fertilizers.

Functions of nutrients[edit]
Further information: Soil §  Nutrients
At least 17 elements are known to be essential nutrients for plants. In relatively large amounts, the
soil supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; these are often
called the macronutrients. In relatively small amounts, the soil supplies iron, manganese, boron,
molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and cobalt, the so-called micronutrients. Nutrients must be
available not only in sufficient amounts but also in appropriate ratios.
Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation
between different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone.
Elements present at low levels may cause deficiency symptoms, and toxicity is possible at levels
that are too high. Furthermore, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of toxicity from
another element, and vice versa. An abundance of one nutrient may cause a deficiency of another
nutrient. For example, K+ uptake can be influenced by the amount of NH+
4 available.[5]

Although nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants engage in nitrogen
fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). Most plants, therefore,
require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow.
Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air while other nutrients are absorbed from the
soil. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process
of photosynthesis. Each of these nutrients is used in a different place for a different essential
function.[6]

Macronutrients (derived from air and water)[edit]

Carbon[edit]
Carbon forms the backbone of most plant biomolecules, including
proteins, starches and cellulose. Carbon is fixed through photosynthesis; this converts carbon
dioxide from the air into carbohydrates which are used to store and transport energy within the plant.
Hydrogen[edit]
Hydrogen also is necessary for building sugars and building the plant. It is obtained almost entirely
from water. Hydrogen ions are imperative for a proton gradient to help drive the electron transport
chain in photosynthesis and for respiration.[5]
Oxygen[edit]
Oxygen is a component of many organic and inorganic molecules within the plant, and is acquired in
many forms. These include: O2 and CO2 (mainly from the air via leaves) and H2O, NO−
3, H2PO−
4 and SO2−
4 (mainly from the soil water via roots). Plants produce oxygen gas (O2) along
with glucose during photosynthesis but then require O2 to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and
break down this glucose to produce ATP.
Macronutrients (primary)[edit]
Further information: Microbial inoculant
Nitrogen[edit]
Further information: Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is a major constituent of several of the most important plant substances. For example,
nitrogen compounds comprise 40% to 50% of the dry matter of protoplasm, and it is a constituent
of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.[7] It is also an essential constituent of chlorophyll.
[8]
 Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunted growth, slow growth, and chlorosis. Nitrogen
deficient plants will also exhibit a purple appearance on the stems, petioles and underside of leaves
from an accumulation of anthocyanin pigments.[5] Most of the nitrogen taken up by plants is from the
soil in the forms of NO−
3, although in acid environments such as boreal forests where nitrification is less likely to occur,
ammonium NH+
4 is more likely to be the dominating source of nitrogen.[9] Amino acids and proteins can only be built
from NH+
4, so NO−
3 must be reduced. In many agricultural settings, nitrogen is the limiting nutrient for rapid growth.
Nitrogen is transported via the xylem from the roots to the leaf canopy as nitrate ions, or in an
organic form, such as amino acids or amides. Nitrogen can also be transported in the phloem sap as
amides, amino acids and ureides; it is therefore mobile within the plant, and the older leaves exhibit
chlorosis and necrosis earlier than the younger leaves.[5][8]
There is an abundant supply of nitrogen in the earth’s atmosphere — N2 gas comprises nearly 79%
of air. However, N2 is unavailable for use by most organisms because there is a triple bond between
the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule, making it almost inert. In order for nitrogen to be used for
growth it must be “fixed” (combined) in the form of ammonium(NH4) or nitrate (NO3) ions. The
weathering of rocks releases these ions so slowly that it has a negligible effect on the availability of
fixed nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen is often the limiting factor for growth and biomass production in all
environments where there is a suitable climate and availability of water to support life.
Nitrogen enters the plant largely through the roots. A “pool” of soluble nitrogen accumulates. Its
composition within a species varies widely depending on several factors, including day length, time
of day, night temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, and nutrient imbalance. Short day length
promotes asparagine formation, whereas glutamine is produced under long day regimes. Darkness
favors protein breakdown accompanied by high asparagine accumulation. Night temperature
modifies the effects due to night length, and soluble nitrogen tends to accumulate owing to retarded
synthesis and breakdown of proteins. Low night temperature conserves glutamine; high night
temperature increases accumulation of asparagine because of breakdown. Deficiency of K
accentuates differences between long- and short-day plants. The pool of soluble nitrogen is much
smaller than in well-nourished plants when N and P are deficient since uptake of nitrate and further
reduction and conversion of N to organic forms is restricted more than is protein synthesis.
Deficiencies of Ca, K, and S affect the conversion of organic N to protein more than uptake and
reduction. The size of the pool of soluble N is no guide per se to growth rate, but the size of the pool
in relation to total N might be a useful ratio in this regard. Nitrogen availability in the rooting medium
also affects the size and structure of tracheids formed in the long lateral roots of white spruce
(Krasowski and Owens 1999).[10]
Microorganisms have a central role in almost all aspects of nitrogen availability, and therefore for life
support on earth. Some bacteria can convert N2 into ammonia by the process termed nitrogen
fixation; these bacteria are either free-living or form symbiotic associations with plants or other
organisms (e.g., termites, protozoa), while other bacteria bring about transformations
of ammonia to nitrate, and of nitrate to N2 or other nitrogen gases. Many bacteria and fungi degrade
organic matter, releasing fixed nitrogen for reuse by other organisms. All these processes contribute
to the nitrogen cycle.
Phosphorus[edit]
Further information: Phosphorus cycle
Like nitrogen, phosphorus is involved with many vital plant processes. Within a plant, it is present
mainly as a structural component of the nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA), as well as a constituent of fatty phospholipids, that are important in membrane
development and function. It is present in both organic and inorganic forms, both of which are readily
translocated within the plant. All energy transfers in the cell are critically dependent on phosphorus.
As with all living things, phosphorus is part of the Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is of
immediate use in all processes that require energy with the cells. Phosphorus can also be used to
modify the activity of various enzymes by phosphorylation, and is used for cell signaling. Phosphorus
is concentrated at the most actively growing points of a plant and stored within seeds in anticipation
of their germination. Phosphorus is most commonly found in the soil in the form of polyprotic
phosphoric acid (H3PO4), but is taken up most readily in the form of H2PO−
4. Phosphorus is available to plants in limited quantities in most soils because it is released very
slowly from insoluble phosphates and is rapidly fixed once again. Under most environmental
conditions it is the element that limits growth because of this constriction and due to its high demand
by plants and microorganisms. Plants can increase phosphorus uptake by a mutualism with
mycorrhiza.[5] A Phosphorus deficiency in plants is characterized by an intense green coloration or
reddening in leaves due to lack of chlorophyll. If the plant is experiencing high phosphorus
deficiencies the leaves may become denatured and show signs of death. Occasionally the leaves
may appear purple from an accumulation of anthocyanin. Because phosphorus is a mobile nutrient,
older leaves will show the first signs of deficiency.
On some soils, the phosphorus nutrition of some conifers, including the spruces, depends on the
ability of mycorrhizae to take up, and make soil phosphorus available to the tree, hitherto
unobtainable to the non-mycorrhizal root. Seedling white spruce, greenhouse-grown in sand testing
negative for phosphorus, were very small and purple for many months until spontaneous mycorrhizal
inoculation, the effect of which was manifested by a greening of foliage and the development of
vigorous shoot growth.
Phosphorus deficiency can produce symptoms similar to those of nitrogen deficiency,[11] but as noted
by Russel:[12] “Phosphate deficiency differs from nitrogen deficiency in being extremely difficult to
diagnose, and crops can be suffering from extreme starvation without there being any obvious signs
that lack of phosphate is the cause”. Russell’s observation applies to at least
some coniferous seedlings, but Benzian[13] found that although response to phosphorus in very acid
forest tree nurseries in England was consistently high, no species (including Sitka spruce) showed
any visible symptom of deficiency other than a slight lack of lustre. Phosphorus levels have to be
exceedingly low before visible symptoms appear in such seedlings. In sand culture at 0 ppm
phosphorus, white spruce seedlings were very small and tinted deep purple; at 0.62 ppm, only the
smallest seedlings were deep purple; at 6.2 ppm, the seedlings were of good size and color.[14][15]
It is useful to apply a high phosphorus content fertilizer, such as bone meal, to perennials to help
with successful root formation.[5]
Potassium[edit]
Unlike other major elements, potassium does not enter into the composition of any of the important
plant constituents involved in metabolism,[7] but it does occur in all parts of plants in substantial
amounts. It seems to be of particular importance in leaves and at growing points. Potassium is
outstanding among the nutrient elements for its mobility and solubility within plant tissues. Processes
involving potassium include the formation of carbohydrates and proteins, the regulation of internal
plant moisture, as a catalyst and condensing agent of complex substances, as an accelerator of
enzyme action, and as contributor to photosynthesis, especially under low light intensity.
Potassium regulates the opening and closing of the stomata by a potassium ion pump. Since
stomata are important in water regulation, potassium regulates water loss from the leaves and
increases drought tolerance. Potassium deficiency may cause necrosis or interveinal chlorosis. The
potassium ion (K+) is highly mobile and can aid in balancing the anion (negative) charges within the
plant. Potassium helps in fruit coloration, shape and also increases its brix. Hence, quality fruits are
produced in potassium-rich soils. Potassium serves as an activator of enzymes used in
photosynthesis and respiration.[5] Potassium is used to build cellulose and aids in photosynthesis by
the formation of a chlorophyll precursor. Potassium deficiency may result in higher risk of pathogens,
wilting, chlorosis, brown spotting, and higher chances of damage from frost and heat.
When soil-potassium levels are high, plants take up more potassium than needed for healthy growth.
The term luxury consumption has been applied to this. When potassium is moderately deficient, the
effects first appear in the older tissues, and from there progress towards the growing points. Acute
deficiency severely affects growing points, and die-back commonly occurs. Symptoms of potassium
deficiency in white spruce include: browning and death of needles (chlorosis); reduced growth in
height and diameter; impaired retention of needles; and reduced needle length.[16] A relationship
between potassium nutrition and cold resistance has been found in several tree species, including
two species of spruce.[17]

Macronutrients (secondary and tertiary)[edit]

Sulfur[edit]
Sulfur is a structural component of some amino acids (including cystein and methionine) and
vitamins, and is essential for chloroplast growth and function; it is found in the iron-sulphur
complexes of the electron transport chains in photosynthesis. It is needed for N2 fixation by legumes,
and the conversion of nitrate into amino acids and then into protein.[18]
In plants, sulphur cannot be mobilized from older leaves for new growth, so deficiency symptoms are
seen in the youngest tissues first.[19] Symptoms of deficiency include yellowing of leaves and stunted
growth.[20]
Calcium[edit]
Calcium regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the activation of
certain plant enzymes. Calcium deficiency results in stunting. This nutrient is involved in
photosynthesis and plant structure.[21][22] Blossom end rot is also a result of inadequate calcium.[21]
Another common symptom of calcium deficiency in leaves is the curling of the leaf towards the veins
or center of the leaf. Many times this can also have a blackened appearance[23]Calcium has been
found to have a positive effect in combating salinity in soils. It has been shown to ameliorate the
negative effects that salinity has such as reduced water usage of plants.[24] Calcium in plants occurs
chiefly in the leaves, with lower concentrations in seeds, fruits, and roots. A major function is as a
constituent of cell walls. When coupled with certain acidic compounds of the jelly-like pectins of the
middle lamella, calcium forms an insoluble salt. It is also intimately involved in meristems, and is
particularly important in root development, with roles in cell division, cell elongation, and the
detoxification of hydrogen ions. Other functions attributed to calcium are; the neutralization of
organic acids; inhibition of some potassium-activated ions; and a role in nitrogen absorption. A
notable feature of calcium-deficient plants is a defective root system.[12] Roots are usually affected
before above-ground parts.[25]
Magnesium[edit]
Main article: Magnesium in biological systems
The outstanding role of magnesium in plant nutrition is as a constituent of the chlorophyll molecule.
As a carrier, it is also involved in numerous enzyme reactions as an effective activator, in which it is
closely associated with energy-supplying phosphorus compounds. Magnesium is very mobile in
plants, and, like potassium, when deficient is translocated from older to younger tissues, so that
signs of deficiency appear first on the oldest tissues and then spread progressively to younger
tissues.

Micro-nutrients[edit]
Plants are able sufficiently to accumulate most trace elements. Some plants are sensitive indicators
of the chemical environment in which they grow (Dunn 1991),[26] and some plants have barrier
mechanisms that exclude or limit the uptake of a particular element or ion species, e.g., alder twigs
commonly accumulate molybdenum but not arsenic, whereas the reverse is true of spruce bark
(Dunn 1991).[26] Otherwise, a plant can integrate the geochemical signature of the soil mass
permeated by its root system together with the contained groundwaters. Sampling is facilitated by
the tendency of many elements to accumulate in tissues at the plant’s extremities.
Iron[edit]
Iron is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme cofactor in plants. Iron
deficiency can result in interveinal chlorosis and necrosis. Iron is not a structural part of chlorophyll
but very much essential for its synthesis. Copper deficiency can be responsible for promoting an iron
deficiency.[27] It helps in the electron transport of plant.
Molybdenum[edit]
Molybdenum is a cofactor to enzymes important in building amino acids and is involved in nitrogen
metabolism. Molybdenum is part of the nitrate reductase enzyme (needed for the reduction of
nitrate) and the nitrogenase enzyme (required for biological nitrogen fixation).[8] Reduced productivity
as a result of molybdenum deficiency is usually associated with the reduced activity of one or more
of these enzymes.
Boron[edit]
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Boron is absorbed by plants in the form of the anion BO3−

3. It is available to plants in moderately soluble mineral forms of Ca, Mg and Na borates and the
highly soluble form of organic compounds. It is available to plants over a range of pH, from 5.0 to
7.5. It is mobile in the soil, hence, it is prone to leaching. Leaching removes substantial amounts of
boron in sandy soil, but little in fine silt or clay soil. Boron's fixation to those minerals at high pH can
render boron unavailable, while low pH frees the fixed boron, leaving it prone to leaching in wet
climates. It precipitates with other minerals in the form of borax in which form it was first used over
400 years ago as a soil supplement. Decomposition of organic material causes boron to be
deposited in the topmost soil layer. When soil dries it can cause a precipitous drop in the availability
of boron to plants as the plants cannot draw nutrients from that desiccated layer. Hence, boron
deficiency diseases appear in dry weather.
Boron has many functions within a plant: it affects flowering and fruiting, pollen germination, cell
division, and active salt absorption. The metabolism of amino acids and proteins, carbohydrates,
calcium, and water are strongly affected by boron. Many of those listed functions may be embodied
by its function in moving the highly polar sugars through cell membranes by reducing their polarity
and hence the energy needed to pass the sugar. If sugar cannot pass to the fastest growing parts
rapidly enough, those parts die.
Boron is not relocatable in the plant via the phloem. It must be supplied to the growing parts via
the xylem. Foliar sprays affect only those parts sprayed, which may be insufficient for the fastest
growing parts, and is very temporary.
Boron is essential for the proper forming and strengthening of cell walls. Lack of boron results in
short thick cells producing stunted fruiting bodies and roots. Calcium to boron ratio must be
maintained in a narrow range for normal plant growth. For alfalfa, that calcium to boron ratio must be
from 80:1 to 600:1. Boron deficiency appears at 800:1 and higher. Boron levels within plants differ
with plant species and range from 2.3 mg/kg for barley to 94.7 mg/kg for poppy. Lack of boron
causes failure of calcium metabolism which produces hollow heart in beets and peanuts.
Inadequate amounts of boron affect many agricultural crops, legume forage crops most strongly. Of
the micronutrients, boron deficiencies are second most common after zinc. Deficiency results in the
death of the terminal growing points and stunted growth.
Boron supplements derive from dry lake bed deposits such as those in Death Valley, USA, in the
form of sodium tetraborate (borax), from which less soluble calcium borate is made. Foliar sprays
are used on fruit crop trees in soils of high alkalinity. Boron is often applied to fields as a contaminant
in other soil amendments but is not generally adequate to make up the rate of loss by cropping. The
rates of application of borate to produce an adequate alfalfa crop range from 15 pounds per acre for
a sandy-silt, acidic soil of low organic matter, to 60 pounds per acre for a soil with high organic
matter, high cation exchange capacity and high pH.
Boron concentration in soil water solution higher than one ppm is toxic to most plants. Toxic
concentrations within plants are 10 to 50 ppm for small grains and 200 ppm in boron-tolerant crops
such as sugar beets, rutabaga, cucumbers, and conifers. Toxic soil conditions are generally limited
to arid regions or can be caused by underground borax deposits in contact with water or volcanic
gases dissolved in percolating water. Application rates should be limited to a few pounds per acre in
a test plot to determine if boron is needed generally. Otherwise, testing for boron levels in plant
material is required to determine remedies. Excess boron can be removed by irrigation and assisted
by application of elemental sulfur to lower the pH and increase boron solubility.
Boron deficiencies can be detected by analysis of plant material to apply a correction before the
obvious symptoms appear, after which it is too late to prevent crop loss. Strawberries deficient in
boron will produce lumpy fruit; apricots will not blossom or, if they do, will not fruit or will drop their
fruit depending on the level of boron deficit. Broadcast of boron supplements is effective and long
term; a foliar spray is immediate but must be repeated.
Copper[edit]
Copper is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis.It is
involved in many enzyme processes; necessary for proper photosynthesis; involved in the
manufacture of lignin (cell walls) and involved in grain production. It is also hard to find in some soil
conditions.
Manganese[edit]
Manganese is necessary for photosynthesis,[22] including the building of chloroplasts. Manganese
deficiency may result in coloration abnormalities, such as discolored spots on the foliage.
Sodium[edit]
Sodium is involved in the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in CAM and C4 plants. Sodium can
potentially replace potassium's regulation of stomatal opening and closing.[5]
Essentiality of sodium:

 Essential for C4 plants rather C3

 Substitution of K by Na: Plants can be classified into four groups:

1. Group A—a high proportion of K can be replaced by Na and stimulate the growth, which
cannot be achieved by the application of K
2. Group B—specific growth responses to Na are observed but they are much less distinct
3. Group C—Only minor substitution is possible and Na has no effect
4. Group D—No substitution occurs

 Stimulate the growth—increase leaf area and stomata. Improves the water balance
 Na functions in metabolism

1. C4 metabolism
2. Impair the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenol-pyruvate
3. Reduce the photosystem II activity and ultrastructural changes in mesophyll chloroplast

 Replacing K functions

1. Internal osmoticum
2. Stomatal function
3. Photosynthesis
4. Counteraction in long distance transport
5. Enzyme activation

 Improves the crop quality e.g. improves the taste of carrots by increasing sucrose
Zinc[edit]
Zinc is required in a large number of enzymes and plays an essential role in DNA transcription. A
typical symptom of zinc deficiency is the stunted growth of leaves, commonly known as "little leaf"
and is caused by the oxidative degradation of the growth hormone auxin.
Nickel[edit]
In higher plants, nickel is absorbed by plants in the form of Ni2+ ion. Nickel is essential for activation
of urease, an enzyme involved with nitrogen metabolism that is required to process urea. Without
nickel, toxic levels of urea accumulate, leading to the formation of necrotic lesions. In lower plants,
nickel activates several enzymes involved in a variety of processes, and can substitute for zinc and
iron as a cofactor in some enzymes.[2]
Chlorine[edit]
Chlorine, as compounded chloride, is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role
in photosynthesis.
Cobalt[edit]
Cobalt has proven to be beneficial to at least some plants although it does not appear to be essential
for most species.[28] It has, however, been shown to be essential for nitrogen fixation by the nitrogen-
fixing bacteria associated with legumes and other plants.[28]
Aluminum[edit]
Aluminum is one of the few elements capable of making soil more acidic. This is achieved by
aluminum taking hydroxide ions out of water, leaving hydrogen ions behind.[29] As a result, the soil is
more acidic, which makes it unlivable for many plants. Another consequence of aluminum in soils is
aluminum toxicity, which inhibits root growth.[30]

 Tea has a high tolerance for aluminum (Al) toxicity and the growth is stimulated by Al
application. The possible reason is the prevention of Cu, Mn or P toxicity effects.
 There have been reports that Al may serve as a fungicide against certain types of root rot.
Silicon[edit]
Silicon is not considered an essential element for plant growth and development. It is always found
in abundance in the environment and hence if needed it is available. It is found in the structures of
plants and improves the health of plants.[31]
In plants, silicon has been shown in experiments to strengthen cell walls, improve plant strength,
health, and productivity.[32] There have been studies showing evidence of silicon
improving drought and frost resistance, decreasing lodging potential and boosting the plant's natural
pest and disease fighting systems.[33] Silicon has also been shown to improve plant vigor and
physiology by improving root mass and density, and increasing above ground
plant biomass and crop yields.[32] Silicon is currently under consideration by the Association of
American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO) for elevation to the status of a "plant beneficial
substance".[34][35]
Vanadium[edit]
Vanadium may be required by some plants, but at very low concentrations. It may also be
substituting for molybdenum.
Selenium[edit]
Selenium is probably not essential for flowering plants, but it can be beneficial; it can stimulate plant
growth, improve tolerance of oxidative stress, and increase resistance to pathogens and herbivory.[36]
Selenium is, however, an essential mineral element for animal (including human) nutrition
and selenium deficiencies are known to occur when food or animal feed is grown on selenium-
deficient soils. The use of inorganic selenium fertilizers can increase selenium concentrations in
edible crops and animal diets thereby improving animal health.[36]

Nutrient deficiency[edit]
The effect of a nutrient deficiency can vary from a subtle depression of growth rate to obvious
stunting, deformity, discoloration, distress, and even death. Visual symptoms distinctive enough to
be useful in identifying a deficiency are rare. Most deficiencies are multiple and moderate. However,
while a deficiency is seldom that of a single nutrient, nitrogen is commonly the nutrient in shortest
supply.
Chlorosis of foliage is not always due to mineral nutrient deficiency. Solarization can produce
superficially similar effects, though mineral deficiency tends to cause premature defoliation, whereas
solarization does not, nor does solarization depress nitrogen concentration.[37]

Nutrient status of plants[edit]

Nutrient status (mineral nutrient and trace element composition, also called ionome and nutrient
profile) of plants are commonly portrayed by tissue elementary analysis. Interpretation of the results
of such studies, however, has been controversial.[38] During the last decades the nearly two-century-
old “law of minimum” or “Liebig's law” (that states that plant growth is controlled not by the total
amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource) has been replaced by several
mathematical approaches that use different models in order to take the interactions between the
individual nutrients into account. The latest developments in this field are based on the fact that the
nutrient elements (and compounds) do not act independently from each other;[38] Baxter, 2015,
[39]
 because there may be direct chemical interactions between them or they may influence each
other’s uptake, translocation, and biological action via a number of mechanisms as exemplified for
the case of ammonia.[38]
[40]

Plant nutrition in agricultural systems[edit]

Hydroponics[edit]
Hydroponics is a method for growing plants in a water-nutrient solution without the use of nutrient-
rich soil. It allows researchers and home gardeners to grow their plants in a controlled environment.
The most common solution is the Hoagland solution, developed by D. R. Hoagland in 1933. The
solution consists of all the essential nutrients in the correct proportions necessary for most plant
growth.[5] An aerator is used to prevent an anoxic event or hypoxia. Hypoxia can affect nutrient
uptake of a plant because, without oxygen present, respiration becomes inhibited within the root
cells. The nutrient film technique is a hydroponic technique in which the roots are not fully
submerged. This allows for adequate aeration of the roots, while a "film" thin layer of nutrient-rich
water is pumped through the system to provide nutrients and water to the plant.

See also[edit]
 Horticulture
 International Plant Nutrition Colloquium
 Photosynthesis
 Plant physiology
 Phytochemistry
 Soil pH
 Soil

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Emanuel Epstein. Mineral Nutrition of Plants: Principles and Perspectives.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Allen V. Barker; D. J. Pilbeam (2007).  Handbook of plant nutrition. CRC
Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-5904-9. Retrieved  17 August 2010.
3. Jump up^ Marschner, Petra, ed. (2012).  Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants (3rd
ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.  ISBN  9780123849052.
4. Jump up^ http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.htm Retrieved Jan. 2010
5. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m Norman P. A. Huner; William Hopkins. "3 & 4". Introduction to Plant
Physiology 4th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.  ISBN  978-0-470-24766-2.
6. Jump up^ Pages 68 and 69 Taiz and Zeiger Plant Physiology 3rd Edition 2002 ISBN 0-
87893-823-0
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Swan, H.S.D. 1971a. Relationships between nutrient supply, growth and nutrient
concentrations in the foliage of white and red spruce. Pulp Pap. Res. Inst. Can., Woodlands Pap.
WR/34. 27 p.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy, R.N.; Finck, A.; Blair, G.J.; Tandon, H.L.S. (2006). "Chapter 3: Plant
nutrients and basics of plant nutrition". Plant nutrition for food security: a guide for integrated nutrient
management  (PDF). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp.  25–
42.  ISBN  92-5-105490-8. Retrieved 20 June  2016.
9. Jump up^ Lowenfels, Lewis, Jeff, Wayne (2011). Teaming with microbes. pp. 49,
110.  ISBN  978-1-60469-113-9.
10. Jump up^ Krasowski, M.J.; Owens, J.N. 1999. Tracheids in white spruce seedling’s long
lateral roots in response to nitrogen availability. Plant and Soil 217(1/2):215–228.
11. Jump up^ Black, C.A. 1957. Soil-plant relationships. New York, Wiley and Sons. 332 p.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b Russell, E.W. 1961. Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, 9th ed. Longmans Green,
London, U.K.. 688 p.
13. Jump up^ Benzian, B. 1965. Experiments on nutrition problems in forest nurseries. U.K.
Forestry Commission, London, U.K., Bull. 37. 251 p. (Vol. I) and 265 p. (Vol II).
14. Jump up^ Swan, H.S.D. 1960b. The mineral nutrition of Canadian pulpwood species. Phase
II. Fertilizer pellet field trials. Progress Rep. 1. Pulp Pap. Res. Instit. Can., Montreal QC, Woodlands
Res. Index No. 115, Inst. Project IR-W133, Res. Note No. 10. 6 p.
15. Jump up^ Swan, H.S.D. 1962. The scientific use of fertilizers in forestry. p. 13-24 in La
Fertilisation Forestière au Canada. Fonds de Recherches Forestières, Laval Univ., Quebec QC, Bull.
5
16. Jump up^ Heiberg, S.O.; White, D.P. 1951. Potassium deficiency of reforested pine and
spruce stands in northern New York. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 15:369–376.
17. Jump up^ Sato, Y.; Muto, K. 1951. (Factors affecting cold resistance of tree seedlings. II. On
the effect of potassium salts.) Hokkaido Univ., Coll. Agric., Coll. Exp. Forests, Res. Bull. 15:81–96.
18. Jump up^ Haneklaus, Silvia; Bloem, Elke; Schnug, Ewald; de Kok, Luit J.; Stulen, Ineke
(2007). "Sulfur". In Barker, Allen V.; Pilbeam, David J. Handbook of plant nutrition. CRC Press.
pp.  183–238.  ISBN  978-0-8247-5904-9. Retrieved 12 June  2017.
19. Jump up^ "Plant Nutrition". www.fao.org. Retrieved 12 June  2017.
20. Jump up^ "Diagnosing sulphur deficiency in cereals".  www.agric.wa.gov.au. Retrieved 12
June2017.
21. ^ Jump up to:a b University of Zurich (2011). Blossom end rot: Transport protein
identified. http://phys.org/news/2011-11-blossom-protein.html
22. ^ Jump up to:a b (2012). New Light Shined on
Photosynthesis. http://www.newswise.com/articles/new-light-shined-on-photosynthesis University of
Arizona
23. Jump up^ Simon, E. W. (1978-01-01). "The Symptoms of Calcium Deficiency in Plants".  The
New Phytologist. 80 (1): 1–15.  JSTOR  2431629.
24. Jump up^ Kaya, C; Kirnak, H; Higgs, D; Saltali, K (2002-02-28). "Supplementary calcium
enhances plant growth and fruit yield in strawberry cultivars grown at high (NaCl) salinity". Scientia
Horticulturae.  93  (1): 65–74.  doi:10.1016/S0304-4238(01)00313-2.
25. Jump up^ Chapman, H.D. (Ed.) 1966. Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. Univ.
California, Office of Agric. Publ. 794 p.
 26. ^ Jump up to:a b Dunn, C.E. 1991. Assessment of biogeochemical mapping at low sample density.
Trans. Instit. Mining Metall., Vol. 100:B130–B133.
27. Jump up^ (2012). "Nutrient and toxin all at once: How plants absorb the perfect quantity of
minerals". http://esciencenews.com/articles/2012/04/13/nutrient.and.toxin.all.once.how.plants.absorb.
perfect.quantity.minerals Ruhr-Universität
28. ^ Jump up to:a b Barker, AV; Pilbeam, DJ (2015).  Handbook of Plant Nutrition (2nd ed.). CRC
Press. ISBN 9781439881972. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
29. Jump up^ Mossor-Pietraszewska, Teresa (2001). "Effect of aluminium on plant growth and
metabolism"  (PDF).  Acta Biochimica Polonica. 48.
30. Jump up^ Delhaize, Emmanuel (1995).  "Aluminum Toxicity and Tolerance in
Plants"  (PDF). Update on Environmental Stress.
31. Jump up^ "Wollastonite as a soil ammendment". canadianwollastonite.com. Retrieved 2017-
04-20.
32. ^ Jump up to:a b "Silicon nutrition in plants"  (PDF). Plant Health Care, Inc.: 1. 12 December 2000.
Retrieved 1 July  2011.
33. Jump up^ Prakash, Dr. N. B. (2007). "Evaluation of the calcium silicate as a source of silicon
in aerobic and wet rice". University of Agricultural Science Bangalore: 1.
34. Jump up^ "AAPFCO Board of Directors 2006 Mid-Year Meeting". Association of American
Plant Food Control Officials. Retrieved  18 July 2011.
35. Jump up^ Miranda, Stephen R.; Barker, Bruce (August 4, 2009). "Silicon: Summary of
Extraction Methods". Harsco Minerals. Retrieved 18 July  2011.
36. ^ Jump up to:a b White, Philip J. (2016).  "Selenium accumulation by plants". Annals of
Botany.  117: 217–235.  doi:10.1093/aob/mcv180. Retrieved  5 June  2016.
37. Jump up^ Ronco, F. 1970. Chlorosis of planted Engelmann spruce seedlings unrelated to
nitrogen content. Can. J. Bot. 48(5):851–853.
38. ^ Jump up to:a b c Parent, S.-E. et al. 2013. The plant ionome revisited by the nutrient balance
concept. Front. Plant Sci. 4. doi:10.3389/fpls.2013.00039
39. Jump up^ Baxter, I. 2015. Should we treat the ionome as a combination of individual
elements, or should we be deriving novel combined traits? J. Exp. Bot. 66, 2127–2131.
doi:10.1093/jxb/erv040
40. Jump up^ Bittsanszky, A. et al. 2015. Overcoming ammonium toxicity. Plant Sci. Int. J. Exp.
Plant Biol. 231C, 184–190. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.12.005

Soil pH
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Global variation in soil pH. Red = acidic soil. Yellow = neutral soil. Blue = alkaline soil. Black = no data.

Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a soil. pH is defined as the

negative logarithm (base 10) of the activity of hydronium ions (H+
 or, more precisely, H
3O+
aq) in a solution. In soils, it is measured in a slurry of soil mixed with water (or a salt solution), and
normally falls between 3 and 10, with 7 being neutral. Acid soils have a pH below 7 and alkaline soils
have a pH above 7. Ultra-acidic soils (pH<3.5) and very strongly alkaline soils (pH>9) are rare.[1][2]
Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many chemical processes. It specifically
affects plant nutrientavailability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and
influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between
5.5 and 7.5;[2] however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range.

Contents
  [hide] 

 1Classification of soil pH ranges

 2Determining pH
 3Factors affecting soil pH
o 3.1Sources of acidity
o 3.2Sources of alkalinity
 4Effect of soil pH on plant growth
o 4.1Acid soils
o 4.2Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH
 5Water availability in relation to soil pH
 6Plant pH preferences
 7Changing soil pH
o 7.1Increasing pH of acidic soil
o 7.2Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil
 8See also
 9References
 10External links

Classification of soil pH ranges[edit]

The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service classifies soil
pH ranges as follows: [3]

Denomination pH range

Ultra acidic < 3.5

Extremely acidic 3.5–4.4

Very strongly acidic 4.5–5.0

Strongly acidic 5.1–5.5

Moderately acidic 5.6–6.0

Slightly acidic 6.1–6.5

Neutral 6.6–7.3

Slightly alkaline 7.4–7.8

Moderately alkaline 7.9–8.4

Strongly alkaline 8.5–9.0

Very strongly
> 9.0
alkaline

Determining pH[edit]
Methods of determining pH include:

 Observation of soil profile: Certain profile characteristics can be indicators of either acid,
saline, or sodic conditions. Examples are:[4]
 Poor incorporation of the organic surface layer with the underlying mineral layer –
this can indicate strongly acidic soils;
 The classic podzol horizon sequence, i.e. a pale eluvial (E) horizon beneath the
organic surface and this E underlain by a darker B horizon – podzols are strongly acidic;
 Presence of a caliche layer indicates the presence of calcium carbonates, which are
present in alkaline conditions;
 Columnar structure can be an indicator of sodic condition.
 Observation of predominant flora. Calcifuge plants (those that prefer an acidic soil)
include Erica, Rhododendron and nearly all other Ericaceae species, many birch (Betula),
foxglove (Digitalis), gorse (Ulex spp.), and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). Calcicole (lime loving)
plants include ash trees (Fraxinus spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera), Buddleja, dogwoods
(Cornus spp.), lilac (Syringa) and Clematis species.
 Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit, where in a small sample of soil is mixed
with indicator solution which changes colour according to the acidity.
 Use of litmus paper. A small sample of soil is mixed with distilled water, into which a strip
of litmus paper is inserted. If the soil is acidic the paper turns red, if basic, blue.
 Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter, in which a glass or solid-state electrode
is inserted into moistened soil or a mixture (suspension) of soil and water; the pH is usually read
on a digital display screen.
Precise, repeatable measures of soil pH are required for scientific research and monitoring. This
generally entails laboratory analysis using a standard protocol; an example of such a protocol is that
in the USDA Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual.[5] In this document the three-page
protocol for soil pH measurement includes the following sections: Application; Summary of Method;
Interferences; Safety; Equipment; Reagents; and Procedure.

Summary of the USDA NRCS method for soil pH determination[5]

Factors affecting soil pH[edit]

The pH of a natural soil depends in the mineral composition of the parent material of the soil, and the
weathering reactions undergone by that parent material. In warm, humid environments, soil
acidification occurs (soil pH decreases) over time as the products of weathering are leached by the
flow of water through the soil. In dry climates, however, soil weathering and leaching are less intense
and soil pH is often neutral or alkaline.[6][7]
Sources of acidity[edit]
Many processes contribute to soil acidification. These include:[8][9]

 Rainfall: Acid soils are most often found in areas of high rainfall. Rainwater has a slightly
acidic pH (usually about 5.7) due to a reaction with CO2 in the atmosphere that forms carbonic
acid. When this water flows through soil it results in the leaching of basic cations from the soil as
bicarbonates; this increases the percentage of Al3+ and H+ relative to other cations.
 Root respiration and decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms releases CO2 which
increases the carbonic acid (H2CO3) concentration and subsequent leaching.
 Plant growth: Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions (NO3−, NH4+, Ca2+, H2PO4−, etc.), and
often, they take up more cations than anions. However plants must maintain a neutral charge in
their roots. In order to compensate for the extra positive charge, they will release H+ ions from
the root. Some plants will also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone around their
roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, such as iron (Fe).
 Fertilizer use: Ammonium (NH4+) fertilizers react in the soil by the process of nitrification to
form nitrate (NO3−), and in the process release H+ ions.
 Acid rain: The burning of fossil fuels releases oxides of sulfur and nitrogen into the
atmosphere. These react with water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acid in rain.
 Oxidative weathering: Oxidation of some primary minerals, especially sulphides and those
containing Fe2+ generate acidity. This process is often accelerated by human activity:
 Mine spoil: Severely acidic conditions can form in soils near some mine spoils due to
the oxidation of pyrite.
 Acid sulfate soils formed naturally in waterlogged coastal and estuarine
environments can become highly acidic when drained or excavated.
Sources of alkalinity[edit]
Total soil alkalinity increases with:[10][11]

 Weathering of silicate, aluminosilicate and carbonate minerals containing Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and

K;+

 Addition of silicate, aluminosilicate and carbonate minerals to in soils; this may happen by
deposition of material eroded elsewhere by wind or water, or by mixing of the soil with less
weathered material (such as the addition of limestone to acid soils);
 Addition of water containing dissolved bicarbonates (as occurs when irrigating with high-
bicarbonate waters).
The accumulation of alkalinity in a soil (as Na, K, Ca and Mg bicarbonates and carbonates) occurs
when there is insufficient water flowing through the soils to leach soluble salts. This may be due to
arid conditions, or poor internal soil drainage; in these situations most of the water that enters the
soil is transpired (taken up by plants) or evaporates, rather than flowing through the soil.[10]
The soil pH is usually increased when total alkalinity increases, but the balance of the added cations
also has a marked effect on the soil pH – for example, increasing the amount of sodium in an
alkaline soil will tend to induce dissolution of calcium carbonate, which will increase the
pH. Calcareous soils may vary in pH from 7.0 to 9.5, depending on the degree to which Ca2+ or
Na+ dominate the soluble cations.[10]

Effect of soil pH on plant growth[edit]

Acid soils[edit]
Plants grown in acid soils can experience a variety of stresses
including aluminium (Al), hydrogen (H), and/or manganese (Mn) toxicity, as well as nutrient
deficiencies of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg).[12]
Aluminium toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils. Aluminium is present in all soils, but
dissolved Al3+ is toxic to plants; Al3+ is most soluble at low pH; above pH 5.0, there is little Al in
soluble form in most soils.[13][14] Aluminium is not a plant nutrient, and as such, is not actively taken up
by the plants, but enters plant roots passively through osmosis. Aluminium inhibits root growth;
lateral roots and root tips become thickened and roots lack fine branching; root tips may turn brown.
In the root, the initial effect of Al3+ is the inhibition of the expansion of the cells of the rhizodermis,
leading to their rupture; thereafter it is known to interfere with many physiological processes
including the uptake and transport of calcium and other essential nutrients, cell division, cell wall
formation, and enzyme activity.[13][15]
Proton (H+ ion) stress can also limit plant growth. The proton pump, H+-ATPase, of the plasmalemma
of root cells works to maintain the near-neutral pH of their cytoplasm. A high proton activity (pH
within the range 3.0–4.0 for most plant species) in the external growth medium overcomes the
capacity of the cell to maintain the cytoplasmic pH and growth shuts down.[16]
In soils with a high content of manganese-containing minerals, Mn toxicity can become a problem at
pH 5.6 and lower. Manganese, like aluminium, becomes increasingly soluble as pH drops, and Mn
toxicity symptoms can be seen at pH levels below 5.6. Manganese is an essential plant nutrient, so
plants transport Mn into leaves. Classic symptoms of Mn toxicity are crinkling or cupping of leaves.
Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH [edit]

Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH[17]

Soil pH affects the availability of some plant nutrients:

As discussed above, aluminium toxicity has direct effects on plant growth; however, by limiting root
growth, it also reduces the availability of plant nutrients. Because roots are damaged, nutrient uptake
is reduced, and deficiencies of the macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and
magnesium) are frequently encountered in very strongly acidic to ultra-acidic soils (pH<5.0).[18]
Molybdenum availability is increased at higher pH; this is because the molybdate ion is more
strongly sorbed by clay particles at lower pH.[19]
Zinc, iron, copper and manganese show decreased availability at higher pH (increased sorbtion at
higher pH).[19]
The effect of pH on phosphorus availability varies considerably, depending on soil conditions and the
crop in question. The prevailing view in the 1940s and 1950s was that P availability was maximized
near neutrality (soil pH 6.5–7.5), and decreased at higher and lower pH.[20][21]Interactions of
phosphorus with pH in the moderately to slightly acidic range (pH 5.5–6.5) are, however, far more
complex than is suggested by this view. Laboratory tests, glasshouse trials and field trials have
indicated that increases in pH within this range may increase, decrease, or have no effect on P
availability to plants.[21][22]

Water availability in relation to soil pH[edit]

Further information: Water content, Water potential, and Alkali soil

Strongly alkaline soils are sodic and dispersive, with slow infiltration, low hydraulic conductivity and

poor available water capacity.[23] Plant growth is severely restricted because aeration is poor when
the soil is wet; in dry conditions, plant-available water is rapidly depleted and the soils become hard
and cloddy (high soil strength).[24]
Many strongly acidic soils, on the other hand, have strong aggregation, good internal drainage, and
good water-holding characteristics. However, for many plant species, aluminium toxicity severely
limits root growth, and moisture stress can occur even when the soil is relatively moist.[13]
Plant pH preferences[edit]
In general terms, different plant species are adapted to soils of different pH ranges. For many
species, the suitable soil pH range is fairly well known. Online databases of plant characteristics,
such USDA PLANTS[25] and Plants for a Future[26] can be used to look up the suitable soil pH range of
a wide range of plants. Documents like Ellenberg's indicator values for British plants [27] can also be
consulted.
However, a plant may be intolerant of a particular pH in some soils as a result of a particular
mechanism, and that mechanism may not apply in other soils. For example, a soil low in
molybdenum may not be suitable for soybean plants at pH 5.5, but soils with sufficient molybdenum
allow optimal growth at that pH.[18] Similarly, some calcifuges (plants intolerant of high-pH soils) can
tolerate calcareous soils if sufficient phosphorus is supplied.[28] Another confounding factor is that
different varieties of the same species often have different suitable soil pH ranges. Plant breeders
can use this to breed varieties that can tolerate conditions that are otherwise considered unsuitable
for that species – examples are projects to breed aluminium-tolerant and manganese-tolerant
varieties of cereal crops for food production in strongly acidic soils.[29]
The table below gives suitable soil pH ranges for some widely cultivated plants as found in
the USDA PLANTS Database.[25] Some species (like Pinus radiata and Opuntia ficus-indica) tolerate
only a narrow range in soil pH, whereas others (such as Vetiveria zizanioides) tolerate a very wide
pH range.

Scientific name Common name pH (minimum) pH (maximum)

Vetiveria zizanioides vetivergrass 3.0 8.0

Pinus rigida pitch pine 3.5 5.1

Rubus chamaemorus cloudberry 4.0 5.2

Ananas comosus pineapple 4.0 6.0

Coffea arabica Arabian coffee 4.0 7.5

Rhododendron
smooth azalea 4.2 5.7
arborescens

Pinus radiata Monterey pine 4.5 5.2

Carya illinoinensis pecan 4.5 7.5

 Scientific name Common name pH (minimum) pH (maximum)

Tamarindus indica tamarind 4.5 8.0

Vaccinium corymbosum highbush blueberry 4.7 7.5

Manihot esculenta cassava 5.0 5.5

Morus alba white mulberry 5.0 7.0

Malus apple 5.0 7.5

Pinus sylvestris Scots pine 5.0 7.5

Carica papaya papaya 5.0 8.0

Cajanus cajan pigeonpea 5.0 8.3

Pyrus communis common pear 5.2 6.7

Solanum lycopersicum garden tomato 5.5 7.0

Psidium guajava guava 5.5 7.0

Nerium oleander oleander 5.5 7.8

Punica granatum pomegranate 6.0 6.9

 Scientific name Common name pH (minimum) pH (maximum)

Viola sororia common blue violet 6.0 7.8

Caragana arborescens Siberian peashrub 6.0 9.0

Cotoneaster integerrimus cotoneaster 6.8 8.7

Opuntia ficus-indica Barbary fig (pricklypear) 7.0 8.5

Changing soil pH[edit]

Increasing pH of acidic soil[edit]
Finely ground agricultural lime is often applied to acid soils to increase soil pH (liming). The amount
of lime needed to change pH is determined by the mesh size of the lime (how finely it is ground) and
the buffering capacity of the soil. A high mesh size (60 mesh = 0.25 mm; 100 mesh = 0.149 mm)
indicates a finely ground lime that will react quickly with soil acidity. The buffering capacity of a soil
depends on the clay content of the soil, the type of clay, and the amount of organic matter present,
and may be related to the soil cation exchange capacity. Soils with high clay content will have a
higher buffering capacity than soils with little clay, and soils with high organic matter will have a
higher buffering capacity than those with low organic matter. Soils with higher buffering capacity
require a greater amount of lime to achieve an equivalent change in pH.[30]
Amendments other than agricultural lime that can be used to increase the pH of soil include wood
ash, industrial calcium oxide (burnt lime), magnesium oxide, basic slag (calcium silicate),
and oyster shells. These products increase the pH of soils through various acid-base
reactions. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in the soil by reacting with H+ ions to
form monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute.[31]
Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil[edit]
The pH of an alkaline soil can be reduced by adding acidifying agents or acidic organic materials.
Elemental sulfur (90–99% S) has been used at application rates of 300–500 kg/ha – it slowly
oxidizes in soil to form sulfuric acid. Acidifying fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium
nitrate and urea, can help to reduce the pH of a soil because ammonium oxidises to form nitric acid.
Acidifying organic materials include peat or sphagnum peat moss.[32]
However, in high-pH soils with a high calcium carbonate content (more than 2%), it can be very
costly and/or ineffective to attempt to reduce the pH with acids. In such cases, it is often more
efficient to add phosphorus, iron, manganese, copper and/or zinc instead, because deficiencies of
these nutrients are the most common reasons for poor plant growth in calcareous soils.[33][34]

See also[edit]
 Acid mine drainage
 Acid sulfate soil
 Cation-exchange capacity
 Fertilizer
 Liming (soil)
 Organic horticulture

References[edit]
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