Wind power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of

energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for
mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping water or drainage, or sails
to propel ships.

At the end of 2009, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered

generators was 159.2 gigawatts (GW).[1] Energy production was 340
TWh, which is about 2% of worldwide electricity usage.
Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power
transmission network; smaller facilities are used to provide electricity
to isolated locations. Utility companies increasingly buy back surplus
electricity produced by small domestic turbines. Wind energy, as an
alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation.
However, the construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed
because of their visual impact and other effects on the environment.

Electricity generation
In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium
voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications
network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is
increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high
voltage electric power transmission system.

The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in

some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility
company, producing a retail credit for the microgenerators owners to
offset their energy costs.

Grid management

Induction generators, often used for wind power, require reactive

power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection
systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor
correction. Different types of wind turbine generators behave
differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive
modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new
wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure
predictable stable behaviour during system faults (see: Low voltage
ride through). In particular, induction generators cannot support the
system voltage during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven
synchronous generators. Doubly-fed machines generally have more
desirable properties for grid interconnection]. Transmission systems
operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify
the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will
include power factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behavior of
the wind farm turbines during a system fault.

Capacity factor

Worldwide installed capacity 1997–2020 [MW], developments

and prognosis. Data source: WWEA

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy

production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate
ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual
productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the
capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20–40%, with values at the
upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites For example, a
1 MW turbine with a capacity factor of 35% will not produce
8,760 MW·h in a year (1 × 24 × 365), but only 1 × 0.35 × 24 ×
365 = 3,066 MW·h, averaging to 0.35 MW. Online data is available for
some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the
yearly output.

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the

inherent properties of wind. Capacity factors of other types of power
plant are based mostly on fuel cost, with a small amount of downtime
for maintenance. Nuclear plants have low incremental fuel cost, and so
are run at full output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with
higher fuel cost are throttled back to follow load. Gas turbine plants
using natural gas as fuel may be very expensive to operate and may
be run only to meet peak power demand. A gas turbine plant may have
an annual capacity factor of 5–25% due to relatively high energy
production cost.

In a 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, the capacity factor achieved
by the wind turbine fleet is shown to be increasing as the technology
improves. The capacity factor achieved by new wind turbines in 2004
and 2005 reached 36%.

Penetration

Wind energy "penetration" refers to the fraction of energy produced by

wind compared with the total available generation capacity. There is
no generally accepted "maximum" level of wind penetration. The limit
for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants,
pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management,
and other factors. An interconnected electricity grid will already
include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for
equipment failures; this reserve capacity can also serve to regulate for
the varying power generation by wind plants. Studies have indicated
that 20% of the total electrical energy consumption may be
incorporated with minimal difficulty. These studies have been for
locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of
dispatchable energy, or hydropower with storage capacity, demand
management, and interconnection to a large grid area export of
electricity when needed. Beyond this level, there are few technical
limits, but the economic implications become more significant.
Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large (20% or more)
scale penetration of wind generation on system stability and
economics.

At present, a few grid systems have penetration of wind energy above

5%: Denmark (values over 19%), Spain and Portugal (values over
11%), Germany and the Republic of Ireland (values over 6%). But even
with a modest level of penetration, there can be times where wind
power provides a substantial percentage of the power on a grid. For
example, in the morning hours of 8 November 2009, wind energy
produced covered more than half the electricity demand in Spain,
setting a new record. This was an instance where demand was very
low but wind power generation was very high.
Intermittency and penetration limits

Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several

different timescales: from hour to hour, daily, and seasonally. Annual
variation also exists, but is not as significant. Related to variability is
the short-term (hourly or daily) predictability of wind plant output. Like
other electricity sources, wind energy must be "scheduled". Wind
power forecasting methods are used, but predictability of wind plant
output remains low for short-term operation.

Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must

remain in balance to maintain grid stability, this variability can present
substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power
into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of
wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental
operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an
increase in the already existing energy demand management, load
shedding, or storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC
cables. At low levels of wind penetration, fluctuations in load and
allowance for failure of large generating units requires reserve capacity
that can also regulate for variability of wind generation. Wind power
can be replaced by other power stations during low wind periods.
Transmission networks must already cope with outages of generation
plant and daily changes in electrical demand. Systems with large wind
capacity components may need more spinning reserve (plants
operating at less than full load.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage

can store energy developed by high-wind periods and release it when
needed. Stored energy increases the economic value of wind energy
since it can be shifted to displace higher cost generation during peak
demand periods. The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset
the cost and losses of storage; the cost of storage may add 25% to the
cost of any wind energy stored, but it is not envisaged that this would
apply to a large proportion of wind energy generated. The 2 GW
Dinorwig pumped storage plant in Wales evens out electrical demand
peaks, and allows base-load suppliers to run their plant more
efficiently. Although pumped storage power systems are only about
75% efficient, and have high installation costs, their low running costs
and ability to reduce the required electrical base-load can save both
fuel and total electrical generation costs.

In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not coincide

with peak demand for electrical power. In the US states of California
and Texas, for example, hot days in summer may have low wind speed
and high electrical demand due to air conditioning. Some utilities
subsidize the purchase of geothermal heat pumps by their customers,
to reduce electricity demand during the summer months by making air
conditioning up to 70% more efficient; widespread adoption of this
technology would better match electricity demand to wind availability
in areas with hot summers and low summer winds. Another option is to
interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas with an HVDC "Super
grid". In the USA it is estimated that to upgrade the transmission
system to take in planned or potential renewable would cost at least
$60 billion.

In the UK, demand for electricity is higher in winter than in summer,

and so are wind speeds. Solar power tends to be complementary to
wind. On daily to weekly timescales, high pressure areas tend to bring
clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low pressure areas tend to
be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy typically
peaks in summer, whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in
summer and higher in winter. Thus the intermittencies of wind and
solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat. A demonstration
project at the Massachusetts Maritime Academy shows the effect. The
Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel
pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and
hydro storage to provide load-following power around the clock,
entirely from renewable sources.

A report on Denmark's wind power noted that their wind power

network provided less than 1% of average demand 54 days during the
year 2002. Wind power advocates argue that these periods of low wind
can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations that
have been held in readiness or interlinking with HVDC. Electrical grids
with slow-responding thermal power plants and without ties to
networks with hydroelectric generation may have to limit the use of
wind power.

Three reports on the wind variability in the UK issued in 2009,

generally agree that variability of wind needs to be taken into account,
but it does not make the grid unmanageable; and the additional costs,
which are modest, can be quantified.

A 2006 International Energy Agency forum presented costs for

managing intermittency as a function of wind-energy's share of total
capacity for several countries, as shown:

Increase in system operation costs, Euros per MW·h, for 10%

and 20% wind share

10% 20%
 Germany 2.5 3.2
Denmark 0.4 0.8
Finland 0.3 1.5
Norway 0.1 0.3
Sweden 0.3 0.7

Capacity credit and fuel saving

Many commentators concentrate on whether or not wind has any

"capacity credit" without defining what they mean by this and its
relevance. Wind does have a capacity credit, using a widely accepted
and meaningful definition, equal to about 20% of its rated output (but
this figure varies depending on actual circumstances). This means that
reserve capacity on a system equal in MW to 20% of added wind could
be retired when such wind is added without affecting system security
or robustness. But the precise value is irrelevant since the main value
of wind (in the UK, worth 5 times the capacity credit value is its fuel
and CO2 savings.

According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal

of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more
wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the total energy produced
to be used as reliable, baseload electric power, as long as minimum
criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.

Installation placement
Good selection of a wind turbine site is critical to economic
development of wind power. Aside from the availability of wind itself,
other factors include the availability of transmission lines, value of
energy to be produced, cost of land acquisition, land use
considerations, and environmental impact of construction and
operations. Off-shore locations may offset their higher construction
cost with higher annual load factors, thereby reducing cost of energy
produced. Wind farm designers use specialized wind energy software
applications to evaluate the impact of these issues on a given wind
farm design.

(WPD) is a calculation of the effective power of the wind at a particular

location. A map showing the distribution of wind power density is a first
step in identifying possible locations for wind turbines. In the United
States, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory classifies wind
power density into ascending classes. The larger the WPD at a location,
the higher it is rated by class. Wind power classes 3 (300–400 W/m2 at
50 m altitude) to 7 (800–2000 W/m2 at 50 m altitude) are generally
considered suitable for wind power development. There are
625,000 km2 in the contiguous United States that have class 3 or
higher wind resources and which are within 10 km of electric
transmission lines. If this area is fully utilized for wind power, it would
produce power at the average continuous equivalent rate of 734 GWe.
For comparison, in 2007 the US consumed electricity at an average
rate of 474 GW,[49] from a total generating capacity of 1,088 GW.

Wind power usage

There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, with a total
nameplate capacity of 157,899 MW of which wind power in Europe
accounts for 48% (2009). World wind generation capacity more than
quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling about every three years.
81% of wind power installations are in the US and Europe. The share of
the top five countries in terms of new installations fell from 71% in
2004 to 62% in 2006, but climbed to 73% by 2008 as those countries
— the United States, Germany, Spain, China, and India — have seen
substantial capacity growth in the past two years (see chart).

The World Wind Energy Association forecast that, by 2010, over

200 GW of capacity would have been installed worldwide, up from
73.9 GW at the end of 2006, implying an anticipated net growth rate of
more than 28% per year.

Wind accounts for nearly one-fifth of electricity generated in Denmark

— the highest percentage of any country — and it is tenth in the world
in total wind power generation. Denmark is prominent in the
manufacturing and use of wind turbines, with a commitment made in
the 1970s to eventually produce half of the country's power by wind.]

In recent years, the US has added substantial amounts of wind power

generation capacity, growing from just over 6 GW at the end of 2004 to
over 35 GW at the end of 2009. The U.S. is currently the world's leader
in wind power generation capacity. The country as a whole generates
just 2.4% of its electrical power from wind, but several states generate
substantial amounts of wind power. Texas is the state with the largest
amount of generation capacity with 9,410 MW installed. This would
have ranked sixth in the world, were Texas a separate country. Iowa is
the state with the highest percentage of wind generation, at 14.2% in
2009. California was one of the incubators of the modern wind power
industry, and led the U.S. in installed capacity for many years. As of
mid-2010, fourteen U..S. states had wind power generation capacities
in excess of 1000 MW. U.S. Department of Energy studies have
concluded that wind from the Great Plains states of Texas, Kansas, and
North Dakota could provide enough electricity to power the entire
nation, and that offshore wind farms could do the same job.

China had originally set a generating target of 30,000 MW by 2020

from renewable energy sources, but reached 22,500 MW by end of
2009 and could easily surpass 30,000 MW by end of 2010. Indigenous
wind power could generate up to 253,000 MW. A Chinese renewable
energy law was adopted in November 2004, following the World Wind
Energy Conference organized by the Chinese and the World Wind
Energy Association. By 2008, wind power was growing faster in China
than the government had planned, and indeed faster in percentage
terms than in any other large country, having more than doubled each
year since 2005. Policymakers doubled their wind power prediction for
2010, after the wind industry reached the original goal of 5 GW three
years ahead of schedule. Current trends suggest an actual installed
capacity near 20 GW by 2010, with China shortly thereafter pursuing
the United States for the world wind power lead.

India ranks 5th in the world with a total wind power capacity of
10,925 MW in 2009, or 3% of all electricity produced in India. The
World Wind Energy Conference in New Delhi in November 2006 has
given additional impetus to the Indian wind industry. Muppandal village
in Tamil Nadu state, India, has several wind turbine farms in its vicinity,
and is one of the major wind energy harnessing centres in India led by
majors like Suzlon, Vestas, Micon among others.

Mexico recently opened La Venta II wind power project as a step

toward reducing Mexico's consumption of fossil fuels. The 88 MW
project is the first of its kind in Mexico, and will provide 13 percent of
the electricity needs of the state of Oaxaca. By 2012 the project will
have a capacity of 3,500 MW. In May 2010, Sempra Energy announced
it would build a wind farm in Baja California, with a capacity of at least
1,000 MW, at a cost of $5.5 billion.

Another growing market is Brazil, with a wind potential of 143 GW.

South Africa has a proposed station situated on the West Coast north
of the Olifants River mouth near the town of Koekenaap, east of
Vredendal in the Western Cape province. The station is proposed to
have a total output of 100 MW although there are negotiations to
double this capacity. The plant could be operational by 2010.

France has announced a target of 12,500 MW installed by 2010,

though their installation trends over the past few years suggest they'll
fall well short of their goal.
Canada experienced rapid growth of wind capacity between 2000 and
2006, with total installed capacity increasing from 137 MW to
1,451 MW, and showing an annual growth rate of 38%. Particularly
rapid growth was seen in 2006, with total capacity doubling from the
684 MW at end-2005. This growth was fed by measures including
installation targets, economic incentives and political support. For
example, the Ontario government announced that it will introduce a
feed-in tariff for wind power, referred to as 'Standard Offer Contracts',
which may boost the wind industry across the province. In Quebec, the
provincially owned electric utility plans to purchase an additional
2000 MW by 2013. By 2025, Canada will reach its capacity of
55,000 MW of wind energy, or 20% of the country's energy needs.

Power analysis
Due to ever increasing sizes of turbines which hit maximum power at
lower speeds energy produced has been rising faster than nameplate
power capacity. Energy more than doubled between 2006 and 2008 in
the table above, yet nameplate capacity (table on left) grew by 63% in
the same period.

Small-scale wind power

Small-scale wind power is the name given to wind generation
systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power.
Isolated communities, that may otherwise rely on diesel generators
may use wind turbines to displace diesel fuel consumption. Individuals
may purchase these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence
on grid electricity for economic or other reasons, or to reduce their
carbon footprint. Wind turbines have been used for household
electricity generation in conjunction with battery storage over many
decades in remote areas.

Grid-connected wind turbines may use grid energy storage, displacing

purchased energy with local production when available. Off-grid
system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries,
photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine.
Equipment such as parking meters or wireless Internet gateways may
be powered by a wind turbine that charges a small battery, replacing
the need for a connection to the power grid.

In locations near or around a group of high-rise buildings, wind shear

generates areas of intense turbulence, especially at street-level. The
risks associated with mechanical or catastrophic failure have thus
plagued urban wind development in densely populated areas,
rendering the costs of insuring urban wind systems prohibitive.
Moreover, quantifying the amount of wind in urban areas has been
difficult, as little is known about the actual wind resources of towns
and cities.

A new Carbon Trust study into the potential of small-scale wind energy
has found that small wind turbines could provide up to 1.5 terawatt
hours (TW·h) per year of electricity (0.4% of total UK electricity
consumption), saving 0.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (Mt CO2)
emission savings. This is based on the assumption that 10% of
households would install turbines at costs competitive with grid
electricity, around 12 pence (US 19 cents) a kW·h.

Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a

consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. The
electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units
with the utility system can include additional functions, such as the
active filtering to enhance the power quality.

Environmental effects

Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources,

the environmental effects of wind power are relatively minor. Wind
power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel
power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport
the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new
energy produced by the plant within a few months of operation.
Garrett Gross, a scientist from UMKC in Kansas City, Missouri states,
"The impact made on the environment is very little when compared to
what is gained." The initial carbon dioxide emission from energy used
in the installation is "paid back" within about 2.5 years of operation for
offshore turbines.

Danger to birds and bats has been a concern in some locations.

American Bird Conservancy cites studies that indicate that about
10,000 - 40,000 birds die each year from collisions with wind turbines
in the U.S. and say that number may rise substantially as wind
capacity increases in the absence of mandatory guidelines. However,
studies show that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is very
low compared to the number of those that die as a result of certain
other ways of generating electricity and especially of the
environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources. Fossil fuel
generation kills around twenty times as many birds per unit of energy
produced than wind-farms. Bat species appear to be at risk during key
movement periods. Almost nothing is known about current populations
of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality
at windpower locations. Offshore wind sites 10 km or more from shore
do not interact with bat populations. While a wind farm may cover a
large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible,
with only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure made
unavailable for use.

Aesthetics have also been an issue. In the USA, the Massachusetts

Cape Wind project was delayed for years mainly because of aesthetic
concerns. In the UK, repeated opinion surveys have shown that more
than 70% of people either like, or do not mind, the visual impact.
According to a town councillor in Ardrossan, Scotland, the
overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm
has enhanced the area, saying that the turbines are impressive looking
and bring a calming effect to the town.

Noise has also been an issue. In the United States, law suits and
complaints have been filed in several states, citing noise, vibrations
and resulting lost property values in homes and businesses located
close to industrial wind turbines. With careful implanting of the wind
turbines, along with use of noise reducing-modifications for the wind
turbines however, these issues can be addressed.

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