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A Guidebook to Environmental Indicators

Book · January 1999

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Cover fh8 front 11/9/98 5:26 PM Page 1
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

a guidebook t o
Environmental Indicators
6182 inside cover art 11/9/98 4:05 PM Page 2

A note on definitions
People who talk about indicators use of water). In most cases, the true
sometimes use the same words to mean baseline for natural systems cannot be
different things. Key words are used defined or measured, so a particular
throughout this booklet as follows: condition at an agreed time is used as
Indicator is taken to mean a significant a substitute baseline.
physical, chemical, biological, social or A benchmark (or threshold) is the
economic variable which can be measured value for an indicator that has some
in a defined way for management defined environmental significance in
purposes. Some books give this meaning the functioning of the natural system.
to the term attribute and an indicator is an One example is the number and size
aggregation of attributes related to the of fish that can be harvested from a
same issue. particular fishery without endangering
Targets are specified levels or ranges for a the species’ capacity to renew its
measurable quantity that a group aims to numbers. Another is the concen-
achieve. Targets may be adopted by tration of pollutants that can be
governments, industry, organisations or tolerated without damaging health.
individuals. Targets are policy tools, but Whereas targets have a basis in policy
may have a scientific base. Australiaís and reflect human values,
commitment at Kyoto to restrict benchmarks are scientifically
greenhouse gas emissions to 108% of 1990 determined.
levels by 2014 is an example of a target. Environment management is used
Dust storms,
Targets may be associated with one or here to include not only formal
dramatically 200 many indicators.
Number of dust storms

management processes but also a

captured in an A baseline tries to assess the range of environment-related activities
urban setting, are
150
behaviour of a system in the absence of individuals and groups and those
of some disturbing influence (a interested in environment programs,
an indicator of policies and outcomes. The word
100
difficult task). For example, if the
wind erosion. flow regime of a river were used as environment is directed particularly to
As shown, their
50 an indicator, the baseline would be physical environmental factors, but in
the flow in the absence of any the understanding that their effective
number appears 0 specified human influence (ie, management must take account of
1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992
to be falling. Source: McTainsh, G.H. and Reddan, S.P. 1995 (unpublished data).
without any dams, channels, weirs, or social and economic factors.
apdated eps files 11/9/98 10:52 AM Page 1

Contents Environmental indicators are measures of

physical, chemical, biological or socio-
A note on definitions Inside front cover economic factors which best represent the
Why this booklet? 2 key elements of complex ecosystems or
environmental issues.
Diagram: communicating between complex worlds 3
They contribute to planning and
Why indicators? 4 management processes and are not just
Diagram: a generalised environment management cycle 5 any piece of quantitative information.
Fitting indicators into the environment management cycle 6 They can describe an environmental
factor at some moment, show trends,
Diagram: key elements of the indicators process 7 or track progress to a given goal.
Identifying and selecting indicators
human activities 8 Increases in the number of saltwater crocodiles
policies, goals and management 9 in the Northern Territory since protection began
system knowledge and understanding 10 indicate successful management.
Design of monitoring and data gathering 12
0.8
Collecting and summarising data 13 Numbers (m)

Interpreting and evaluating data 14 0.7

Acting on indicator data - linking back to the management cycle 15

0.6
Scales in space and time 16
Feedbacks and modifications 17
0.5
A checklist for use of indicators 18
Some future directions 19 0.4

Reading list 20
0.3
Acknowledgments Inside back cover

0.2
'75 '77 '79 '81 '83 '85 '87 '89 '91 '93
Note: These counts are from waterways surveyed by helicopter between
1975 and 1993. Source: Webb et al. 1994.

1
apdated eps files 11/9/98 11:11 AM Page 2

Why this booklet?

In our dynamic, complex world, the To help the use of indicators for better
increasing scale of human activity is a environmental management, this booklet
major driver of change. Environmental suggests a general framework and
indicators are becoming widely used as a guidelines suitable for many users and
simple way to view our complex uses. It aims to help by giving a general
environment and assess the impacts of our guide to the context and content of good
activities and our management responses. indicators, but does not cover in detail the
The move to a broader use of indicators is selection, development and use of any
relatively new, with rapidly developing particular indicator.
initiatives at all scales but a sense of
It should provide an indicator starting point
inadequate consistency and continuity.
for those involved in resource
Interest is increasing in environmental management, industry, community groups,
indicators because society is more aware of planners, policy and decision-makers at all
issues influencing environmental quality, levels of government, students and
places more value on the environment, and scientists.
demands better management and higher
Its framework ideas could be applied to
accountability from those responsible for
many scales and purposes. For example,
both its use and its conservation.
assisting property management; water
Good indicators encapsulate knowledge, quality monitoring and management; State
providing an essential tool for of the Environment reporting; and in the
understanding and for management meeting of corporate environmental
A well-designed monitoring program is purposes, from local to global. They are of management and reporting obligations.
great potential benefit as guides for action
essential to management and can serve
and to help measure its success, but must
important education functions. Here a be designed with clear objectives and
schoolgirl is shown sampling water. interpreted carefully. They are not an end
in themselves.

2
apdated eps files 11/9/98 11:11 AM Page 3

Ecosystems Water
Landscapes Soil
Species
Air
What’s Settlements
happening
in complex Environments
environments
from local to Environmental indicators are
communication tools between
global? environments and people.
They focus and condense
information about complex
environments for management,
monitoring and reporting uses.
Indicators The indicator process can take
account of social and economic
information.
Properly designed indicators
are useful tools for improving

What’s communication and management

decisions.
important
to different
users? Society
Governments Industries
Communities
Resource
Planners Managers

3
apdated eps files 11/9/98 11:56 AM Page 4

Why indicators?
The Report Australia: State of the Indicators can deliver the information
Environment 1996 noted that: to help make decisions. They often appear
to be simple measures, but their success
“In many important areas, Australia just does not have
lies in accurately summarising and
the data, the analytical tools or the scientific
communicating key aspects of complex
understanding that would allow us to say whether
environments.
current patterns of change to the natural environment
are sustainable. We are effectively driving a car without A good environmental indicator:
an up-to-date map, so we cannot be sure where we
has an agreed, scientifically sound
are. Improving our view of the road ahead by enhancing
meaning
the environmental data base is a very high priority. Our
intended destination is a sustainable pattern of represents an environmental aspect of
development, but it is not always clear which direction importance to society
we need to take to get there.”
tells us something important, and its
As this quote makes clear, often we don’t meaning is readily understood
have the information to assist actions we
has a sound and practical measurement
want to take. We need data and
process
understanding - and acquiring them may
be expensive and time consuming. In helps focus information to answer
some cases, we may have lots of data, but important questions
of variable quality, or not well related to
assists decision making by being
the areas, time-frames or issues we are
effective and cost-efficient to use.
interested in.
Indicators help define the nature and size
In addition to gathering basic data,
of environmental problems, set goals for
and developing understanding of the
their solution, and track progress towards
environmental factors to which it relates,
those goals.
we need ways to bring information to
bear effectively on whatever environment- This booklet aims to help development of
related decision we are contemplating, effective indicators by describing how they
however small. link to environmental management
activities, and reviewing factors which
Salinity
make up a good indicator.
Toxic algae

4
apdated eps files 11/9/98 11:56 AM Page 5

A generalised environment management cycle

Environmental managers all face differing One tool in the manager’s toolbox
realities, though similarities exist. This is the environmental indicator.

n g
diagram represents a generalised
The design phase, and ensuing
management cycle in which the
activities, involve and affect
t i
community, policy makers, managers and
scientists all participate, taking the lead at
various people, both direct a
different stages. Indicators can help
users and the wider u Values &
Vision

P
community.

l
groups, or an individual enterprise. Here

l a
a
we particularly assume that knowledge Often it is necessary to Issues

E v
from science is required as one ingredient gather and process

n n
for success - as often it is. information
although, sometimes, Objectives
The planning phase begins with
existing information
Environment

i n g
interaction between society identifying Targets
and understanding is
important environmental values and
visions (e.g. conservation of key species),
sufficient to start Actions Management
immediately on
Cycle Resources
and policy makers establishing approaches improving environ- & Tools
which reflect those collective aspirations mental actions. These
(e.g. ecologically sustainable actions may range Designs
development). Policy makers and from implementing
managers then identify the related environ- policy changes, (e.g.
mental issues (e.g. incidental catch of new fishing regulations)
albatrosses by fishermen using long-lines). Gather/Process

D
to reallocating resources,
Information

o
Managers and scientists develop to on-ground management
n

i
management objectives (e.g. reducing by- (e.g. shifting farm fences).
catch by redesign of nets), and associated Critical to the success of the g
targets (e.g. achieving negligible catch of management cycle is evaluation
albatrosses within 5 years). Managers of its steps and their outcomes,
then, through operational planning, which completes the cycle and helps
identify and develop necessary resources assure its continual improvement.
and tools, and design the programs Scientists are often well placed to help
needed to implement the plan and to managers and policy makers in this
achieve the objectives and targets. evaluation.

5
apdated eps files 11/9/98 12:03 PM Page 6

Fitting indicators into the environment management cycle

‘What do we need to know?’- this is the management activity). Before beginning include ‘is biodiversity being maintained:
indicator design, it is essential to be sure and are forest ecosystems healthy?’ and
first guide in choosing the indicator. about the questions being addressed, the where indicators are targeted at helping
Indicator development and use must be stage of the management cycle to which answer such questions.
‘plugged-in’ to the environmental the indicators link, and relevant local Locally, a manager may plan to halt rising
management cycle. It must begin by factors. Otherwise, there is a risk of watertables by planting deep-rooted
addressing a question posed at some stage adopting inappropriate indicators. vegetation. Having set a measurable target
in the cycle and end by delivering answers One vision that Australians (and others) for the area needing to be revegetated in
back to the cycle. Questions from different have articulated is that of ecologically order to use water before it enters the
stages of the cycle will motivate different sustainable development. State of the watertable, the manager might seek to
types of indicators or ones that operate at Environment reporting is designed to help indicate the answer to ‘is the watertable
different scales in time and space. assess - or indicate - progress towards rising or falling?’ by asking ‘how many
ecological sustainability: so, overall, it plants have been successfully established?’
Indicator use can relate to any stage but addresses questions such as ‘what are the
typically begins at least by that of identifi- Indicators need to deliver information of
main environmental issues facing Australia?’
cation of tools and resources, and re-enters use to managers or they won’t respond.
and ‘are problems getting better or worse?’.
Few managers have the time or inclination
the cycle near the action and evaluation Another example is sustainable forest
to understand complex or obscure
stages (which then feed wisdom to future management where questions asked
indicators. The science behind an indicator
may be complicated: so, those developing
0
Water-table (metres below ground)

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 it must provide clear guidance about its
-11 meaning and its levels of uncertainty.
The graph indicates
Timeliness is another consideration;
groundwater trends under -2
Annual Pasture Site
indicator data must be available when
annual pasture and a Blue Gum Site decisions are being made.
-3
bluegum plantation in
In sum, indicators must answer clear
southwestern Australia. The -4 questions arising somewhere in a
picture above shows staff from management cycle and be designed to feed
-5
Agriculture Western Australia back timely information which suits its
needs and users. Indicators should help
monitoring groundwater. -6
managers establish whether their objectives
-7 are being met.

-8

6
apdated eps files 11/9/98 12:03 PM Page 7

Key elements of the indicators process

The Environment Management Cycle

Page 5, shows typical management steps - Environment What do we
from planning, through implementation to
evaluation. For simplicity, the cycle is a
Management want to know?
single step here. Remember, users work in Cycle
differing management cycles and have
different needs, resources and time-scales.
They may ask questions, and require
answers, at different phases of the cycle.

What does the

data tell us?

Interpret and Identify and

evaluate data select indicators
See page 14 See pages 8-11

Key elements of the indicators process

Collect and Design monitoring
summarise data and data gathering
See page 13 See page 12
Other Knowledge

7
apdated eps files 11/9/98 2:31 PM Page 8

Identifying and selecting indicators - human activities

Identifying potential indicators, and measure, and alter, than many non-human shipping accidents, for example, can
selecting the best to provide focused processes. Unsurprisingly, the values powerfully affect the environment, but are
information for policy makers and helping guide indicator choice often reflect sporadic. The nature of the activities and
managers, depends on several sorts of human-centred concerns such as health impacts should be assessed as part of
criteria. They can be grouped into those impacts. choosing indicators.
associated with human activities and
While some human activities harm the
impacts; the needs of society, policy makers
environment, others are beneficial.
and managers; and the scientific
Indicators often draw attention to harmful Ozone
understanding needed. These are taken up
activities, but it is important to avoid the decline
in the next 4 pages, and the diagram below.
mindset that most human activities are
over
Good indicators generally rest on negative. There are also useful indicators of
understanding the links between a human natural factors which impact on human Antarctica
activity and its consequences. Sometimes activities.
indicators are associated with incomplete
Indicator performance can vary depending
understanding: these should be used with
on whether human impacts are acute or
care and efforts made to understand the
chronic, local or regional, and limited or
linkages fully. The link between
cumulative in effect. Many activities, such
clearing native vegetation and
as fishing, agriculture, and driving cars,
negative effects on biodiversity,
Environment have a continual effect on the environment.
or the observation that
Management Others may fluctuate strongly: major
Cycle exhaust from cars degrades
air quality in major cities,
Human activities are examples where there
and impacts is scientific consensus Ozone depletion
about the relationships. Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland warned in 1974 that man-made gases such as
Management policies chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) could damage the stratospheric ozone layer that screens
and goals Identify and Where causal links out much of the sun’s harmful UV radiation. Unfortunately, little attention was paid to
select indicators between activities and this warning (except in the United States) until the mid 1980s, when a ‘hole’ was
System knowledge effects are well discovered in the stratospheric ozone layer above the Antarctic. This hole has since
and understanding understood, it may be captured attention as an indicator of the state of the world’s ozone layer.
possible to use indicators as
early warning signals: This problem was addressed by phasing out production and use of CFCs and other
stratospheric ozone depletion ozone depleting substances. Because of natural variations and the time for existing
illustrates this. It will often be CFCs to decompose, it is too early to confirm improvement in the ozone layer.
helpful to choose indicators with However, declining production of ozone depleting substances and their concentrations
relationships to human activities since in the atmosphere are excellent indicators of progress.
these are better understood and easier to

8
apdated eps files 11/9/98 2:04 PM Page 9

Identifying and selecting indicators - policies, goals and management

Indicators, in their role of assisting policy with the indicator will depend on the those with a single application. However,
and management processes, must be objective of management. where new information is critical to the Courtesy of Babs and Bert Wells.
conceived and used in ways which fit in management goal, it must be collected.
National State of the Environment reporting
with and influence policies, goals and
will use many continental scale indicators, A monitoring program is often needed
structures. This important linking to the
reflecting the national needs it serves, for indicators to establish the facts and the
management cycle, imposes requirements
while local government and individual trends. A trade-off may be necessary
on indicators.
landholders will mostly use indicators at a between the cost of monitoring and the
Ownership by the full range of much finer scale. The same indicator may quality of the information acquired. The
stakeholders is critical. Unless all be relevant at both local and catchment most cost-effective indicators should be
interested parties agree the indicators scales; but, sometimes, different indicators chosen and the cheapest options are not
represent sound information relevant to will be needed for different scales. necessarily the most effective.
their needs, they risk being ignored or
Both existing and new data can be Consistency across jurisdictions should
maligned. The best way to ensure
used. Raw data are often expensive to be sought where possible. Within
consensus is to involve relevant groups in
collect, so it is important for indicators to Australia, the same indicators should be
selecting indicators.
make use, where possible, of all available used in all States and Territories and,
A range of scales in space and time data, even if collected for other purposes. where appropriate, be consistent
apply to environmental management. On the same grounds, indicators that can with those used overseas.
Careful account must be taken of this when be used for several purposes or by more However, environmental and Environment
selecting indicators. The scale associated than one group should be preferred to management variations will Management
Cycle
often make consistency a
Through management challenging goal to
Human activities
achieve. and impacts
action, the Woylie or
Brush Tailed Bettong Management policies
(above) moved from the
and goals Identify and
select indicators
‘Endangered’ to the System knowledge
and understanding
‘Under Threat’ list in
Western Australia.
Indicators have tracked
the shifting numbers
and have justified this
changed status.

9
apdated eps files 11/9/98 2:12 PM Page 10

Identifying and selecting indicators - system knowledge and understanding

Questions of risk are involved: It may be a key species (such as koalas
how critical is the answer? on Kangaroo Island) which provides
information about the system and other
is a surrogate or approximation species dependent on it.
acceptable? Or it may be a key process (like
Environmental indicators are measures watertable change) which reflects
of physical, chemical, biological or socio- changes in ecosystem, landscape or
economic factors which best represent catchment scale processes.
key elements of complex ecosystems or An assessment of risks associated with the
environmental matters. To achieve their choice of indicators should be made. This
aim of accurately and relatively simply will be based on how critical it is to
reflecting often complex realities, indicators monitor a particular system and whether
need to be based on system knowledge the indicator will provide sufficient
and understanding and be embedded in a information about the changes in the
well-developed interpretive framework. The level of gases in the air near industrial
system to manage them better. Where it is
A monitoring program of repeated too expensive to provide a desirable level plants can indicate processes with potential
measurements of the indicator, in of accuracy, it may be necessary to trade- impacts at various scales.
Environment various places and times and off maximum benefits and use a less
Management in a defined way, will give accurate indicator (a surrogate): the fact
Cycle the basis for detecting that a compromise has been made should
environmental change, be made clear.
Human activities through comparison with
and impacts
a benchmark set or
Management policies condition.
and goals Identify and The indicator must reflect
select indicators
System knowledge the aspect of the system
and understanding that is the objective of the
monitoring.

10
apdated eps files 11/9/98 2:12 PM Page 11

More on system knowledge and understanding

To understand what indicators mean, it is individual parts. If emergent properties can
usually necessary to have good knowledge be understood and measured, they are often There is danger associated with trying
of how a system behaves. What is the better summaries of the state of the system to combine indicators into a single
range of natural variation? What happens if than measures of individual components. index of a system (an environmental
the system strays outside this natural range? For example, it is far easier to measure the counterpart of the Gross Domestic
Will natural functions be slowly degraded, pressure of a gas than to track the velocity of Product), and basing decisions on that
or is there a point at which the whole each molecule. Unfortunately, it is less clear single measure.
system will suddenly collapse? how to identify and measure emergent
properties of ecological systems. Suggested
Without system understanding, it can be
measures include the time taken to recover
difficult to select and interpret indicators
from disturbance, productivity trends, and
and to be sure they will provide useful,
biodiversity.
credible and statistically valid information.
The better an ecosystem is understood, the Understanding the dangers of high
easier to select the best indicators and
Pitfalls of using atmospheric lead levels, and the contri-
assess what changes in them mean.
Normally, monitoring a complex natural
environmental indicators bution of lead from petroleum, has led to
management actions which are reducing
system requires an integrated suite of Environmental indicators are windows
indicators. The better our understanding of to highly complex and variable the problem.
the system and the causal relationships systems. They are tools for extracting
within it, the smaller that suite can be. what is critical, for synthesising multi- Lead
ug/m 3
Understanding cause and effect dimensional information, or integrating Adelaide
Melbourne
the influences of many processes. 1.6 Sydney
relationships will also make it easier for Brisbane
However, these characteristics can be 1.4 Perth
managers to decide what action to take. Hobart
a weakness. As in many arenas, great Canberra
For example, the relationships between the 1.2
care must be taken not to over-
concentration of air pollutants in cities,
interpret the story which a simple 1.9
emissions from vehicles and other sources, measure tells of a complex system and
and weather events, are quite well 0.8
not to misinterpret or confuse short
understood. So, a manager could chose at and long term trends. 0.6
some point to control industry emissions,
use of wood stoves, or road traffic, based Because the scope of any one 0.4

on weather indicators. indicator is usually limited, they 0.2

should be used in suites to give a
Some systems have emergent properties - 0.0
more complete picture of a system.
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
of the system as a whole rather than
Source: State and Territory environmental authorities.

11
apdated eps files 11/9/98 2:40 PM Page 12

Design of monitoring and data gathering

Quantitative characteristics of indicators are inventories taken at 5-10 year intervals may Good indicator design is often neglected:
often neglected in their development. not detect harmful invaders soon enough
Detection of change in an indicator is at its to allow relatively simple eradication. it is crucial to effective use
root a quantitative and statistical problem:
Indicator data are used to monitor natural
of indicators
so, effective use of an indicator depends
critically on the design of its sampling systems, which have their own scales and indicators have to answer the
program. That design has many aspects. boundaries, and support environmental questions asked and be cost
management within designated regions.
The statistical power to detect change in
Sampling must be designed to match these
effective.
the indicator depends on the:
differing boundaries if the data are to Corals, algae, reef fishes and starfish are
natural variability and sensitivity to reflect the condition of the system
pressure of the component(s) being monitored on the Great Barrier Reef as
accurately and be of most use to managers.
measured indicators of the health of the ecosystem. These
It is not simple to reconcile the differing
amount of change one wants to detect requirements of, say, bio-regions and data have been critical to Marine Park
administrative areas: catchments, for management. In designing the program, the
sampling methods
example, are well defined ecological units factors on this page were taken into account.
careful choice of placement but their boundaries do not usually
and frequency of sampling coincide with government jurisdictions.
number of samples Finally, the indicator’s effectiveness and
collected. efficiency in representing the state of the
The scope of the indicator system must be addressed. Is
and scale of its sampling measurement of the indicator feasible in
program have to be technological and logistic terms? Are
considered. The time and measurements repeatable? Will the data
space scales of the give a statistically representative sample
sampling and the indicator from the system? Is aggregation of the data
must be compatible. For within larger regions feasible? Can the
instance, it would not make indicator be combined with similar
Design monitoring sense to sample a slow- indicators collected in other regions?
and data gathering growing seagrass species Expert assistance is often needed to help
weekly if the goal were to detect answer such questions.
changes due to chronic influences of Source: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
pollution over several years. Conversely,

12
apdated eps files 11/9/98 2:40 PM Page 13

Collecting and summarising data

Field collection of indicator data often
requires extensive planning, training of
personnel, coordination of effort, and
considerable resources. Coordination is
particularly necessary when different
collection processes in different areas and
jurisdictions are involved. Field sampling
programs may entail an on-going, long-term
effort and, sometimes, complex equipment .
Once collected, initial low level clean up
and summarisation of new data is usually
required. This may occur in the database
automatically. Indicator data must be
screened to ensure they meet established Data collected by remote sensing, and skilfully
data quality and compatibility standards. interpreted, can powerfully indicate changes
The data themselves should reside in a
over time. These images, 13 years apart, show
database which is easy to access and use.
It should include, or be compatible with, agriculture taking over bushland.
tools used to process, aggregate,
summarise and visualise the data.
We should always presume that others
after us may want to use the data for new
purposes. Clear documentation and
definition of the indicators, and of the data
which relate to them, including
methodology and units used, are essential
both for current and possible future uses.
Exploiting existing databases also requires
knowledge about location, reliability and Collect and
collection methods, as well as computing summarise data
facilities, considerable experience, and, in
some cases, extensive processing.

13
apdated eps files 11/9/98 3:25 PM Page 14

Interpreting and evaluating data

In the initial phases of indicator use, the For greatest effect, indicator data should be other information is often needed to
linked to pre-established criteria in the confirm this and to shape the responses.
scientific community may need to help management cycle, and tied to potential
Various means are employed to boost the
managers to build their understanding. management actions. For example, if a
power of indicators to convey the nature of
series of satellite images indicated that the
As indicators become more routine, rate of decline in area of old-growth forest
a situation or trend. Communication to
managers is the essential function of
their interpretation by managers should exceeded a threshold (say 1%/yr), this
indicators. They can also convey
become simpler, more confident. might raise an alarm and lead to logging
information to a wider audience telling
reductions. Much as operational control
them, amongst other things, whether
criteria signal the need for adjustments in
management of aspects of their
an industrial process, environmental
environment is effective. So, the power to
indicators should monitor changes in, or
communicate and report is one factor to be
impacts on, environments and point to the
considered in choosing, designing, using
need for responses.
and interpreting indicators
Often, indicator data will require sophis-
ticated interpretation, such as through
extensive statistical analyses, computer
modelling, or expert assessment.
Evaluation of potential management
actions typically involves a variety of
inputs, of which indicators are just one.
A range of tools and expertise can be used
to select and focus this data pool on a
particular management objective. Thus,
deciding whether to respond to an algal
Evaluate and bloom, and, if so, which remedial actions
interpret data to take, will depend on more than mere
indications of its presence. Other
indicators may give insight into the state of
water quality; additional sampling could
establish the species causing the bloom; or
an expert might provide an interpretation
not available by other means. Indicators
effectively point to the need for action - but

14
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Acting on indicator data - linking back to the management cycle

The best indicators trigger human action, Some indicators may have trigger levels defined objectives or indicators. If
or have the potential to do so. They might above which environmental action is indicators are to be of maximum benefit,
do this in several ways - including seeking recommended or required. For example, managers and decision makers must build
confirmatory monitoring, or research. They where the concentrations of pollutants them into their thinking and decision-
may highlight an emerging or worsening such as ozone or carbon monoxide making, preferably by establishing links
environmental problem that needs to be exceeds levels that endanger health, it is between indicator change and
addressed. For example, increasingly necessary to take steps to reduce them. management strategies. Indicators must
frequent algal blooms in a river may transcend politics.
The best use will be made of indicators
indicate problems. A drop in the area of a when they are explicitly built into As the management cycle changes, the
catchment covered by deep-rooted management processes. Put the other way, indicators which interact with it should be
vegetation may point to the danger of management processes will often be better kept under review to ensure they remain
increased soil loss or rising ground waters. if they make explicit and thoughtful use of relevant to management needs.
Disappearance of a bird species from a indicators in connection with agreed
country town might point to the declining objectives. At present, many parts of
condition of nearby remnant vegetation. In Australia’s environment are managed with
each case, remedial action is needed. minimum information and without well

In Kalgoorlie, a reduction in sulfur dioxide levels has occurred following management actions.
Diagnostic indicators
One strategy proposed for designing indicators is to build a ‘diagnostic pyramid’. At 5000
the top of the pyramid would be a general indicator of the overall health of a system.
Average SO 2 level Gidji Phase 1 Commissioned
Ideally, this would be a simple indicator which can be monitored cheaply. So long Paringa Roaster closed
4000
as this indicator continued to show that the system is healthy, no other indicators Croesus Roaster closed

would be needed. Gidji Phase 2 Commissioned

3000 Oroya Roaster closed

At the next level, a suite of more powerful, but more expensive, indicators might be
developed. While more expensive to monitor, these would provide more Nickel smelter shut down two months
2000
information about the specific causes of decline in a system. A deterioration in the
simple indicator of overall health would be the trigger to begin monitoring these
more detailed indicators. However, simple indicators of overall health, used for early 1000

warning purposes, are often difficult to develop, except on small space scales, and
are a problem needing further research. They are also far from the only sorts of 0
indicators needed for policy and management purposes. Jan '89 Jan'90 Jan '91 Jan '92 Jan '93 Jan '94
Source: WA Department of Environmental Protection.

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Scales in space and time

We seek information and manage natural ecological scale - such as a river catchment
systems at a wide range of scales in time covering several local government areas or
and space and must take this into account even crossing State boundaries. So, the
when selecting indicators. For example, indicator selected must be relevant at the
minesite rehabilitation occurs over fairly catchment scale, but also meaningful at
small areas, while ozone depletion has a local and other government scales.
global scale. Minesite rehabilitation may
Some environmental issues must be
respond to management intervention
assessed at each of local, state and national
Minesite rehabilitation can be based on within 5 to 10 years; but ozone depletion
levels, but managers at these scales may
may take decades to respond to reduced
sensitive analysis of the landscape desired. need different information. For example, a
use of depleting substances.
Indicators can confirm progress towards farmer needs to know how much soil is
Some natural processes are extremely brief, being lost to erosion in a particular field,
the goals.
but many operate on time scales from while a national agency needs to know the
These photographs are 2 and 4 years after decades to centuries (for example, some extent of erosion country-wide.
trees live for 500 years). In contrast,
establishment of native tree species. Different indicators may therefore be
environment management programs often
needed for managers operating at
operate on time-frames of a few years,
different scales. They may often be
making it difficult to select indicators to International
based on the same data, and
assess their success.
finding reliable ways to aggregate, or
Often we will have to select indicators with disaggregate, data across space scales is a
an assumed link to environmental continuing and difficult challenge. The
National
outcomes (for example, the success in challenge is even greater when linking
establishing perennial deep-rooted plants both space and time considerations.
to address rising water tables). For long- Expert assistance may be needed to
term purposes, the actual environmental underpin indicator-related action at local to
outcomes should also be monitored (in this global levels.
example, what actually happens to the
water table).
Management decisions are often made on
different space scales to the systems being
managed. For example, local government
boundaries may be the main basis of
management of something that involves an

16
 apdated eps files 11/10/98 11:27 AM Page 17

Feedbacks and modifications

The effectiveness of management and Adaptation occurs on different time
indicator processes is greatly enhanced scales. The diagram illustrates
when processes, products and outcomes that evaluation of management
are evaluated, and those evaluations are actions might lead to their
used to modify the cycles. Environmental modification within weeks Values & Vision
conditions change, human values alter, or months, but that
policies evolve, and understanding of evaluation might
Issues
systems improves - all of which demand contribute to modifying
that all aspects of management systems be planning activities, Objectives
flexible, dynamic and adaptive. such as setting
objectives, only over Targets
Adapting management actions to optimise
several years.
outcomes is the most important reason for Tools
Evaluation and
evaluation, but should occur at all stages in
the cycle and at several scales.
For example, the ability of a sampling
adaptation should be
included explicitly as
part of the
Time Designs
program to deliver the intended detection management cycle Information
of change must be periodically assessed. If and indicator design.
the statistical power to detect change is Actions
found to be inadequate, then the sampling
design needs to be modified, perhaps by Evaluation
increasing the frequency of sampling, the and adaptation
National
number of samples collected at each site,
or the number of sites. Similarly, the cost-
effectiveness of the indicator process has to
Regional be reviewed.

Local

Point

17
apdated eps files 11/9/98 3:46 PM Page 18

A checklist for the use of indicators for environmental management

Indicators must:
4.0 HCFC-22 be capable of being monitored easily to
Total chlorine (ppb) be relevant to management objectives, show trends over time
3.5
be scientifically valid and fit in a policy use accepted and clearly documented
Total chlorine
3.0 framework methods, and units
CFC-11
2.5
be developed with all those involved in be as simple and cheap as possible
the management cycle, from (whilst still achieving their desired
2.0 stakeholders to those carrying out ends)
CFC-12 monitoring: indicators are unlikely to
1.5 CFC-113
work successfully if imposed from be adaptable for use at a range of
methyl chloroform
1.0 above scales, wherever possible.

0.5
carbon tetrachloride
be credible, easy to understand and Other essential elements for indicator
carbonated methanes unambiguous development include:
0
1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 reflect an essential, fundamental or partnerships between communities,
Source: CSIRO and Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Station highly valued element of the government, companies and research
environment being monitored agencies setting-up and running the
The baseline air monitoring station at Cape
process, and sharing information and
be part of the management cycle and experiences
Grim in Tasmania and trends measured there not an end in themselves
of total chlorine in the atmosphere over time - the provision of adequate resources
focus on the use of information, not on (time, expertise, funds)
important indicators based on ultra-sensitive the gaining of it
measurement and long time series. a commitment to collect new data if
have a clear link to the environmental required
outcome being monitored
continuing research and development
be kept under review, and refined to provide the most appropriate
when necessary, as part of adaptive indicators and to understand cause and
management effect relationships
provide early warning of emerging awareness of the links to wider social
issues or problems and economic considerations.

18
apdated eps files 11/9/98 3:46 PM Page 19

Some future directions

Indicators are being used increasingly as a knowledge of systems will continue to Indicator use will feed to better reporting
tool serving better management–including occur, particularly in terms of and communication.
through performance measurement. This is understanding the interconnections
At the same time as more sophisticated and
to be encouraged, but with care taken not between factors and between systems.
complex techniques and technologies
to create an ‘indicators industry’ with One promising area for further research is
become available to scientists and
indicators somewhat of an end in ‘whole of system’ properties which may managers, simple indicators and tools must
themselves instead of a powerful tool for help lead to simpler indicator sets. be made available to community groups
judging the success or failure of our Nevertheless, there will be a continuing and individuals to enhance democratic
environmental actions. Distortion of the need to recognise, and accept, the participation in environmental
purpose and value of indicators will be uncertainty in scientific and policy understanding and management. The
avoided if a realistic view is maintained of knowledge of what is happening and how simple local level of activity will remain a
their uses and limitations and of the need to to fix it. cornerstone of effective environmental
develop practical, soundly-based method-
Improved instrumentation will allow ever action.
ologies for their development and use.
more sensitive detection and monitoring. As repeatedly stated, environmental
This booklet is one small step in that, Current trends are towards greater use of indicators serve management processes.
providing a context and some guidelines powerful remote sensing techniques, using These vary widely in nature, scale and
for those developing and using indicators - satellite or aerial platforms, and better complexity but usually require the
but it is far from a blueprint. Above all, its automated recording technologies such as integration of a range of factors, of which
message is that indicators must be automatic data loggers at remote sites. the physical environmental are only one
embedded in whatever policy and
Indicator data will be quicker and faster in part. More and more it is realised that
management processes - and underlying
both capture and analysis with more use of robust solutions require attention to each
aims - they are serving, and that managers
real-time measures and complex and of social, economic and environmental
must respond to the signals that indicators
powerful modelling and statistical factors. Indicators are being developed to
can provide.
techniques. These will also facilitate the better serve this broad ecological-social-
Rigorous scientific underpinning of aggregation of local, regional and national economic sustainability approach.
indicators is essential. As our data, the more accurate reconstruction of Overall, the use of indicators in natural and
understanding of environmental systems
historical data for trend analysis and the human influenced systems is in its infancy
improves, it will be possible to select
use of available data for multiple purposes, and many steps to improved use will be
better, more cost-effective indicators. It is
with related savings in collection costs. taken over the next few years.
particularly important to improve our
understanding of all elements of biological Indicators will be able to be used more
diversity if better indicators are to be readily by managers and policy makers.
developed. Through science, steady The indicators process will be backed by
improvements in the underlying powerful visualisation techniques.

19
apdated eps files 11/9/98 3:47 PM Page 20

Reading list
Australian Conservation Foundation 1996. Report for the Montreal Process. Department annual environmental workshop. Minerals
Listening to the Land - A Directory of of Primary Industries and Energy, Canberra. Council of Australia, Dickson.
Community Environmental Monitoring
Organisation for Economic Co-operation Walker, J. and Reuter, D. (1996).
Groups in Australia. ACF, Melbourne.
and Development (1993). OECD Core Set Indicators of Catchment Health - a
Fairweather, P. G. and Napier, G. M. 1998. of Indicators for Environmental Technical Perspective, CSIRO, Melbourne.
Environmental Indicators for National State Performance Reviews. Environment
Ward, T., Butler, E. and Hill, B. 1998.
of the Environment Reporting - Inland Monographs No. 83, Organisation for
Environmental Indicators for National State
Waters. Australia: State of the Environment Economic Co-operation and Development,
of the Environment Reporting - Estuaries
(Environmental Indicators Reports) Paris.
and the Sea. Australia: State of the
Department of the Environment, Canberra.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation Environment (Environmental Indicators
Hamblin, A. 1998. Environmental and Development (1996). OECD Core Set Reports) Department of the Environment,
Indicators for National State of the of Indicators for Environmental Indicators. Canberra.
Environment Reporting - Land Resources. Biodiversity and Landscape - Draft working
Australia: State of the Environment Paper. Organisation for Economic
(Environmental Indicators Reports) Co-operation and Development, Paris.
Department of the Environment, Canberra.
Saunders, D., Margules, C. and Hill, B.
Institute of Environmental Studies (ed) 1998. Environmental Indicators for
(1996). Tracking Progress: Linking National State of the Environment
Environment and Economy through Reporting - Biological Diversity. Australia:
Indicators and Accounting Systems. State of the Environment (Environmental
Conference Papers. Proceedings of the Indicators Reports) Department of the
1996 Australian Academy of Science Environment, Canberra.
Fenner Conference on the Environment.
State of the Environment Advisory Council
Institute of Environmental Studies,
(eds). Australia: State of the Environment
University of New South Wales, Sydney.
1996 an independent report to the
Moldan. B., Billharz, S., and Matravers, R., Commonwealth Minister for the
(eds) 1997. Sustainability Indicators: a Environment CSIRO Publishing,
report on the Project on Indicators of Collingwood, Vic.
Sustainable Development. John Wiley &
Tongway, D., Hindley, N., Ludwig, J.,
Sons, Chichester.
Kearns, A., and Barnett, G. (1997). Early
Montreal Process Implementation Group indicators of ecosystem rehabilitation on
(1997). Australia’s First Approximation selected minesites. Proceedings of 22nd

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Acknowledgements
This booklet was principally researched being finalised. In the design and printing ISBN: 0 643 06386 2
and written by: stages, Jane Kahler helped greatly. Geoff
McAlpine did the final editing. © Copyright CSIRO Australia 1998
Dennis Heinemann [CSIRO]
John Higgins [Environment Australia] Designed by Swell Design Group Pty Ltd
The writing team also acknowledges the
Geoff McAlpine [CSIRO] strong support of John Radcliffe, others in Printed by National Capital Printing
John Raison [CSIRO] CSIRO, and Environment Australia during
Sarah Ryan [CSIRO] the booklet’s gestation and production.
Denis Saunders [CSIRO]
The booklet is based on the ideas and Photographs and
research of many people. It was formulated tables courtesy of:
and laid out during two workshops after
Inside front cover. Bureau of Meteorology
which the writing team developed the
State of Environment Report 1996
workshop ideas. Prue Roughley provided
valuable support to the writers. Page 1 State of Environment Report 1996
The members of the writing team are Page 2 CSIRO
grateful to the workshop participants: Page 4 Bill van Aken, CSIRO
Willem Bouma, Ed Butler, Allan Dale, Page 6 Arjen Ryder and Don McFarlane
Bernard Doube, Richard Eckersley, Peter of Agriculture Western Australia
Forbes, Malcolm Gill, Tim Healy, Graeme Page 8 State of Environment Report 1996
Hedley, Jeanette Heycock, Michael Hill, Page 9 WA Department of Conservation
Theo Hooy, Allen Kearns, Partap Khanna, and Land Management
Glen Kile, Barry Longstaff, Chris Margules,
Page 10 CSIRO
Clive Pankhurst, John Radcliffe, Doug
Reuter, Anthony Ringrose-Voase, Ian Page 11 State of Environment Report 1996
Russell, Tony Smith, Fiona Solomon, David Page 12 Great Barrier Reef Marine
Tongway, Joe Walker, Jeremy Wallace, Ray Park Authority
Wallis, Terry White, John Williams, and Page 13 Dean Graetz, CSIRO
Mike Young.
Page 14 CSIRO
Important contributions were made to
Page 15 State of Environment Report 1996
diagram ideas by Fiona Solomon (page 3)
and Terry White (page 17). The draft was Page 16 Alan Andersen, CSIRO
circulated widely for comment before Page 18 State of Environment Report 1996
6182 back cover art FH8 11/10/98 10:02 AM Page 1
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

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