O Level Biology Notes - Cells

Cells - Units of Life
Cells - The structural and functional units of life are called cells.
Specialized cells - Cells that are developed to carryout one particular function in an organism.
Parts of a cell
 Cell membrane:
 Made up of proteins and fats.
 It is a semi permeable membrane.
 It controls the entry and exit of particles to and from the cell.
 Keeps all the contents of the cell intact.
 Prevents the cells contents from mixing with the medium outside the cell.
 High surface area of the cell helps in the (or provides for) absorption of nutrients and the disposal of
wastes.
 Cytoplasm:
 Jelly like material.
 Contains cell’s organelles, water with dissolved salt and sugar, proteins (some are enzymes) and lipids.
 Metabolism (chemical reactions of the cell) takes place here.
 Nucleus:
 Contains chromosomes (genetic material) made up of DNA and proteins which carry instructions for
protein synthesis. (Nucleoplasm contains chromatin made of DNA).
 Produces enzymes that diffuse into cytoplasm and control the reactions of the cell.
 Controls the type and quantity of enzyme produced by the cytoplasm to regulate the chemical changes
that occur in the cell.
 Involved in cell division.
Organelles of a cell
 Mitochondria:
 Rod shaped organelles with inner folded membrane to increase surface are for reactions to occur.
 Respiration occurs in this organelle (so it is known as the power house of the cell).
 Uses {actually produces enzymes that uses} glucose and oxygen to make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and
release CO2.
 Endoplasmic reticulum:
 Membranes that appear through out the cytoplasm and at places where proteins and fats assemble.
 It connects the plasma membrane with the nuclear membrane.
 It conducts metabolic products within and between the cell.
 Ribosomes:
 An extremely small, rounded organelle made up of ribonucleic acid.
 It helps in the synthesis of proteins; interprets / reads the code mRNA (translation), collects / attracts
tRNA or amino acids, and arranges them in order, then links them by peptide bonds, to form proteins.
 [x]Golgi apparatus:
 It consists of a variable group of flattened sacs and vacuoles (probably derived from the nuclear
membrane or endoplasmic reticulum).
 It plays a part in assembling the materials for making the cell membrane and to prepare and transfer
proteins (e.g. enzymes that are released from the cell).
 [x]Vacuole:
 It is a membrane bound organelle.
 It is used by cells for storage (of organic compounds or ions and harmful metabolic by-products), plays a
role in intracellular digestion, release of cell waste, helps in *endocytosis and phagocytosis (the engulfing
of nutrients into the cell), (gives turgidity to plant cells).
*Endocytosis: process of cellular absorption, the process by which a cell membrane folds inwards to take in substances bound to its surface.
Enzymes: - proteins that (act as catalyst and thus) speed up chemical reactions.
 They are specific (i.e. support only one type of reaction) ;
*anabolic – produce complex molecules from simple ones.
*catabolic – break large molecules into simpler ones.
 Enzymes work best at an optimum temperature.
 Enzymes become denatured at temperature at temperatures higher than the optimum temperature
and become inactive at lower temperatures.
 Enzymes work in narrow range of pH (most work at neutral conditions pH6 – pH8).
 High temperature or pH change the active site of the enzyme thus the reaction cannot precede as
substrate molecule will not fit in the enzyme’s active site.
 Most enzymes need co-enzymes such as vitamin B to work.
 Effect of increase in temperature of enzymes (of the human body) :
 As the temperature increases the reaction rate also increases.

 Every 10o rise in temperature causes the rate of reaction to increase.
 40oC is the optimum temperature, after this temperature the enzyme begins to get
damaged.
 By 60oC, the reaction stops because the enzyme is denatured.
 Damage by high temperatures is not reversible.
 Low temperatures only inactivate the enzyme.
 Effect of change of pH on enzymes:
 Enzymes work at a range of pH.

 Enzymes work best at an optimum pH.
 Changes in acidity and alkalinity will denature the enzyme.
 Damage is reversible by changing pH.
Some enzymes Secreted in Secreted by Breaks down__ to __
Amylase Buccal cavity (as ptyalin), Salivary gland, Starch (carbohydrates) to
Duodenum Pancreas maltose
Protease Stomach (as pepsin), Gastric glands, Protease to peptides
Duodenum (as trypsin) Pancreas.
Lipase Duodenum, Pancreas, Fats to fatty acids and
Ileum Glands between villi glycerol
Other enzymes:
 Restriction enzyme: cuts out the genes for insulin in a human pancreatic cell.
 Ligase enzyme: joins the gene to the plasmid forming recombinant DNA in a bacterium.

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What are the main components of a cell?

What are some important organelles in a cell and their functions?

Cells - Units of Life

 As the temperature increases the reaction rate also increases.

 Enzymes work at a range of pH.

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