Problem solving

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Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process that includes
problem finding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions,
problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation
and control of more routine or fundamental skills.[1] Problem solving occurs when an organism or
an artificial intelligence system needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state.

Contents
 1 Overview
 2 Europe
 3 USA and Canada
 4 Characteristics of difficult problems
 5 Problem-solving techniques
 6 Problem-solving methodologies
 7 Example applications
 8 See also
 9 Notes
 10 References
 11 External links

[edit] Overview
The nature of human problem solving methods has been studied by psychologists over the past
hundred years. There are several methods of studying problem solving, including; introspection,
behaviorism, simulation, computer modeling and experiment.

Beginning with the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany (e.g. Duncker, 1935
[2]
), and continuing through the 1960s and early 1970s, research on problem solving typically
conducted relatively simple, laboratory tasks (e.g. Duncker's "X-ray" problem; Ewert &
Lambert's 1932 "disk" problem, later known as Tower of Hanoi) that appeared novel to
participants (e.g. Mayer, 1992 [3]). Various reasons account for the choice of simple novel tasks:
they had clearly defined optimal solutions, they were solvable within a relatively short time
frame, researchers could trace participants' problem-solving steps, and so on. The researchers
made the underlying assumption, of course, that simple tasks such as the Tower of Hanoi
captured the main properties of "real world" problems, and that the cognitive processes
underlying participants' attempts to solve simple problems were representative of the processes
engaged in when solving "real world" problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for
reasons of convenience, and thought generalizations to more complex problems would become
possible. Perhaps the best-known and most impressive example of this line of research remains
the work by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon [4].

Simple laboratory-based tasks can be useful in explicating the steps of logic and reasoning that
underlie problem solving; however, they omit the complexity and emotional valence of "real-
world" problems. In clinical psychology, researchers have focused on the role of emotions in
problem solving (D'Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971; D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982), demonstrating that poor
emotional control can disrupt focus on the target task and impede problem resolution (Rath,
Langenbahn, Simon, Sherr, & Diller, 2004). In this conceptualization, human problem solving
consists of two related processes: problem orientation, the motivational/attitudinal/affective
approach to problematic situations and problem-solving skills, the actual cognitive-behavioral
steps, which, if successfully implemented, lead to effective problem resolution. Working with
individuals with frontal lobe injuries, neuropsychologists have discovered that deficits in
emotional control and reasoning can be remediated, improving the capacity of injured persons to
resolve everyday problems successfully (Rath, Simon, Langenbahn, Sherr, & Diller, 2003).

[edit] Europe
In Europe, two main approaches have surfaced, one initiated by Donald Broadbent (1977; see
Berry & Broadbent, 1995) in the United Kingdom and the other one by Dietrich Dörner (1975,
1985; see Dörner & Wearing, 1995) in Germany. The two approaches have in common an
emphasis on relatively complex, semantically rich, computerized laboratory tasks, constructed to
resemble real-life problems. The approaches differ somewhat in their theoretical goals and
methodology, however. The tradition initiated by Broadbent emphasizes the distinction between
cognitive problem-solving processes that operate under awareness versus outside of awareness,
and typically employs mathematically well-defined computerized systems. The tradition initiated
by Dörner, on the other hand, has an interest in the interplay of the cognitive, motivational, and
social components of problem solving, and utilizes very complex computerized scenarios that
contain up to 2,000 highly interconnected variables (e.g., Dörner, Kreuzig, Reither & Stäudel's
1983 LOHHAUSEN project; Ringelband, Misiak & Kluwe, 1990). Buchner (1995) describes the
two traditions in detail.

To sum up, researchers' realization that problem-solving processes differ across knowledge
domains and across levels of expertise (e.g. Sternberg, 1995) and that, consequently, findings
obtained in the laboratory cannot necessarily generalize to problem-solving situations outside the
laboratory, has during the past two decades led to an emphasis on real-world problem solving.
This emphasis has been expressed quite differently in North America and Europe, however.
Whereas North American research has typically concentrated on studying problem solving in
separate, natural knowledge domains, much of the European research has focused on novel,
complex problems, and has been performed with computerized scenarios (see Funke, 1991, for
an overview).

[edit] USA and Canada

In North America, initiated by the work of Herbert Simon on learning by doing in semantically
rich domains (e.g. Anzai & Simon, 1979; Bhaskar & Simon, 1977), researchers began to
investigate problem solving separately in different natural knowledge domains – such as physics,
writing, or chess playing – thus relinquishing their attempts to extract a global theory of problem
solving (e.g. Sternberg & Frensch, 1991). Instead, these researchers have frequently focused on
the development of problem solving within a certain domain, that is on the development of
expertise (e.g. Anderson, Boyle & Reiser, 1985; Chase & Simon, 1973; Chi, Feltovich & Glaser,
1981).

Areas that have attracted rather intensive attention in North America include such diverse fields
as:

 Problem Solving (Kepner & Tregoe, 1958)

 Reading (Stanovich & Cunningham, 1991)
 Writing (Bryson, Bereiter, Scardamalia & Joram, 1991)
 Calculation (Sokol & McCloskey, 1991)
 Political decision making (Voss, Wolfe, Lawrence & Engle, 1991)
 Problem Solving for Business (Cornell, 2010)
 Managerial problem solving (Wagner, 1991)
 Lawyers' reasoning (Amsel, Langer & Loutzenhiser, 1991)
 Mechanical problem solving (Hegarty, 1991)
 Problem solving in electronics (Lesgold & Lajoie, 1991)
 Computer skills (Kay, 1991)
 Game playing (Frensch & Sternberg, 1991)
 Personal problem solving (Heppner & Krauskopf, 1987)
 Mathematical problem solving (Polya, 1945; Schoenfeld, 1985)
 Social problem solving (D'Zurilla & Goldfreid, 1971; D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982)
 Problem solving for innovations and inventions: TRIZ (Altshuller, 1973, 1984, 1994)

[edit] Characteristics of difficult problems

As elucidated by Dietrich Dörner and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, difficult problems
have some typical characteristics that can be summarized as follows:

 Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation)

o commencement opacity
o continuation opacity
 Polytely (multiple goals)
o inexpressiveness
o opposition
o transience
 Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations and decisions)
o enumerability
o connectivity (hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation)
 o heterogeneity
 Dynamics (time considerations)
o temporal constraints
o temporal sensitivity
o phase effects
o dynamic unpredictability

The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of these characteristics that
are encountered.

In reform mathematics, greater emphasis is placed on problem solving relative to basic skills,
where basic operations can be done with calculators. However some "problems" may actually
have standard solutions taught in higher grades. For example, kindergarteners could be asked
how many fingers are there on all the gloves of 3 children, which can be solved with
multiplication.[5]

[edit] Problem-solving techniques

Training meeting about sustainable design. The photo shows a training meeting with factory
workers in a stainless steel ecodesign company from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. These type of
meeting encourage the brainstorm in the shop floor

 Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real
system
 Analogy: using a solution that solved an analogous problem
 Brainstorming: (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of
solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum is found
 Divide and conquer: breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable
problems
 Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove
(or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
  Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
 Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
 Method of focal objects: synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different
objects into something new
 Morphological analysis: assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
 Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
 Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
 Root cause analysis: eliminating the cause of the problem
 Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is found

"A solution, to be a solution, must share some of the problems characteristics." Richard L Kempe

[edit] Problem-solving methodologies

 Eight Disciplines Problem Solving
 5Φ (IAPIE)
 GROW model
 How to solve it
 Kepner-Tregoe
 Southbeach Notation
 PDCA
 RPR Problem Diagnosis
 TRIZ (Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's
problems")
 WebKaizen

[edit] Example applications

Problem solving is of crucial importance in engineering when products or processes fail, so
corrective action can be taken to prevent further failures. Perhaps of more value, problem solving
can be applied to a product or process prior to an actual fail event i.e. a potential problem can be
predicted, analyzed and mitigation applied so the problem never actually occurs. Techniques like
Failure Mode Effects Analysis can be used to proactively reduce the likelihood of problems
occurring. Forensic engineering is an important technique of failure analysis which involves
tracing product defects and flaws. Corrective action can then be taken to prevent further failures.

[edit] See also

Thinking portal

 Artificial intelligence
 C-K theory
 Creative problem solving
  Divergent thinking
 Educational psychology
 Executive function
 Forensic engineering
 Heuristics
 Innovation
 Intelligence amplification
 Inquiry
 Logical reasoning
 Problem statement
 Herbert Simon
 Thought
 Transdisciplinary studies
 Troubleshooting
 Wicked problem

[edit] Notes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving