Legal Terminology

LEGAL
TERMINOLOGY
Dr / Salwa Y. Elekiaby
Lecturer
Public International Law Dep.
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Table of Contents:
Part (I) : Legal Topics
Chapter 1: The Essential Elements of Contract.
Chapter 2: Sources of Commercial Law.
Chapter 3: Commercial Sales.
Chapter 4: The Traditional Sources of International

Law.
Chapter 5: International Crimes (core crimes).
Chapter 6: Transnational Crimes.
Chapter 7: Government and Power in English Law.
Part (II) : Glossary.
Part (III) : Topics Translation.
Part (IV) : Answer Key.

٤

PART ONE
LEGAL TOPICS

Chapter 1

The Essential Elements of contract∗
Certain essential elements must be fulfilled in order to

create a valid contract these are:
١- Capacity to contract:
Every person has the capacity to contract unless he/she is

incapacitated, or enjoys limited capacity.
2- consent to contract:
The parties must have consent to contract in order to have a

valid contract, consent to a contract must not be affected by any
of these defects: duress, deceit, mistake, misrepresentation also
known as vitiating factors.
3-Subject Matter:
Every contract must have lawful subject matter the subject

matter must be either property, benefit or any other financial right,
as well as doing or refraining from doing certain work, if the
subject matter of contract is contrary to public order or morals,
then such contracts is void, as well as if the subject matter of the
contract is impossible at the time of contracting the contract shall
be null.
4- Cause:
∗
[adapted from commercial law of Bahrain. By Dr. Kameran Al-Sabihi – 2006. VOP
press].

It is the direct purpose for which a contract has become into
being. In other words the cause is direct motive intended in the
contract the must be existent, valid, permissible and not contrary
to public order or morals. This element is essential for every
contract.
It is to be noted that if the cause of contract is unlawful the

contract shall be void even if the subject of contract is lawful.
So it can be said that the essential factors of any

agreement to constitute a contract are the following:
١- An offer which is accepted, by the offeree.
٢- Both Parties intending to enter legal relations.
٣- Both parties having capacity to contract.
٤- There being no mistake, misrepresentation or induced

influence.
Understanding Details:

1)Fill in the sentences with the suitable term:
1- every person has the…………..to contract unless he

is incapacitated.
A) liability.
b) capacity.
c) ability.
2- The parties must have consent to contract in order to

have a ………….contract.
A)valid.
v) void.
c)null.
3-…………..affected the consent of the contract.
a) liability.
b) capacity.
c) duress.
4- if the subject matter of the contract is unlawful, Then

the contract is………………..
a) void
c) valid
d) impossible

5- If the subject matter of the contract is impossible
then the contract is………………….
a) void
b) valid
c) null
2) what are the essential elements of a valid contract?
1-………………………………………………………..
2-………………………………………………………..
3-………………………………………………………..
4-………………………………………………………..
3) What are the vitiating factors?
1-……………………………………………………….
2-……………………………………………………….
3-……………………………………………………….
4-……………………………………………………….
4) Mark the following statement true OR false:
1- Cause is the direct purpose for the contract.
2- if the cause is unlawful, the contract shall be valid.
3- the person who have mental incapacity have the capacity to

contract.
١٠

4- the subject matter of the contract should be lawful.
٥- The parties must have consent to contract.
5) What are the essential factors of any agreement?
1- …………….………………………………………..
2-……….,……………………………………………..
3- ……...……………………………………………….
4- ………………………………………………………
5- ………………………………………………………
6) What are the conditions for a lawful cause?
1-…………………………………………………….
2-…………………………………………………….
3-…………………………………………………….
4-…………………………………………………….
7) The contract is void if
1-………………………………………………………
2-………………………………………………………
8) The contract is null, if ………………………………
9) The contract is valid if,
1-……………………………………………………….
١١

2-……………………………………………………….
3-……………………………………………………….
10) Mark the following statement with:
Valid- void- null

١- The person who conclude the contract enjoys capacity.
( …………. )
٢- The subject- matter of the contract is impossible.
( ……..……)
٣- The person who conclude the contract was mistaken about

essential term of the contract.
( …………. )
٤- The cause of the contract is contrary to public order
( …………. )
٥- The subject – Matter of the contract is lawful.
( …………. )
١٢

Chapter 2
١٣

Sources of Commercial Law∗
According to the law of commerce, the rules of Commercial

law have the following sources:
١- Commercial legislations.
٢- Special agreement of the parties.
٣- Rules of commercial practices.
٤- Provisions of civil law.
٥- The principles of Islamic Sharia.
٦- Principles of Natural law.
٧- Rules of equity.
(1) Commercial legislations:

Legislation means the formation of the legal rules by a
competent authority, In Egypt this authority is entrusted in the
parliament which consists of the consultative council and peoples
Assembly.
It is to be noted that legislation is not applicable to
individuals unless they are informed of its existence by
publication in special newspaper (official Gazette).
(2) Agreement:
∗
press].
١٤

Lawyers usually use the word, "contract" to mean an
agreement, the agreement between contractors should not be
opposed to mandatory legal provisions.
In this context, it should be understood that there will be a
difference between Mandatory and complimentary rules.
a- Mandatory rules:
Are rules to which all the individuals should respect and
comply, these rules are not allowed to be violated by agreement
concluded between the contractors, even though these agreement
serve their individual interests. Consequently, any agreement
opposes commercial mandatory provisions shall be absolutely
null and void.
b- Complimentary rules:
These rules are complied and interpret the intention of the
parties.
In general the rules are designated to serve the private
interests of the contracting parties therefore, they are able to
exclude or restrict these provisions. In other words these rules
may be disobeyed or varied explicitly or implicitly by contracting
parties.
In fact commercial legislation contains types of provisions
mandatory and complimentary, and by the following points we
shall present example for each of them.
a. Example of Mandatory provision
١٥

* Commercial books shall not contain any blank, deletion,
striking off, insertations between the lines or writing on the
margins".
b. Example of complimentary provision
* "the delivery shall take place at the carrier's domicile unless
otherwise agreed upon".
(3) Rules of Commercial practice:

(Commercial Custom)
Commercial practice is considered a main source of
commercial law, next in importance to an agreement, we should
note that commercial practice cannot contradict the mandatory
provisions of commercial law or the agreement between parties.
In other words the rules of commercial custom and usage of Trade
are not applicable when they oppose the commercial law or the
agreement, then they should be set aside and nullified.
Commercial practice may be defined as a practice of traders
which by common and by long and unvarying habit, has become
compulsory.
This definition means that the commercial practice shall be
general, ancient, stable and continuous.
Distinction should be made between commercial practice
(custom) and commercial usage. Commercial Custom consists of
two elements:
a. Material element:
١٦

This element consists of the rules or us age followed by the
merchants regularly for a long time.
b. Psychological element:
This element consists of the convocation of the merchants
that such rules or usages is binding upon them.
The commercial usages are different from commercial
custom in that the merchants are applying the commercial usages
without believing that they are compulsory, whereas the usage
consists of the material element only.
Contrary to custom, usage is not binding except when it is in
corporate into the parties agreement whether expressly or
implicitly.
Finally the courts are very responsible to the needs of the
business community and recognizes the legal efficacy of
commercial practices. The judge shall apply it of his own
initiative and usually take advise about the existence of custom
from experts opinions.
(4) Provisions of Civil Law:

Civil law is in fact the original source of other branches of
private law. Civil law includes the rules which govern all private
transactions that are not regulated by another branch of private
law.
١٧

Consequently, where a commercial matter is not regulated by
any previously mentioned sources, reference shall be made to
civil law.
(5) Principles of Islamic Sharia:
If the court does not find a provision in the sources

previously mentioned to resolve the commercial conflict, turns to
the principles of Sharia, which are stated in the holy Quran and
Sunna.
(6) Principles of Natural law:
Theories of Natural law have been an important part of

jurisprudence throughout legal history the philosophers of ancient
Greek, where the idea of the natural law originated, considered
that there was a kind of perfect justice given to man by nature,
and the law should conform to this as closely as possible.
The concept of natural law was popular in the 12th century. It
had great influence in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. So in the broad sense natural law means a general law of
human behavior, applied in all societies as distinct from
legislation which is applicable to each country.
The principles of natural law might be discovered by the
rational intelligence of man is found to grow out of, and conforms
to his nature (Human being's mental, moral and physical
constitution).
١٨

(7) Rules of equity:
It means fairness and reasonableness or "natural justice" the
rules of equity denote the spirit of fairness and right dealing
which would regulate the life of people.
In general, the rules of equity may be sought by the judge in
order to resolve certain commercial cases when he does not find
special rules in the previous sources.
Unterstanding Details:
١٩

1- Out line below the sources of commercial law.
a) first, …………………………………………………….
b) second, ……………………………………………...….
c) third, …………………………………………………….
d) fourth, …………………………………………………..
e) fifth, ………………………………………………….....
f) sixth, …………………………………………..………..
g) finally, ………………………………………………….
2- Circle the most suitable word to complete the following

sentences:
1- In Egypt, the competent authority which format the legal rules,
is entrusted in ………..
a) peoples assembly.
b) parliament.
c) Consultative council.
2- Lawyers usually use the word ……….. to mean an agreement.
a) contract.
b) deed.
c) publication.
3- The agreement between contractors should not be opposed to
………… legal provisions.
a) complimentary.
b) justice.
c) mandatory.
4- Contrary to custom, …………… is not binding except when it
is incorporated into the parties agreement.
٢٠

a) commercial practice.
b) Commercial usage.
c) material element.
5- ……………. Is in fact the original source of other branches of
private law.
a) Commercial law.
b) Civil law.
c) Public law.
3- Mark these statements T (true) or F (false) according to the

passage.
1- Mandatory rules are rules which all individuals should
respect and comply.
2- any agreement opposes commercial complimentary rules
shall be absolutely null and void.
3- Commercial legislation contains only mandatory rules.
4-There is no difference between commercial usage and
custom.
5- The court can depend on Islamic sharia as a source of
commercial law.
4- Identify the suitable term for each group.

١- ……………………………
-material element
-psychological element
-general, ancient, stable and continuous.
٢١

2- ……………………………
-Complimentary provisions
-Mandatory provisions
3- ……………………………
-holy Quran
-sunna.
4- ……………………………
-commercial legislations
-special agreement of the parties
-provisions of civil law.
5- Discussion
Use your law dictionary and make a list of ten terms used in
commercial law.
* you can use online dictionary (http://dictionary.law.com ).
6- What are the elements of commercial custom ?

1- ………………………..……………..
2- ……………………………………….
7- Give one–sentence summary of the main idea of the

following sources of commercial law.
1- legislation.
……………………………………….
2- Special agreement
……………………………………….
٢٢

3- Commercial practice
……………………………………….
4- Provisions of civil law
……………………………………….
5- Principles of Islamic sharia
……………………………………….
8- Write on the distinction between

١- a) mandatory provisions .
………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………...
b) complimentary provisions.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
٢- a) Commercial usage.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
b) custom.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
٢٣

Chapter 3
٢٤

Commercial Sales∗
Commercial sales is a contract by which the seller is obliged
to transfer the ownership of a property in thing to the buyer for a
cash price. The legislator emphasized that the consideration may
be in cash and in kind. The contract will not be considered as
commercial sales unless the cash consideration is greater than that
in kind. Hence, if the property is transaction is one of barer, or
exchange, rather than money. So the money shall be deemed as
essential consideration to regard the contract as a sale contract.
An agreement in most contracts is formed by an offer being
made by one party which is accepted by the other. It is important
to emphasize that the existence of offer and acceptance does not
mean that there is a contract. The offer must be communicated to
the offer and acceptance by him.
Offer:
An offer is made where a person (the offeror) expresses to

another (the offeree) his willingness to make a binding agreement.
An offer may be made to a specific person, to a group of
people, or to the world at large. The offer must be definite, not
vague or illusory. In other words, it must be final proposal with a
∗
press].
٢٥

view to acceptance, Hence, an invitation by one party to the other
to negotiate or to make an offer is not an offer.
Termination of the offer:
The offer does not converts into a legally binding contract

unless it is accepted by the offeree. So not all offers are accepted
of course, sometimes before an offer is accepted the offeror feels
sorry that he made it and wishes to argue that the offer is no
longer open for acceptance.
The offer may be terminated for the following variety
reasons.
1- Rejection
Once an offer is rejected by the offeree and the rejection is

communicated to the offeror, the offer shall be terminated, unless
it is renewed by the offeror and unless this done, there is no
longer any offer for the offeree.
2- Revocation
It means withdrawal of an offer by the offeror so that it can

no longer be accepted. The offer can be revoked at any time until
it has been accepted. Revocation takes effect as soon as it is
known to the offeree.
3- Lapse of time:
Many offers are explicitly made for a fixed period, in such a

case, the offer automatically comes to an end when the period
٢٦

runs out. Hence an acceptance after the expiration of that time has
no effect. In case there is no express time limit, the court will
usually hold the offer open for a reasonable time and decide what
the reasonable time is.
Acceptance :
It is the main condition of a contract, it means one party

agrees to what is proposed by the other party and therefore
entering into contract. In other words the valid acceptance
converts the offer into legally binding contract.
The basic rule is that for an acceptance to be effective it must
be an acceptance of the precise terms of the offer.
An offer has no validity unless it is communicated to the
offeree so as to give opportunity to accept or reject. The offer
must be communicated by the offeror or at his instruction to the
offeree.
Neither offer nor acceptance needs to be in any particular
form, they may be communicated in any manner so an acceptance
may be express as where the offeree accepts the offer by a written
or oral statement, or it may be implied by the offeree's conduct.
It is usually said that not only must the offer be accepted, but
the acceptance must be communicated to the offeror.
In fact the validity of an acceptance is governed by following
principal rules:
1- it must take place before the offer has capsed or been revoked.
٢٧

2- it must be unconditional.
3- it must be on the same terms as the offer.
4- it must be communicated to the offer or.
Understanding details:
(I) Fill on the spaces with words on the box:
٢٨

offer – the ownership – acceptance – rejection - consideration
(1) Commercial sales is a contract which the seller is obliged to

transfer …………………. of a property for a cash price.
(2) The ………….. may be in cash and in kind.
(3) The …………. Must be communicated to the offered and
accepted by him.
(4) The ………….. must be communicated to the offeree.
(5) The offer may be terminated by ……………….
(II) Circle the most suitable word to complete the sentence

1- The person who made the offer called ……………
a) offeror
b) offeree
c) seller
2- The offer must be ………………
a) definite
b) vague
c) illusory
3- ………….. means withdrawal of an offer by the offeror
a) rejection
b) revocation
c) lapse of time
4- Acceptance must be ……………
a) unconditional
٢٩

b) revoked
c) lapsed
5- ……………. Is a reason for offer termination
a) Acceptance
b) lapse of time
c) consideration
(III) Outline below the reasons for offer termination:

1) ………………….
2) ………………….
3) ………………….
(IV) Outline the principal rules for validity of acceptance :

1) ………………….
2) ………………….
3) ………………….
(V) Make these statements T (true) or F (false) according to

the passage
1- Offer and acceptance need not to be in any particular form.
2- The acceptance must be communicated to the offeror.
3- The offer can be revoked at anytime.
4- The person who receive the offer called the offeree.
5- The offeree cannot reject the offer.
(VI) Match column (A) with suitable sentence from column
(B):
٣٠

(A) (B)
Offeror Must be communicated to the offeror
Offeree Is made in cash and in kind
Consideration Is a reason for offer termination
Acceptance Is the person who made offere
Rejection Is the person who accepts offer
(VII) Express in one sentence the meaning of each term:

1- Commercial sales
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
2- Offer
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
3- Acceptance
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
4- Rejection
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
5- Revocation
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
6- Lapse of time
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
٣١

٣٢

Chapter 4
The traditional sources of international law∗
Traditionally, article 38 of the statute of the international court of

justice listed sources that the court should apply in deciding cases
before it, in fact, article 38 merely restates those sources that
∗
[adapted from international law. By H.R Jacobini – the Dorsey press and the UN &
international law, Christopher C Jayne, CUP].
٣٣

nations have already come to acknowledge as authoritative. Under
this provision, there are three principal sources of international
law, namely treaties, custom and general principles of law.
The first source listed in article 38 is treaties, or as they are

referred to in the Article, "international conventions" .Treaties or
conventions are simply written agreements between two or more
states and represent one of the most basic and clear ways in which
countries create rules to regulate their behavior. Treaties are
similar to contracts under domestic law. Just as a contract
between individuals creates a law for those individuals, so a treaty
between nations creates law between them. Treaties may be
drawn up between two states (bilateral) or amongst many
different states (multilateral). They may deal with many different
issues, such as the United Nations Charter, or they may deal with
only one subject, such as the 1988 Intermediate Nuclear Forces
Treaty between the US and the former USSR.
Treaties normally become law in a process involving several

steps. First, the parties enter into negotiations to determine what
provisions they would like to include in the treaty. After they
reach agreement, they sign the treaty. It is then normally
submitted for the internal domestic ratification processes of each
of the parties . For example, in the US, before president can ratify
a Treaty, it must be submitted to the Senate for advice and
consent. Once the domestic procedures are completed, the
٣٤

countries submit their instruments of ratification as required by
the provisions of the treaty. Instruments of ratification are simply
documents certifying that the nations intend to be bound by the
agreement. Most multilateral treaties specify a particular number
of domestic ratifications that must be put forward before a treaty
actually becomes binding or, in more technical terms, "enters into
force".
Another principal source of international law is custom.

Customary international law is created not by a written instrument
but rather by state behavior. If, over a period of time, a state
begins to act in certain ways and comes to regard that Behavior as
being required by law, a norm of customary international law has
developed. In other words, for a norm of customary international
law to exist, there must be two elements – there must be normal
state practice and this practice must be seen as being required by
law. If, for example, there is a norm that foreign diplomats were
not to be arrested by a host country, states would have to
demonstrate a practice of not arresting diplomats and must do so
because they believe that it is unlawful to do so.
A final source of international law listed in Article 38 is "general

principles of law" recognized by the civilized nations of the
world. This is a controversial and difficult area which many
international legal scholars fail to agree upon. In the first place,
general principles, may refer to those basic legal principles that
٣٥

are present in most domestic legal systems. Certain principles
which states have acknowledge as important in their own internal
legal systems, are also accepted by them as principles in the
international legal system.
Secondly, general principles of law may refer to general

principles about the nature of international law that countries have
come to accept. In other words, there are assumptions about The
law-making process that states must accept. One such assumption
concerns sovereignty, whereby states must accept that they can be
bound by no law without their consent, and conversely, that they
can be bound by law with their consent. Another assumption is
that promises should be kept, the principle of pacta sunt
servanda. Without accepting this notion, any particular treaty
would have no binding force.
A third and final general principle of law is that it refers to

"principles of higher law", such as principles of humanity and
equal rights.
٣٦

1. What does Article 38 of the Statute of the International

Court of Justice contain?
……………………………………………………………………..
2. What are the three main sources of International Law?
1………………………………………………………………..
2………………………………………………………………..
3………………………………………………………………..
٣٧

3. Explain what a treaty is………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………….
4. What other legal document is similar to a treaty?
…………………………………………………………………….
5. Give two features of a norm of customary international law.
a)…………………………………………………………………..
b) ………………………………………………………………….
6. Outline below the various steps by which a treaty becomes

law.
a) First,…………………………………………………………..
b) Then,…………………………………………………………..
c) After, …………………………………………………………..
d) Next, ……………………………………………………….
e) Then,...................................................................................
f) Finally,……………………………………………………
7. Write (T) if the statement contains true information or (F)

if it contains false information
1. Both treaties and contracts create law between individuals.
2.The American President cannot ratify a treaty without the

consent of the Senate.
٣٨

3. Diplomats are arrested in host countries because this custom
has become an international norm.
4. The principles of international legal system are present in many

domestic legal systems.
5. All states must be bound by laws created by custom whether

they accept them or not.
6. "General principles of law" is more controversial and difficult

to grasp than the other two sources
9. State the meaning of the following phrases from the context

of the passage.
a) a bilateral treaty
…………………………………………………………………….
b) a multilateral treaty
……………………………………………………………………..
c) enters into force
……………………………………………………………………..
d) pacta sunt servanda (Latin)
……………………………………………………………………..
10. Circle the most suitable word to complete the following

sentences.
٣٩

1. A..................between nations creates a law.
a) contract
b) treaty
c) agreement
2. Before a treaty can become valid, it has to be ........................ by

the domestic legal system of each participating nation.
a) ratified
b) enumerated
c) acknowledged
3. The 1988 Intermediate Nuclear Force Treaty between the US

and the former USSR was a.......................treaty.
a) multilateral
b) unilateral
c) collateral
4. Treaties or........................., as they are sometimes referred to,

are one of the main sources of international law.
a) principles
b) contracts
c) conventions
5. Laws concerning the internal government of a country are

known as ....................... laws.
٤٠

a) universal
b) domestic
c) controversial
6. Once a treaty becomes valid, all participating parties

are..................by it.
a) bound
b) certified
c) developed
٤١

Chapter 5
International Crimes∗
"core crimes"
"International crimes" is a term which refer to those offences
over which international courts or tribunals have been given
jurisdiction under general international law.
They comprise the so-called "core" crimes of genocide,

crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression,
in addition to the trans national crimes, terrorism and torture.
∗
[adapted from international criminal law and procedures. By Robert Cryer and others –
2008. Cambridge University press].
٤٢

Genocide
Genocide is a denial of the right of existence of entire human
groups, as homicide is the denial of the right to live of individual
human beings.
The standard definition of genocide is contained in article II

of the Genocide convention, which is adopted in the statues of the
ad hoc tribunals and of the international criminal court (ICC).
It is any of the following acts committed with the intent to

destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious
group, as such:
a) killing members of the group.
b) causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of

the group.
c) deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life

calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole
or in part.
d) imposing measures intended to prevent births within

the group.
e) forcibly transferring children of the group to another

group.
Crimes Against Humanity
Crimes against humanity are old as humanity itself, it
involves the commission of certain inhumane acts, such as
٤٣

murder, torture, rape, sexual slavery, persecution and other
inhumane acts, in a certain context, they must be part of a
widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian
population.
War crimes
A war crime is a serious violation of the laws and customs

applicable in armed conflict (also known as international
humanitarian law), there should be a nexus between the conduct
and the armed conflict.
Unlike crimes against humanity, war crimes have no

requirement of widespread or systematic commission. A single
isolated act can constitute a war crime.
War crimes include the following act: crimes against non-

combatants, attacks on prohibited targets, attacks inflicting
excessive civilian damage, war crimes against property and
prohibited means of warfare (weapons).
Aggression
Aggression is widely regarded as a crime under customary
international law, although at present there is no universally
agreed definition and no international court or tribunal in
existence which can try offenders it is formally within the
jurisdiction of the ICC but the court cannot exercise its
jurisdiction unless and until parties to the ICC statute have agreed
٤٤

both a definition of the crime and the conditions under which the
court may exercise its jurisdiction.
The crime of aggression comprises the participation by a

state's leaders and policy-makers in certain aggressive acts by a
state.
Understanding details
1- Identify the suitable term for each group
1-……………………………………………….
A) Whole or part destruction.
b) national group.
c) religious group.
2-……………………………………………….
a) customary International law.
b) no agreed definition.
c) no court try.
3-……………………………………………….
٤٥

a) widespread or systematic attack.
b) directed against civilians.
c) commission of certain inhumane acts.
4-………………………………………………
a) armed conflict.
b) crimes against non-combatants.
c) prohibited means of warfare.
2- Mention the crimes within the jurisdiction of the

international criminal court (ICC).
1-………………………………………………………………
2-………………………………………………………………
3-………………………………………………………………
4-………………………………………………………………
3- Choose the correct answer for each statement:
1- genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and war of

aggression are………………..
a) core crimes.
b) national crimes.
٤٦

c) transnational crimes.
2- ……………are offences which international courts can try.
a) national crimes.
b) transnational crimes.
c) international crimes.
3- ……………… is a denial of the right of existence for entire

human groups.
a) genocide.
b) International crime.
c) torture.
4- …………..is a serious violation of the laws and customs

applicable in armed conflict:
a) Aggression.
b) genocide.
C) war crimes.
5- The only crime that have no agreed definition is………
a) genocide.
b) war crimes.
c) Aggression.
٤٧

4- Give one- sentence summary for each crime of the
following:
١- Genocide.
………………………………………………………..
٢- crimes against humanity.
………………………………………………………..
٣- war crimes.
……………………………………………………….
٤- Aggression.
………………………………………………………….
5- state the meaning of the following phrases from the context

of the passage.
١- Core crimes.
…………………………………………………………..
٢- ICC.
………………………………………………………….
٣- Widespread or systematic.
………………………………………………………….
٤- (groups) in genocide crime.
………………………………………………………….
٤٨

6-Make the following statements T(true) or F(false):
1-Core crimes are genocide, crimes against humanity, war

crimes, and the crime of aggression.
2- genocide have no definition till today.
3- ICC doesn't have jurisdiction over core crimes.
4- War crime is a serious violations of the laws and customs

applicable in armed conflict.
5- Aggression is widely regarded as a crime under customary

international law.
7.Use your dictionary or online legal dictionary to find more

terms on international crimes.
8- What are the core crimes?
1-…………………………………………………………….
2-…………………………………………………………….
3-……………………………………………………………..
4-……………………………………………………………..
9- Write the most distinguish feature for the following:
1- genocide
-…………………………………………………………….
٤٩

-……………………………………………………….……
-…………………………………………………….………
2- Crimes against humanity:
-…………………………………………………..…………
-……………………………………………………………..
-……………………………………………………………..
3- War crimes:
-……………………………………………………………..
-………………………………………………………….
-………………………………………………………….
4- genocide:
-…………………………………………………………
-………………………………………………………….
-………………………………………………………….
٥٠

٥١

Chapter 6
Transnational crimes, terrorism, and torture∗
To focus only on the core crimes and their prosecution would

be to ignore a substantial area of criminal law with international
implications, there are other crimes of international concern
which have a huge impact on people throughout the world and on
global economic development.
Crimes which are the subject of international suppression

conventions but for which there is as yet no international criminal
jurisdiction they are here termed transnational crimes. These are
crimes whish have actual or potential trans boundary effect and
∗
[adapted from international criminal law and procedures. By Robert Cryer and others –
2008. Cambridge University press].
٥٢

crimes which are intra state but which offend a fundamental value
of the international community.
The prevention and punishment of transnational crimes

requires cooperation among governments and among law
enforcement agencies, a growing number of agreements are being
concluded to provide for this in relation to such crimes as drugs
trafficking, piracy, slavery, terrorism offences, torture, apartheid,
enforced disappearances, transitional organized crime including
people trafficking, smuggling migrants and illegal arms
trafficking and corruption. Some of these crimes are also crimes
of customary international law or are international crimes when
committed in certain circumstances.
Terrorism
As yet, no definition of terrorism has terrorism been a greed

for the purpose of a global prohibition of terrorist acts in a legally
binding instrument.
Through terrorism may be regarded as simply the

commission of ordinary, though serious, criminal act, with a
particular purpose. Some states, including the UK, do not have a
specific offence of terrorism in domestic law and use the ordinary
criminal law to prosecute serous offences of terrorist violence.
٥٣

The fight against terrorism is now multi- faceted and recent
responses in the so- called war on terror have engaged so much
measures of criminal law enforcement as the use of armed force.
Torture
There is a clear and absolute prohibition of torture in

international law. The prohibition applies even in times of
National emergencies or wars, and there are no exceptions or
justifications.
The convention against torture and other cruel, in humane and

degrading treatment or punishment was concluded to make more
effective the already existing prohibition under international law,
it requires states parties to criminalize the offence of torture in
their domestic law, including attempts and complicity as well as
participation.
Torture comprises any act by which severe pain or suffering,

physical or mental, is inflicted on a person.
٥٤

1- Fill in spaces with the suitable term:
1- the prevention of transnational crimes requires

………………… among governments.
a) offences.
b) crimes
c) cooperation.
2- ………………… like piracy, apartheid, and drug

trafficking.
a) International Crimes.
b) Transnational Crimes.
c) Core Crimes.
٥٥

3-…………………… include measurement of criminal law
enforcement to face the crime of terrorism.
a) War on Terror.
b) Transnational Crimes.
c) Terrorism.
4- UK, doesn't have specific offence of …………. in domestic

law.
a) International crimes.
b) core crimes.
c) terrorism.
5- There is a clear prohibition of ………….. in international

law.
a) torture.
b) war on terror.
c) prosecution.
2- List 5 of the transnational crimes.
1-…………………………………………………………
2-…………………………………………………………
3-………………………………………………………….
٥٦

4-………………………………………………………….
5-………………………………………………………….
3- What is the convention which prohibit torture?
-…………………………………………………..………..
4- Write one sentence to define the following"
١- War on terror.
…………………………………………………………
٢- Torture.
………………………………………………………….
٣- terrorism.
…………………………………………………………
5- Make the following statements F(False) or T(True):
1- Torture comprises any act which cause serve pain or

suffering.
2- Terrorism is the commission of ordinary criminal act.
3- torture is a prohibited crime at any time.
٤- There are some exceptions for the crime of torture.
٥٧

٥- War on terror is prohibited by International Law.
٥٨

Chapter 7
Government and power in English law∗
There are three distinct powers exercised in government:
١) The Legislative power:
In the UK, the supreme law-making authority is the Queen-in-

parliament. The house of commons is the major partner in law
making, the leaders of the government are mainly in the house of
commons, it is regarded nowadays as necessary that the prime
minister should be a member of the house of commons is the
major partner in law making, the leaders of the government are
mainly in the house of commons, it is regarded nowadays as
∗
[adapted from British constitution and Government. By F. J. Wright – 1969. Cambridge
MACDONALD & EVANS LTD].
٥٩

necessary that the prime minister should be a member of the
house of commons.
٢) The Executive power.
The laws passed by parliament are administered by the executive

power.
a) The "Crown" is the supreme executive, in effect, the Crown is

the government, acting through ministers of the crown in the
name of the Queen.
b) The ministers of the crown are acting on the instructions of the

prime minister.
c) for every act of state, a minister is responsible, the crown can

hold property, employ servants, the crown can be sued by citizens
for breach of contract and for tort, civil wrong which are not
breaches of contract. It prosecutes wrongdoers on behalf of the
nation.
3) The Judicial power:
The judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, the body of

judges acting in the courts of law.
The judges pronounce upon both the written parts of the law and
the unwritten parts, in particular they interpret the statutes, or acts
of parliament passed by the legislative body.
٦٠

The doctrine of the "Separation of powers":
It is evident that if the people who make the law are the same
people who administer it, tyranny will result. Equally, tyranny
will result if the same people who make the law judge it.
Since the UK has no written constitution, the doctrine has never

been applied as a deliberate plan in this country.
The judiciary has in fact achieved independence since the Act of

settlement, 1701. Judges can be removed from office only by an
address from both houses of parliament.
a. Parliament is the supreme law- making authority there is no

supreme court, as there is in the united states, which can
declare an act of congress unconstitutional.
b. The executive in the modern working of the British

constitution is to all intents and purposes the government, the
power of government is able to dominate, the power of
government is able to dominate parliament because the leaders
of the government, consisting mostly of members of the house
of commons, are able to count upon the support of the
members of their majority party in the house.
٦١

1- What are the three powers exercised in UK government?
1-………………………………………………………………….
2-………………………………………………………………….
3-………………………………………………………………….
2- Fill in the spaces with suitable term:
1- The leaders of the government are mainly in

the………………
a) house of commons.
b) house of lords.
c) crown.
2- The prime minister should be a member of

the……………….
٦٢

a) house of lords.
b) house of commons.
c)crown.
3- The …………………… is the supreme executive.
a) house of lords.
c) crown.
4- The ministers of the crown are acting on the instructions of

the…………………….
a) Queen.
b) prime minister.
c) state.
5- The judicial power is exercised by the……………………….
a) judiciary.
b) Queen.
c)Prime minister.
3- Write 4 features of the "Crown"?
1-………………………………………………………………
2-………………………………………………………………
٦٣

3-………………………………………………………………
4-………………………………………………………………
4- Write one sentence on the following:
١- Judicial power.
…………………………………………………………….
٢- The Crown.
……………………………………………………………..
٣- The legislative power.
……………………………………………………………….
5- Make the following sentences V (true) or x (false):
1- UK has a written constitution.
2- The Judiciary has achieved independence since the act of

settlement.
3- Parliament is the supreme law- making authority.
4- The power of government is not able to dominate parliament.
5- The crown is the supreme executive.
6- State the suitable term for each group.
٦٤

1-…………………………………………………………………..
a) the supreme executive.
b) the government.
c) acting through ministers.
2-…………………………………………………………………..
a) Is exercised by the judiciary.
b) judges.
c) pronounce judgments.
d) achieved independence since to
٦٥

٦٦

PART TWO
GLOSSARY
٦٧

٦٨

CHAPTER 1
The essential elements of the contract
essential ‫ﺿﺮوري‬
Element ‫رﻛﻦ‬
contract ‫ﻋﻘﺪ‬
certain ‫ﻣﺤﺪد‬
valid ‫ ﺳﺎري اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل‬-‫ﺻﺎﻟﺢ‬
void ‫ﺑﺎﻃﻞ‬
null ‫ﻣﻨﻌﺪم‬
Capacity ‫اﻷھﻠﯿﺔ‬
incapacitated ‫ﻏﯿﺮ أھﻞ‬
limited ‫ﻣﺤﺪودة‬
consent ‫اﻟﺮﺿﺎ‬
defect ‫ﻋﯿﺐ‬
duress ‫اﻹﻛﺮاه‬
٦٩

deceit ‫اﻟﻐﺶ‬
mistake ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺄ‬
Misrepresentation ‫اﻟﺘﺪﻟﯿﺲ‬
Vitiating factors ‫أﺳﺒﺎب اﻟﺒﻄﻼن‬
Subject- matter ‫ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬
lawful ‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ‬
property ‫ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ‬
Financial right ‫ﺣﻖ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ‬
Refrain from ‫ ﯾﻨﺄي ﻣﻦ‬-‫ﯾﺒﺘﻌﺪ ﻋﻦ‬
Public right ‫ﺣﻖ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ‬
Refrain from ‫ ﯾﻨﺄي ﻋﻦ‬-‫ﯾﺒﺘﻌﺪ ﻋﻦ‬
Public order ‫اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻌﺎم‬
Morals ‫اﻷﺧﻼق‬
impossible ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺤﯿﻞ‬
cause ‫اﻟﺴﺒﺐ‬
direct ‫ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬
motive ‫اﻟﺪاﻓﻊ‬
existent ‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮد‬
permissible ‫ﻣﺴﻤﻮح ﺑﮫ‬
٧٠

contrary ‫ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ‬
unlawful ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ‬
factor ‫ﻋﺎﻣﻞ‬
Constitute ‫ﯾﻜﻮن‬
object ‫ﻣﻮﺿﻮع‬
sovereignty ‫اﻟﺴﯿﺎدة‬
consent ‫اﻟﺮﺿﺎ‬
٧١

Chapter 2
Sources of Commercial Law
Commercial legislation ‫اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى‬

Competent authority ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﺔ‬
Entrusted ‫ﯾﻌﮭﺪ ﺑﮫ إﻟﻰ‬
Parliament ‫اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن‬
Consultative council ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺸﻮرى‬
Peoples assembly ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺸﻌﺐ‬
Applicable ‫ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ‬
Individuals ‫اﻷﻓﺮاد‬
Inform ‫ إﺧﺒﺎره‬/ ‫ﯾﺘﻢ إﻋﻼﻣﮫ‬
Existence ‫وﺟﻮد‬
Publication ‫ﻣﻨﺸﻮرات‬
Official gazette ‫اﻟﺠﺮﯾﺪة اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ‬
Agreement ‫اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺔ‬
Contract ‫ﻋﻘﺪ‬
Oppose ‫ﯾﻌﺎرض‬
Mandatory rules ‫ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ آﻣﺮة‬
Provision ‫ ﺑﻨﻮد‬/ ‫أﺣﻜﺎم‬
Context ‫ﺳﯿﺎق‬
٧٢

Complimentary rules ‫ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﻣﻜﻤﻠﺔ‬
Respect ‫ﯾﺤﺘﺮم‬
Comply ‫ﯾﻨﺴﺎق إﻟﻰ‬
Violate ‫ﯾﺨﺎﻟﻒ – ﯾﺨﺮق‬
Conclude ‫ﯾﺒﺮم‬
Interest ‫ﻣﺼﻠﺤﺔ‬
Consequently ‫ﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﯿﮫ‬
Null ‫ﻣﻨﻌﺪم‬
Void ‫ﺑﺎﻃﻞ‬
Interpret ‫ﯾﻔﺴﺮ‬
Intention ‫ﻧﯿﺔ‬
Exclude ‫ﯾﺴﺘﺒﻌﺪ‬
Restrict ‫ﯾﺤﻈﺮ‬
Explicitly = expressed ‫ﺻﺮﯾﺢ‬
Implicitly ‫ﺿﻤﻨﻰ‬
Contracting parties ‫اﻷﻃﺮاف اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪة‬
Domicile ‫اﻟﻤﻮﻃﻦ‬
Commercial custom ‫اﻟﻌﺮف اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى‬
Commercial practice ‫اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬
Trade usage ‫اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى‬
Applicable ‫ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ‬
Set aside ً‫ﯾﻨﺤﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﺎ‬
Define ‫ﯾﻌّﺮف‬
Adapt ‫ﯾﺘﺂﻟﻒ ﻣﻊ‬
Acquiesce ‫ﯾﻘﺒﻞ – ﯾﺬﻋﻦ‬
٧٣

Ancient ‫ﻗﺪﯾﻢ‬
Stable ‫ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
Continuous ‫ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ‬
Material element ‫اﻟﺮﻛﻦ اﻟﻤﺎدى‬
Merchant ‫اﻟﺘﺎﺟﺮ‬
Psychological element ‫اﻟﺮﻛﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‬
Convocation ‫دﻋﻮة إﻟﻰ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎع‬
Compulsory ‫إﺟﺒﺎرى‬
Incorporated ‫ﻣﺘﻀﻤﻨﺔ‬
Business community ‫ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬
Legal efficacy ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
Initiative ‫ﻣﺒﺎدرة‬
Natural law ‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮن ﻃﺒﯿﻌﻰ‬
Jurisprudence ‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎء‬
Perfect justice ‫اﻟﻌﺪاﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻣﺔ‬
Universal declaration ‫اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻰ‬
Human rights ‫ﺣﻘﻮق اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬
Constitution ‫اﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮر‬
Rules of equity ‫ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺎواة‬
Spirit of fairness ‫روح اﻟﻌﺪاﻟﺔ‬
Reasonableness ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻘﻮﻟﯿﺔ‬
Judge ‫ﻗﺎﺿﻰ‬
Resolve ‫ﯾﺤﻞ‬
Previous ‫ﺳﺎﺑﻖ‬
٧٤

Chapter 3
Commercial Sales
Commercial sales ‫اﻟﺒﯿﻮع اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬

Seller ‫اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ‬
Obliged ‫ﻣﻠﺰم‬
Transfer ‫ﯾﺤﻮل – ﯾﻨﻘﻞ‬
Ownership ‫ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ‬
Property ‫ﺷﻲء ﻣﻤﻠﻮك‬
Buyer ‫اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي‬
Cash price ‫ﺛﻤﻦ ﻧﻘﺪي‬
Consideration ‫ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬
In cash ‫ﻧﻘﺪي‬
In kind ‫ﻋﯿﻨﻲ‬
Barter ‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﻀﺔ‬
Exchange ‫ﻣﺒﺎدﻟﺔ‬
Essential ‫ ﺟﻮھﺮي‬/ ‫أﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
Communicated ‫ﯾﺘﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﮫ ﺑﮫ‬
Offer ‫اﻹﯾﺠﺎب‬
Offeror ‫اﻟﺸﺨﺺ اﻟﺼﺎدر ﻣﻨﮫ اﻹﯾﺠﺎب‬
Offeree ‫اﻟﺸﺨﺺ اﻟﺼﺎدر ﻣﻨﮫ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل‬
Willingness ‫رﻏﺒﺔ‬
Binding ‫ﻣﻠﺰم‬
Specific person ‫ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺤﺪد‬
٧٥

Definite ‫ﻗﺎﻃﻊ – ﺣﺎزم‬
Vague ‫ﻏﺎﻣﺾ – ﻣﺒﮭﻢ‬
Illusory ‫ﺧﺎدع – ﻏﯿﺮ واﺿﺢ‬
Proposal ‫ﻋﺮض‬
Acceptance ‫ﻗﺒﻮل‬
Invitation ‫دﻋﻮة‬
Negotiate ‫ﺗﻔﺎوض‬
Termination ‫اﻧﻘﻀﺎء‬
Convert into ‫ﯾﺘﺤﻮل إﻟﻰ‬
Rejection ‫اﻟﺮﻓﺾ‬
Renewed ‫ﺗﻢ ﺗﺠﺪﯾﺪه‬
Revocation ‫اﻹﻟﻐﺎء – اﻟﻔﺴﺦ‬
Withdrawal ‫اﻻﻧﺴﺤﺎب‬
Take-effect ‫ﯾﻨﺘﺞ أﺛﺮه‬
Lapse of time ‫اﻧﻘﻀﺎء اﻷﺟﻞ‬
Fixed period ‫ﻣﺪة زﻣﻨﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة‬
Automatically ً‫ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋﯿﺎ‬
Runs out (‫ﻧﻔﺎذ )اﻟﻤﺪة‬
Expiration ‫ﯾﻨﺘﮭﻲ ﻣﺪة ﺻﻼﺣﯿﺘﮫ‬
Effect ‫أﺛﺮ‬
Time limit ‫ﺣﺪود زﻣﻨﯿﺔ‬
Reasonable time ‫ﻣﺪة ﻣﻌﻘﻮﻟﺔ‬
Decide ‫ﯾﻘﺮر‬
Condition ‫ﺷﺮط‬
Party (‫ﻃﺮف )ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬
Proposed by ‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
Valid ‫ﺻﺎﻟﺢ – ﺳﺎري اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل‬
٧٦

Basic rule ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ‬
Precise terms ‫ﺑﻨﻮد ﻣﺤﺪدة‬
Opportunity ‫ﻓﺮﺻﺔ‬
Particular form ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺤﺪد‬
Oral statement ‫ﺗﺼﺮﯾﺢ ﺷﻔﻮي‬
Manifested by ‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺪﻋﯿﻤﮫ ﺑـ‬
Conduct ‫ﺳﻠﻮك‬
Take place ‫ﯾﺤﺪث‬
Unconditional ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺸﺮوط‬
Chapter 4
٧٧

The traditional sources of international law
Sources ‫ﻣﺼﺎدر‬
Traditional ‫ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺪﯾﺔ‬
International law ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬
Article ‫ﻣﺎدة‬
statute ‫اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
International court of justice ‫ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺪل اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‬
apply ‫ﯾﻄﺒﻖ‬
decide ‫ﯾﻘﺮر‬
cases ‫ﻗﻀﺎﯾﺎ‬
Before it ‫أﻣﺎﻣﮭﺎ‬
nations ‫اﻷﻣﻢ‬
provision ‫ﺣﻜﻢ‬
principal ‫ رﺋﯿﺴﻲ‬-‫أﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
treaties ‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪات‬
custom ‫اﻟﻌﺮف‬
General principles of law .‫اﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن‬
contract ‫ﻋﻘﺪ‬
Domestic law ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ‬
٧٨

bilateral ‫ﺛﻨﺎﺋﻲ‬
multilateral ‫ﻣﺘﻌﺪد اﻷﻃﺮاف‬
charter ‫ﻣﯿﺜﺎق‬
Nuclear forces ‫اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﯾﺔ‬
negotiation ‫ﻣﻔﺎوﺿﺔ‬
determine ‫ﯾﺤﺪد‬
agreement ‫اﺗﻔﺎق‬
sign ‫ﺗﻮﻗﯿﻊ‬
submit ‫ﯾﻘﺒﻞ‬
ratification ‫اﻟﺘﺼﺪﯾﻖ‬
binding ‫ﻣﻠﺰم‬
Enter into force ‫ﯾﺪﺧﻞ ﺣﯿﺰ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ‬
Customary international law ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻟﻌﺮﻓﻲ‬
Written instrument ‫وﺛﯿﻘﺔ ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ‬
element ‫ﻣﺒﻌﻮث دﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﻲ‬
arrest ‫ﯾﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻲ‬
Unlawful ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ‬
Civilized nations ‫اﻷﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﻀﺮة‬
controversial ‫اﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎت‬
٧٩

Chapter 5
International Crimes
"core crimes"
International crimes ‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‬
Core crimes ‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ‬
٨٠

Offence ‫اﺗﮭﺎم‬
International court ‫ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ دوﻟﯿﺔ‬
Jurisdiction ‫اﺧﺘﺼﺎص ﻗﻀﺎﺋﻲ‬
International law ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬
genocide ‫اﻹﺑﺎدة اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
Crimes of Aggression ‫ﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺪوان‬
Transnational crime ‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﻏﯿﺮ وﻃﻨﯿﺔ‬
Terrorism ‫اﻹرھﺎب‬
torture ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ‬
denial ‫إﻧﻜﺎر‬
right ‫ﺣﻖ‬
existence ‫اﻟﻮﺟﻮد‬
entire ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬
homicide ‫اﻟﻘﺘﻞ‬
Human being ‫إﻧﺴﺎن‬
convention ‫إﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺔ‬
Ad hoc tribunals ‫ﻣﺤﺎﻛﻢ دوﻟﯿﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‬
International criminal court ‫اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‬

ICC
Committed ‫ارﺗﻜﺒﺖ‬
٨١

intent ‫اﻟﻘﺼﺪ‬
destroy ‫ﺗﺪﻣﯿﺮ‬
In whole ً‫ﻛﻠﯿﺎ‬
In part ً‫ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎ‬
National group ‫ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ وﻃﻨﯿﺔ‬
Ethnical group ‫ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ إﺛﻨﯿﺔ‬
Racial group ‫ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﻋﺮﺿﯿﺔ‬
Religious group ‫ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ دﯾﻨﯿﺔ‬
Killing ‫ﻗﺘﻞ‬
Mental harm ‫ ذھﻨﻲ‬-‫أذي ﻋﻘﻠﻲ‬
deliberately ‫ﺗﻌﻤﺪ‬
Prevent births ‫ﻣﻨﻊ اﻟﻤﻮاﻟﯿﺪ‬
forcibly ً‫ﻗﺴﺮا‬
transferring ‫اﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬
commission ‫ارﺗﻜﺎب‬
certain ‫ﻣﺤﺪدة‬
Inhumane acts ‫أﻋﻤﺎل ﻏﯿﺮ إﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬
murder ‫اﻟﻘﺘﻞ‬
rape ‫اﻷﻏﺘﺼﺎب‬
٨٢

Sexual slavery ‫اﻷﺳﺘﻌﺒﺎد اﻟﺠﻨﺴﻲ‬
persecution ‫اﻷﺿﻄﮭﺎد‬
widespread ‫واﺳﻊ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق‬
systematic ‫ﻣﻨﮭﺠﻲ‬
attack ‫ھﺠﻮم‬
Civilian population ‫اﻟﺴﻜﺎن اﻟﻤﺪﻧﯿﯿﻦ‬
Serious violation ‫أﻧﺘﮭﺎك ﺧﻄﯿﺮ‬
Armed conflict ‫ﻧﺰاع ﻣﺴﻠﺢ‬
International humanitarian ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ‬

law
nexus ‫ راﺑﻄﺔ‬/‫ﺻﻠﺔ‬
Conduct ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك‬
requirement ‫ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت‬
constitute ‫ﯾﻜﻮن‬
Crimes against non- ‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﺿﺪ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺗﻠﯿﻦ‬

combatant
Attacks on prohibited targets ‫اﻟﮭﺠﻤﺎت ﺿﺪ اﻷھﺪاف اﻟﻤﻤﻨﻮﻋﺔ‬
Attacks inflicting excessive ‫اﻟﮭﺠﻤﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ أﺿﺮار زاﺋﺪة‬

damage.
Means of warfare ‫أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺒﺖ اﻟﻘﺘﺎل‬
٨٣

Weapons ‫أﺳﻠﺤﺔ‬
Customary international law ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻟﻌﺮﻓﻲ‬
try ‫ﯾﻘﺎﺿﻲ‬
State's leaders ‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪول‬
Policy- makers ‫واﺿﻌﻲ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‬
Chapter 6
Transnational crimes, terrorism, and torture
٨٤

Transnational crimes ‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﻋﺒﺮ وﻃﻨﯿﺔ‬
Prosecution ‫اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺿﺎة‬
terrorism ‫اﻹرھﺎب‬
torture ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ‬
ignore ‫ﯾﺘﺠﺎھﻞ‬
concern ‫اھﺘﻤﺎم‬
Global economic ‫اﻷﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ‬
actual ‫ﺣﺎﻟﻲ‬
potential ‫ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻞ‬
Trans boundary ‫ﻋﺎﺑﺮ ﻟﻠﺤﺪود‬
Intra- stake ‫داﺧﻞ اﻟﺪول‬
fundamental ‫أﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
value ‫ﻗﯿﻤﺔ‬
International community ‫اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬
Prevention ‫ﻣﻨﻊ‬
punishment ‫اﻟﻌﻘﺎب‬
Cooperation ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺎون‬
governments ‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎت‬
Law enforcement ‫ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن‬
٨٥

agencies ‫وﻛﺎﻻت‬
agreements ‫اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت‬
Drug trafficking ‫اﻹﺗﺠﺎر ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺨﺪرات‬
piracy ‫اﻟﻘﺮﺻﻨﺔ‬
slavery ‫اﻷﺳﺘﻌﺒﺎد‬
Apartheid ‫اﻟﺘﻔﺮﻗﺔ اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮﯾﺔ‬
Enforced disappearance ‫اﻷﺧﺘﻔﺎء اﻟﻘﺴﺮي‬
People trafficking ‫اﻷﺗﺠﺎر ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺸﺮ‬
Smuggling migrants ‫ﺗﮭﺮﯾﺐ‬
corruption ‫اﻟﻔﺴﺎد‬
ordinary ‫ﻋﺎدي‬
serious ‫ﺧﻄﯿﺮ‬
Domestic law ‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮن ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬
War on terror ‫اﻟﺤﺮب ﻋﻠﻲ اﻹرھﺎب‬
National emergencies ‫اﻟﻄﻮارئ اﻟﻮﻃﻨﯿﺔ‬
Exceptions ‫اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎءات‬
justifications ‫ﻣﺒﺮرات‬
cruel ‫ﻗﺎﺳﻲ‬
In humane ‫ﻏﯿﺮ آدﻣﻲ‬
٨٦

Degrading treatment ‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﻃﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺮاﻣﺔ‬
Severe pain ‫أﻟﻢ ﺷﺪﯾﺪ‬
suffering ‫ﻣﻌﺎﻧﺎة‬
Physical ‫ﺑﺪﻧﻲ‬
mental ‫ﻋﻘﻠﻲ‬
Chapter 7
Government and power in English law
Government ‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ‬
٨٧

power ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ‬
Distinct ‫ﻣﻤﯿﺰة‬
Legislative power ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﯿﺔ‬
Law- making ‫واﺿﻌﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن‬
supreme ‫اﻟﻌﻠﯿﺎ‬
authority ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ‬
The house of commons ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم‬
Major partner ‫ﺷﺮﯾﻚ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ‬
leader ‫ﻗﯿﺎدي‬
Prime minister ‫رﺋﯿﺲ اﻟﻮزراء‬
Executive power ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬﯾﺔ‬
pass (‫ﯾﻤﺮر )ﻗﺎﻧﻮن‬
parliament ‫اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن‬
grown ‫اﻟﺘﺎج‬
minister ‫وزﯾﺮ‬
Queen ‫اﻟﻤﻠﻜﺔ‬
instructions ‫ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت‬
act ‫ﻋﻤﻞ‬
responsible ‫ﻣﺴﺌﻮل‬
٨٨

property ‫ اﻷﻣﻼك‬-‫اﻟﻤﻠﻜﯿﺔ‬
employ ‫ﯾﻮﻇﻒ‬
servants ‫ﺧﺪم‬
sue ‫ﯾﻘﺎﺿﻲ‬
citizens ‫ﻣﻮاﻃﻨﯿﻦ‬
breach ‫ اﻧﺘﮭﺎك‬-‫ﺧﺮق‬
tort ‫إﺿﺮار‬
prosecute ‫ﯾﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻋﻦ‬
wrongdoers ‫اﻟﻤﺨﻄﺌﯿﻦ‬
On behalf of ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻨﯿﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻦ‬
Judicial power ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬
judiciary ‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎء‬
judge ‫ﻗﺎﺿﻲ‬
Pronounce (‫ﯾﺘﻠﻮ )ﺣﻜﻢ‬
Interpret ‫ﯾﻔﺴﺮ‬
Acts of parliament ‫أﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن‬
doctrine ‫اﻟﻔﻘﮫ‬
Separation of powers ‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎت‬
tyranny ‫ ﻇﻠﻢ‬/‫ﻃﻐﯿﺎن‬
٨٩

Deliberate plan ‫ﻏﻠﻄﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﻤﺪة‬
tendencies ‫ ﻣﯿﻮل‬-‫ﻧﺰﻋﺎت‬
settlement ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﺔ‬
Supreme court ‫ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﯿﺎ‬
constitution ‫دﺳﺘﻮر‬
dominate ‫ ﯾﺴﯿﻄﺮ‬-‫ﯾﮭﯿﻤﻦ‬
٩٠

٩١

PART THREE
TOPIC'S TRANSLATION
٩٢

‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻷول‬
‫اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻘﺪ‬
‫ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮﻓﺎء ﺑﺒﻌﺾ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ اﻧﺸﺎء ﻋﻘﺪ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ‪ ،‬وھﺬه اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ھﻲ‪:‬‬
‫‪٩٣‬‬
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‫‪ - ١‬اﻷھﻠﯿﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﻞ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻟﺪﯾﮫ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ إﻻ اذا ﻛﺎن ﻏﯿﺮ ﻗﺎدر أو ﻟﺪﯾﮫ اﻷھﻠﯿﺔ وﻟﻜﻨﮭﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺪودة‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٢‬اﻟﺮﺿﺎ ‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎن ﻗﺪ ﻗﺒﻼ ﺑﻨﻮد اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ ‪،‬‬
‫وﯾﻨﺒﻐﻰ ان ﯾﺼﺪر اﻟﺮﺿﺎ ﺧﺎﻟﯿﺎ ﻣﻦ أى ﻋﯿﻮب ﻣﺜﻞ‪ :‬اﻹﻛﺮاه واﻟﺨﺪاع ‪ ،‬اﻟﺨﻄﺄ ‪،‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺮوف أﯾﻀﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ أﺳﺒﺎب اﻟﺒﻄﻼن‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٣‬ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﺤﻞ اى ﻋﻘﺪ "ﻣﺸﺮوع" ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎً‪ ،‬ان ﻣﺤﻞ اى ﻋﻘﺪ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ان ﯾﺮد ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺷﻰء ﻣﻤﻠﻮك أو ﻣﻨﻔﻌﺔ أو أي ﺣﻖ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ آﺧﺮ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻗﺪ ﯾﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﻘﯿﺎم أو اﻻﻣﺘﻨﺎع ﻋﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﺄﻋﻤﺎل ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ‪ ،‬وإذا ﻛﺎن ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻌﺎم أو اﻵداب اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﯿﻌﺘﺒﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﺎﻃﻼً ‪ ،‬وﻛﺬﻟﻚ إذا ﻛﺎن ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﯿﻞ وﻗﺖ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ ﻓﺎن اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻨﻌﺪﻣﺎً‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٤‬اﻟﺴﺒﺐ ‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﻌﺪ اﻟﺴﺒﺐ ھﻮ اﻟﮭﺪف ﻟﻮﺟﻮد اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‪ .‬وﺑﻌﺒﺎرة أﺧﺮى ﻓﺎن اﻟﺴﺒﺐ ھﻮ اﻟﺪاﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮد ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‪ ،‬وﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﯿﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﻣﻮﺟﻮداً وﺻﺤﯿﺤﺎً وﻻ ﯾﺘﻌﺎرض ﻣﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻌﺎم او اﻵداب اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪ .‬ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﺿﺮوري ﻟﻜﻞ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد‪.‬‬
‫و ﺗﺠﺪر اﻹﺷﺎرة إﻟﻰ أﻧﮫ إذا ﻛﺎن ﺳﺒﺐ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺸﺮوع‪ ،‬ﻓﺎن اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﯾﺼﺒﺢ ﺑﺎﻃﻼ ﺣﺘﻰ‬
‫ﻟﻮ ﻛﺎن ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻣﺸﺮوﻋﺎً‪.‬‬
‫‪٩٤‬‬

‫و ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻘﻮل ان اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ أي اﺗﻔﺎق ﺣﺘﻰ ﯾﺼﺒﺢ ﻋﻘﺪا ھﻲ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - ١‬ان اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻗﺪ ﺻﺎدف ﻗﺒﻮﻻً ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٢‬اﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎن ﻟﺪﯾﮭﻢ ﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٣‬ﻛﻼ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﮭﻢ اھﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٤‬ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد اى ﻋﯿﺐ ﻣﻦ ﻋﯿﻮب اﻻرادة‪.‬‬
‫‪-٥‬ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻣﺸﺮوع‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺼﺎدر اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﺠﺎري‬
‫وﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة ‪ ،‬وﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﺠﺎري‪ ،‬ﻓﺎن اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى ﯾﺴﺘﻘﻰ ﻣﺼﺎدرة‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻻﺗﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - ١‬اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٢‬اﻻﺗﻔﺎق اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ‪.‬‬
‫‪٩٥‬‬

‫‪ - ٣‬ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٤‬أﺣﻜﺎم اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻲ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٥‬ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻌﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٦‬ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - ٧‬ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻌﺪاﻟﺔ‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (١‬اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻊ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺼﺎدرة ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﺔ ‪ ،‬وﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﺮ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن ھﻮ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﺔ ﺑﺎﺻﺪار اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﺎت‪ ،‬وﯾﺘﺄﻟﻒ اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ‬
‫اﻟﺸﻮرى وﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺸﻌﺐ‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻼﺣﻆ أن اى ﺗﺸﺮﯾﻊ ﻻ ﯾﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻓﺮاد ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻢ إﺧﻄﺎرھﻢ ﺑﻮﺟﻮده ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ‬

‫اﻟﻨﺸﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺻﺤﯿﻔﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ )اﻟﺠﺮﯾﺪة اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (٢‬اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻋﺎدة اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻣﻮن ﻛﻠﻤﺔ "اﻟﻌﻘﺪ" ﻟﻠﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ‪ ،‬وﻻ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻻﺗﻔﺎق‬
‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﻦ ﻣﺘﻌﺎرﺿﺎً ﻣﻊ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ اﻵﻣﺮة‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ‪ ،‬ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﯾﺘﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻻﻣﺮة واﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﻜﻤﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫أ( – اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻵﻣﺮة ‪:‬‬
‫ھﻲ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻷﻓﺮاد اﺣﺘﺮاﻣﮭﺎ واﻻﻣﺘﺜﺎل ﻟﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﺑﺤﯿﺚ ﻻ ﯾﺠﻮز‬
‫ﻷى اﺗﻔﺎق ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ ان ﯾﺨﺎﻟﻔﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﺣﺘﻰ ﻟﻮ ﻛﺎن ھﺬا اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ﯾﺨﺪم ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺤﮭﻢ اﻟﻔﺮدﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن أي اﺗﻔﺎق ﺗﺠﺎري ﯾﺘﻌﺎرض ﻣﻊ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻵﻣﺮة ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن ﯾﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﻨﻌﺪﻣﺎً‬
‫وﺑﺎﻃﻞ ﺑﻄﻼﻧﺎً ﻣﻄﻠﻘﺎً‪.‬‬
‫ب( ـ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﻜﻤﻠﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫واﻻﻣﺘﺜﺎل ﻟﮭﺬه اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ وﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮھﺎ ﯾﺨﻀﻊ ﻟﻨﯿﺔ اﻷﻃﺮاف‪ .‬ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم ﯾﺘﻔﻖ اﻻﻃﺮاف‬
‫‪٩٦‬‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﺑﻨﻮد اﻟﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺨﺪم ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺤﮭﻢ‪ ،‬وﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﯿﺠﻮز ﻟﮭﻢ اﺳﺘﺒﻌﺎد أو ﺗﻘﯿﯿﺪ ھﺬه‬
‫اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﻜﻤﻠﺔ‪ .‬وﺑﻌﺒﺎرة أﺧﺮى أن ھﺬه اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ ﻗﺪ ﯾﺘﻢ اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺘﮭﺎ ﺻﺮاﺣﺔ‬
‫أو ﺿﻤﻨﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻷﻃﺮاف اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪة‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻮاع ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻵﻣﺮة واﻟﻤﻜﻤﻠﺔ ‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﻨﻘﺎط اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﺜﺎل ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﮭﻤﺎ‪.‬‬
‫أ‪ .‬ﻣﺜﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻵﻣﺮة‪:‬‬
‫* ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ ﺗﺤﻮى اﻻوراق اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ أي ﻓﺮاﻏﺎت ‪ ،‬أو ﺣﺬف ‪ ،‬او ﺷﻄﺐ ‪ ،‬او ﺣﺸﻮ ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺴﻄﻮر أو ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﮭﺎﻣﺶ ‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ .‬ﻣﺜﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﻜﻤﻠﺔ‪:‬‬
‫* "ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻢ اﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻼف ذﻟﻚ‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (٣‬ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫)اﻟﻌﺮف اﻟﺘﺠﺎري(‬
‫وﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻣﺼﺪرا رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﺠﺎري ‪ ،‬وﺗﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻷھﻤﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ‪ ،‬وﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﻧﻼﺣﻆ أن اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ او اﻟﻌﺮف اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى ﻻ ﯾﺘﻌﺎرض ﻣﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻵﻣﺮة ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﺠﺎري أو اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ‪ .‬وﺑﻌﺒﺎرة أﺧﺮى ﻓﺈن ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ‬
‫اﻟﻌﺮف اﻟﺘﺠﺎري ﻻ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻘﮭﺎ‪ ،‬اذا ﺗﻌﺎرﺿﺖ ﻣﻊ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة آﻣﺮة أو ﻣﻊ اﺗﻔﺎق ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫اﻻﻃﺮاف ‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﻌﺎدات اﻟﺘﻰ ﯾﻤﺎرﺳﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﺠﺎر ﻓﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﮭﻢ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ‬

‫واﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺠﺐ ان ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة وﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮة ﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﺑﺤﯿﺚ ﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺰاﻣﯿﺘﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ھﺬا اﻟﺘﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أن اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﯾﺠﺐ ان ﺗﻜﻮن ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺪﯾﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮة‬
‫وﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ )اﻟﻌﺮف( ‪ ،‬واﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﺠﺎري‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻟﻌﺮف اﻟﺘﺠﺎري وﯾﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﯾﻦ ‪:‬‬
‫أ‪ .‬اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ اﻟﻤﺎدي ‪ :‬ﯾﺘﻜﻮن ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ أو ﻋﺎدات درج اﻟﺘﺠﺎر ﻋﻠﻰ اﺗﺒﺎﻋﮭﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻈﺎم ﻟﻤﺪة ﻃﻮﯾﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪٩٧‬‬

‫ب‪ .‬اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮى ‪ :‬ﯾﺘﻜﻮن ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻋﺘﻘﺎد اﻟﺘﺠﺎر أن ھﺬه اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ أو‬
‫اﻷﻋﺮاف ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺔ ﻟﮭﻢ‪.‬‬
‫اﻷﻋﺮاف اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﺠﺎري ﻓﻲ أن اﻟﺘﺠﺎر ﺗﻄﺒﻖ اﻷﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬

‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎري دون اﻻﻋﺘﻘﺎد ﺑﺄﻧﮫ ﻣﻠﺰم ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ أن اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى ﯾﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺎدي ﻓﻘﻂ‪ ،‬ﺑﻌﻜﺲ اﻟﻌﺮف ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى ﻟﯿﺲ ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎً إﻻ اذا ﻛﺎن ﻣﺘﻀﻤﻨﺎً ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﺗﻔﺎق اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﺳﻮاء ﺻﺮاﺣﺔ أو ﺿﻤﻨﺎ‪.‬‬
‫أﺧﯿﺮا اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل ‪ ،‬وﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﻓﻰ اﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬

‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﻓﺎن اﻟﻘﺎﺿﻲ ﯾﻄﺒﻖ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺠﺪه ﻣﻦ اﻻﻋﺮاف‬
‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻠﻘﺎء ﻧﻔﺴﮫ ‪ ،‬وﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﺄﺧﺬ اﻟﻤﺸﻮرة اﻟﻔﻨﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﺒﺮاء ﻓﻰ ھﺬا‬
‫اﻟﺨﺼﻮص‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (٤‬أﺣﻜﺎم اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻲ ‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻲ ھﻮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر اﻷﺻﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﺮوع اﻷﺧﺮى ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺨﺎص‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻲ ﯾﺘﻀﻤﻦ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﻜﻢ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻼت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﯾﻨﻈﻤﮭﺎ‬
‫ﻓﺮع آﺧﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺨﺎص‪.‬‬
‫وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ‪ ،‬اذا ﻟﻢ ﯾﺠﺪ اﻟﻘﺎﺿﻰ ﺣﻜﻤﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﯾﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻮاﻗﻌﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﮫ أن ﯾﺒﺤﺚ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻰ‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (٥‬ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻌﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫إذا ﻟﻢ ﺗﺠﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺣﻜﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﻤﺬﻛﻮرة ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ ﺣﻞ اﻟﻨﺰاع اﻟﺘﺠﺎري ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻌﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ذﻛﺮت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺮآن اﻟﻜﺮﯾﻢ واﻟﺴﻨﺔ اﻟﻨﺒﻮﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻄﮭﺮة‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (٦‬ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺎت اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ ﺟﺰءا ھﺎﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﻘﮫ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺮ اﻟﺘﺎرﯾﺦ ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ اﻟﯿﻮﻧﺎﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﻘﺪﯾﻤﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﻧﺸﺄت ﻓﻜﺮة اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ ‪ ،‬واﻋﺘﺒﺮت أن ھﻨﺎك ﻧﻮﻋﺎ‬
‫‪٩٨‬‬

‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﺪاﻟﺔ ﻣﺜﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻧﻈﺮا ﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻻﻧﺴﺎن ‪ ،‬واﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻔﻖ ﻣﻊ ھﺬا ﺑﺄﻛﺒﺮ ﻗﺪر‬
‫ﻣﻤﻜﻦ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺎن ﻟﻤﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ ﺷﻌﺒﯿﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺮن اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻰ ﻋﺸﺮ وﻛﺎن ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮه ﻛﺒﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻟﺤﻘﻮق اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‪ .‬وﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺎن اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻰ ﺑﻤﻌﻨﺎه اﻟﻮاﺳﻊ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ‬
‫وﺟﻮد ﻗﺎﻧﻮن ﻋﺎم ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻮك اﻟﺒﺸﺮي ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻄﺒﻖ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﻟﮫ ﻋﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺑﻠﺪ‪ .‬ﻗﺪ ﺗﻜﺘﺸﻒ ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺮﺷﯿﺪ ﻟﻼﻧﺴﺎن وﺗﺘﻔﻖ ﻣﻊ ﻃﺒﯿﻌﺘﮫ ) ﻓﺎﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻰ ھﻮ دﺳﺘﻮر اﻻﻧﺴﺎن اﻟﻌﻘﻠﻰ‬
‫واﻻﺧﻼﻗﻰ واﻟﻨﻔﺴﻰ(‬
‫)‪ (٧‬ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻹﻧﺼﺎف ‪:‬‬
‫ﻓﮭﺬا ﯾﻌﻨﻲ اﻹﻧﺼﺎف واﻟﻤﻌﻘﻮﻟﯿﺔ أو "اﻟﻌﺪاﻟﺔ اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ" ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻌﺪاﻟﺔ ﻟﻠﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ روح‬
‫اﻹﻧﺼﺎف واﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺢ اﻟﺬي ﺳﻮف ﯾﻨﻈﻢ ﺣﯿﺎة اﻟﻨﺎس‪ .‬ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم ‪ ،‬ﯾﺴﻌﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﺿﻰ‬
‫ﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﻨﺰاع اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻌﺪاﻟﺔ اذا ﻟﻢ ﯾﺠﺪ ﻟﮭﺎ ﺣﻼً ﻓﻰ اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر‬
‫اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ‬
‫اﻟﺒﯿﻮع اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺒﯿﻮع اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ھﻰ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻠﺘﺰم اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﻓﯿﮫ ﺑﻨﻘﻞ ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ ﻋﻘﺎر ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺘﺮي ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺳﻌﺮ‬
‫ﻧﻘﺪي‪ .‬وأﻛﺪ اﻟﻤﺸﺮع أن اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻧﻘﺪى أوﻋﯿﻨﻰ‪ .‬وﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺑﯿﻊ ﺗﺠﺎرى‬
‫إﻻ إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ اﻟﻨﻘﺪى أﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ اﻟﻌﯿﻨﻰ‪ .‬واﻻ اﻋﺘﺒﺮت اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﻀﺔ او‬
‫ﻣﺒﺎدﻟﺔ‪ ،‬وﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻤﺎل ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺿﺮوري ﻛﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرى‪.‬‬
‫‪٩٩‬‬

‫ﯾﺘﻜﻮن اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﻣﻦ اﯾﺠﺎب ﯾﺼﺪر ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮف وﯾﺼﺎدف ﻗﺒﻮل ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻄﺮف اﻵﺧﺮ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﮭﻢ اﻟﺘﺄﻛﯿﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ أن وﺟﻮد اﻹﯾﺠﺎب واﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﻻ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أن ھﻨﺎك‬
‫ﻋﻘﺪا‪ .‬ﺑﻞ ﯾﺠﺐ ﯾﺘﺼﻞ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺑﺎﻷﯾﺠﺎب‪.‬‬
‫اﻷﯾﺠﺎب ‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﺘﻢ اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﺸﺨﺺ )ﻣﻘﺪم اﻻﯾﺠﺎب( ﺑﺘﻘﺪﯾﻢ ھﺬا اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻟﺸﺨﺺ آﺧﺮ‬
‫)اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ( ﻣﺒﺪﯾﺎً اﺳﺘﻌﺪاده ﻟﺠﻌﻞ ھﺬا اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ﻣﻠﺰم‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﻮﺟﮫ اﻷﯾﺠﺎب ﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﺑﻌﯿﻨﮫ‪ ،‬أو ﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎس ‪ ،‬أو ﯾﻌﺮض ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬
‫ﺑﺄﺳﺮه‪ .‬ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻌﺮض واﺿﺢ ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﻏﺎﻣﻀﺔ أو وھﻤﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﺑﻌﺒﺎرة أﺧﺮى ‪ ،‬ﯾﺠﺐ‬
‫أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻻﻗﺘﺮاح اﻟﻨﮭﺎﺋﻲ ﺑﮭﺪف اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ‪ ،‬وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ‪ ،‬دﻋﻮة ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ أﺣﺪ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻄﺮف اﻵﺧﺮ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض أو ﻟﺘﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﻋﺮض ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻋﺮﺿﺎ‪.‬‬
‫اﻧﻘﻀﺎء اﻷﯾﺠﺎب ‪:‬‬
‫ھﺬا اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻻ ﯾﺘﺤﻮل اﻟﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻠﺰم ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎ إﻻ إذا ﺗﻢ ﻗﺒﻮﻟﮫ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ‪ ،‬وأﺣﯿﺎﻧﺎ‬
‫ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﯾﺘﻢ ﻗﺒﻮل ھﺬا اﻻﯾﺠﺎب‪ ،‬ﯾﻘﻮم ﻣﻘﺪم اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪول ﻋﻦ اﯾﺠﺎﺑﮫ ‪ ،‬وﯾﻮد أن ﯾﺮى‬
‫أن اﯾﺠﺎﺑﮫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻌﺪ ﻣﺘﺎﺣﺎً ﻟﻠﻘﺒﻮل‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺠﻮز إﻧﮭﺎء اﻻﯾﺠﺎب وذﻟﻚ ﻟﻸﺳﺒﺎب اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – ١‬اﻟﺮﻓﺾ‬
‫ﺑﻤﺠﺮد رﻓﺾ اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ واﺑﻼغ اﻟﺮﻓﺾ ﻟﻤﻘﺪم اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ‪ ،‬ﯾﻨﺘﮭﻰ اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ‪،‬‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺠﺪﯾﺪه ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻣﻘﺪم اﻻﯾﺠﺎب‪ ،‬وﺣﺘﻰ ﯾﺘﻢ ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻼ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ اى اﯾﺠﺎب ﻣﻮﺟﮫ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – ٢‬اﻹﺑﻄﺎل‬
‫وھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ ﺳﺤﺐ اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻣﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺑﺤﯿﺚ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻌﺪ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻻ‪ .‬وﯾﻤﻜﻦ‬
‫إﻟﻐﺎء اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻓﻲ أي وﻗﺖ ﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻢ اﻟﻤﻮاﻓﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ‪ .‬اﻹﻟﻐﺎء ﯾﺴﺮي ﻣﻔﻌﻮﻟﮫ ﺑﻤﺠﺮد‬
‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ ﺑﮫ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -- ٣‬ﻣﺮور اﻟﺰﻣﻦ ‪:‬‬
‫‪١٠٠‬‬

‫ﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﻻت ﻛﺜﯿﺮة ﯾﺘﻢ ﻋﺮض اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻣﺤﺪدة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﻓﻰ ھﺬه اﻟﺤﺎﻻت ﯾﻨﺘﮭﻰ‬
‫اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋﯿﺎ ﺑﻤﺠﺮد ﻧﻔﺎذ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﻓﻼ ﯾﻨﺘﺞ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل اﺛﺮه اذا ﻛﺎن ﺻﺎدراً ﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫اﻧﺘﮭﺎء ﻣﺪة اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ‪ ،‬وﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد ﻣﺪة ﻣﺤﺪدة‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺗﻌﻘﺪ ﻋﺎدة‬
‫اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻣﻔﺘﻮح ﻟﻔﺘﺮة زﻣﻨﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﻘﻮﻟﺔ ‪ ،‬وﯾﻘﺮر ﻣﺎ ھﻲ ﻓﺘﺮة زﻣﻨﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﻘﻮﻟﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ‪:‬‬
‫ذﻟﻚ ھﻮ اﻟﺸﺮط اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﻲ ﻟﻠﻌﻘﺪ ‪ ،‬وھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ ﻗﺒﻮل ﻃﺮف ﻣﺎ ﻗﺪﻣﮫ ﻃﺮف آﺧﺮ‬
‫وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﯾﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‪ ،‬وﺑﻌﺒﺎرة أﺧﺮى ﻓﺎن ﺳﺮﯾﺎن اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﯾﺤﻮل اﻟﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻠﺰم‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎَ‪ .‬اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة اﻻﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺳﺎرﯾﺎ‪ ،‬ھﻮ ان ﯾﺘﻢ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺑﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﺼﯿﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﻰ‬
‫ﺗﻢ ﺑﮭﺎ اﻻﯾﺠﺎب‪.‬‬
‫اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻟﯿﺴﻠﮫ ﻣﻔﻌﻮل اﻻ اذا ﺗﻢ اﺗﺼﺎﻟﮫ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ‪ ،‬وﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻠﺔ ﺑﺎى ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺔ‪،،‬‬
‫واﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن ﺻﺮﯾﺢ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ﺗﺼﺮﯾﺢ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﻰ او ﺷﻔﻮى‪ ،‬او ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺳﻠﻮك‬
‫اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ‪.‬ﻻ ﯾﺠﺐ ﻓﻘﻂ ان ﯾﻜﻮن اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻻ وﻟﻜﻦ ﯾﺠﺐ ان ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻠﮫ ﻟﺼﺎﺣﺒﮫ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ ﻓﺎن ﺳﺮﯾﺎن اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺗﺤﻜﻤﮫ اﻟﻤﺒﺎدىء اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -- ١‬ﻻ ﺑﺪ أن ﯾﺘﻢ ﻗﺒﻮل اﻻﯾﺠﺎب ﻗﺒﻞ اﻧﺘﮭﺎء اﻟﻤﺪة او اﺑﻄﺎﻟﮫ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -- ٢‬ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺸﺮوط‪.‬‬
‫‪ -- ٣‬ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻢ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﺼﯿﻐﺔ اﻟﻮاردة ﻓﻰ اﻻﯾﺠﺎب‪.‬‬
‫‪ -- ٤‬ﯾﺠﺐ ان ﯾﺘﻢ اﺗﺼﺎل اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺑﺼﺎﺣﺐ اﻻﯾﺠﺎب‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺮاﺑﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﺘﻘﻠﯿﺪﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺪﯾﺎ‪ ،‬وﺿﻌﺖ اﻟﻤﺎدة ‪ ٣٨‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺪل اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺼﺎدر‬
‫اﻟﺘﻰ ﯾﺠﺐ ان ﺗﺮﺟﻊ اﻟﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ اﻟﺒﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﺿﺔ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ واﻗﻊ‬
‫اﻷﻣﺮ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎن اﻟﻤﺎدة ‪ ٣٨‬ھﻰ ﻣﺠﺮد ﺗﺮدﯾﺪ ﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﺘﺮف ﺑﮭﺎ ‪،‬‬
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‫وﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ ﻧﺺ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻤﺎدة‪ ،‬ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﺼﺎدر رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ وھﻰ‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪات واﻟﻌﺮف اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ واﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺼﺪر اﻷول اﻟﻤﺬﻛﻮرة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎدة ‪ ٣٨‬ھﻮ " اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪات" ‪ ،‬أو ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﺸﺎر إﻟﻰ أﻧﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺎدة ‪" ،‬اﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ"‪ ،‬وھﻰ ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ ﻋﺒﺎرة ﻋﻦ اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ دوﻟﺘﯿﻦ‬
‫او اﻛﺜﺮ وﺗﻤﺜﻞ وﺳﯿﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ اﺑﺴﻂ واوﺿﺢ اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﺗﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫دوﻟﺘﯿﻦ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪات ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺪول ﺗﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﻤﺒﺮﻣﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻻﻓﺮاد وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻰ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﻤﺎ ﯾﻨﺸﻰء اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮن ﺑﯿﻦ اﻃﺮاﻓﮫ )اﻷﻓﺮاد( ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة ﺗﻨﺸﻰء ﻗﺎﻧﻮن ﺑﯿﻦ اﻃﺮاﻓﮭﺎ‬
‫)اﻟﺪول(‪ ،‬ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ان ﺗﺒﺮم اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة ﺑﯿﻦ ﻃﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﻓﻘﻂ )ﻣﻌﺎھﺪات ﺛﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ(‪ ،‬أو ﺗﺒﺮم ﺑﯿﻦ اﻛﺜﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮف )ﻣﻌﺎھﺪات ﺟﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ(‪ ،‬وﻗﺪ ﺗﺘﻨﺎول اﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﯿﺜﺎق اﻷﻣﻢ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‪ ،‬أو أﻧﮭﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺘﻨﺎول ﻣﻮﺿﻮع واﺣﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﻌﺎھﺪة اﻟﻘﻮات اﻟﻨﻮوﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ‬
‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة واﻻﺗﺤﺎد اﻟﺴﻮﻓﯿﺎﺗﻲ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻟﻌﺎم ‪.١٩٨٨‬‬
‫ﺗﺼﺒﺢ اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎً ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺗﻨﻄﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪة ﺧﻄﻮات‪ .‬أوﻻ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ‬
‫اﻻﻃﺮاف ﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﺎوﺿﺎت ﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺎ ھﻲ اﻷﺣﻜﺎم اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮد أن ﺗﺪرﺟﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة‪ .‬وﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫أن ﺗﺘﻮﺻﻞ إﻟﻰ اﺗﻔﺎق ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮﻗﯿﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة‪ .‬وﺑﻌﺪ ذﻟﻚ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺼﺪﯾﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ وﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻰ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬ﻻﺑﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة إﻟﻰ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺸﯿﻮخ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺸﻮرة واﻟﻤﻮاﻓﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﻗﺒﻞ ان‬
‫ﯾﺼﺪق ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ رﺋﯿﺲ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‪ ،‬وﺑﻤﺠﺮد ان ﺗﻨﺘﮭﻰ اﻟﺪول ﻣﻦ اﻻﺟﺮاءات اﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺒﺔ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ‬
‫ﻗﻮاﻧﯿﻨﮭﺎ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑﺘﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﺻﻜﻮك ﺗﺼﺪﯾﻘﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﺤﻮ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب ﻓﻲ اﺣﻜﺎم‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة‪ .‬وﺻﻜﻮك اﻟﺘﺼﺪﯾﻖ ھﻲ ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ وﺛﺎﺋﻖ ﺗﺜﺒﺖ أن اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ ﺗﻨﻮى اﻻﻟﺘﺰام‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة‪ ،‬وﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪات اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة اﻷﻃﺮاف ﺗﺤﺪد ﻋﺪد ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺼﺪﯾﻘﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ اﯾﺪاﻋﮭﺎ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺔ ﻓﻌﻼً‪ ،‬أو ﺑﻌﺒﺎرات أﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ "ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﺣﯿﺰ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ"‪.‬‬
‫ﺛﺎﻧﻰ ﻣﺼﺪر رﺋﯿﺴﻲ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ ھﻮ اﻟﻌﺮف‪ .‬ﯾﺘﻢ إﻧﺸﺎء ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻟﯿﺲ ﺑﺼﻜﻮك ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ وﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺳﻠﻮك اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‪ ،‬إذا ﺗﺼﺮﻓﺖ اﻟﺪول ﻋﻠﻰ‬
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‫ﻧﺤﻮ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪى ﻓﺘﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ اﻋﺘﻘﺎدھﺎ ﺑﺎن ھﺬا اﻟﺴﻠﻮك ﻣﻠﺰم‪) ،‬ﻣﻔﮭﻮم‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺮﻓﻰ(‪ ،‬وﯾﻌﻨﻰ اﻧﮫ ﺣﺘﻰ ﯾﻨﺸﺄ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﻔﮭﻮم ﻻﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻮاﻓﺮ رﻛﻨﯿﻦ –‬
‫ﻓﻼﺑﺪ ان ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺪول ﺑﺴﻠﻮك ﻣﻌﯿﻦ‪ ،‬وﻻﺑﺪ ان ﺗﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﻟﺪول ان ھﺬا اﻟﺴﻠﻮك ﻣﻠﺰم‪ ،‬ﻓﻌﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل ‪ ،‬ھﻨﺎك ﻗﺎﻋﺪة ان اﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﯿﯿﻦ اﻻﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻻ ﯾﺠﻮز اﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ‬
‫اﻟﺒﻠﺪ اﻟﻤﻀﯿﻒ‪ ،‬ﻓﯿﺘﻌﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪول أن ﺗﺒﺮھﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺟﻮد ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺔ ﻋﺪم اﻋﺘﻘﺎل‬
‫دﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﯿﯿﻦ وﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻔﻌﻞ ذﻟﻚ ﻷﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻌﺘﻘﺪ ان اﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﯿﯿﻦ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻰ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺼﺪر اﻻﺳﺎﺳﻰ اﻻﺧﯿﺮ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻟﻮاردة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎدة ‪ ٣٨‬ھﻮ "اﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن" اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺘﺮف ﺑﮭﺎ اﻷﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﻀﺮة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‪ .‬ھﺬا ھﻮ ﻣﺠﺎل ﻟﻠﺠﺪل واﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺔ‬
‫ﺑﯿﻦ ﻓﻘﮭﺎء ودارﺳﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ‪ ،‬ﻓﻔﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺎم اﻷول ﻗﺪ ﺗﺸﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن‬
‫إﻟﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻰ أﻏﻠﺐ اﻟﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﻮﻃﻨﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وھﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺒﺎدىء اﻟﺘﻰ اﺟﻤﻌﺖ اﻟﺪول ﻋﻠﻰ اھﻤﯿﮫ وﺟﻮدھﺎ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﻮﻃﻨﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وھﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ ﻛﻘﻮاﻋﺪ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻰ اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ‪.‬‬
‫ﺛﺎﻧﯿﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺸﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻄﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻰ ﻗﺒﻠﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﺪول‪ .‬وﺑﻌﺒﺎرة اﺧﺮى‪ ،‬ھﻨﺎك اﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎت ﺣﻮل ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺻﻨﻊ اﻟﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﻲ‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪول أن ﺗﻘﺒﻠﮭﺎ‪ ،‬وﻣﺜﺎل ذﻟﻚ اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎدة‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺠﺐ أن‬
‫ﺗﻘﺒﻞ اﻟﺪول أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن دون ﻣﻮاﻓﻘﺘﮭﺎ‪ ،‬اﻓﺘﺮاض آﺧﺮ ھﻮ أﻧﮫ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن‬
‫ﺗﺤﺎﻓﻆ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻮﻋﻮد )ﻣﺒﺪأ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺷﺮﯾﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﻦ( دون ﻗﺒﻮل ھﺬه اﻟﻔﻜﺮة ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن‬
‫أي ﻣﻌﺎھﺪة ﻟﻦ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻟﮭﺎ ﻗﻮة ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ واﺧﯿﺮاً ﻓﺎن اﻟﻤﺒﺎدىء اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن ﺗﺸﯿﺮ إﻟﻰ "ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻷﺳﻤﻰ" ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺒﺎدئ اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ وﺣﻘﻮق ﻣﺘﺴﺎوﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪١٠٣‬‬

‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬
‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫"اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ"‬
‫"اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ" ھﻮ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺸﯿﺮ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺨﺘﺺ ﺑﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ أو اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ذات اﻻﺧﺘﺼﺎص وﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﺗﻌﺮف ب "اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ" وھﻰ ﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻹﺑﺎدة اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ واﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﺿﺪ‬
‫اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ وﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺤﺮب وﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺪوان ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻌﺒﺮ وﻃﻨﯿﺔ‬
‫واﻻرھﺎب واﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ‪.‬‬
‫اﻹﺑﺎدة اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
‫‪١٠٤‬‬

‫اﻹﺑﺎدة اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ھﻰ اﻟﺤﺮﻣﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺟﻮد ﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎت ﺑﺸﺮﯾﺔ ﺑﺄﺳﺮھﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻠﻤﺎ‬
‫ﯾﻌﺮف اﻟﻘﺘﻞ ﺑﺄﻧﮫ اﻟﺤﺮﻣﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺎن اﻟﻔﺮد‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺮد ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻣﻮﺣﺪ ﻟﻺﺑﺎدة اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﺜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺔ ﻣﻨﻊ ﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻹﺑﺎدة‬
‫اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻲ اﻋﺘﻤﺪت ﻓﻲ ﻟﻮاﺋﺢ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ واﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫)‪.(ICC‬‬
‫ھﻰ أي ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻓﻌﺎل اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﺮﺗﻜﺒﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺪﻣﯿﺮ ﻛﻠﯿﺎ أو ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎ‪ ،‬ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﻗﻮﻣﯿﺔ‬
‫أو اﺛﻨﯿﺔ أو ﻋﺮﻗﯿﺔ أو دﯾﻨﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺼﻔﺘﮭﺎ ھﺬه ‪:‬‬
‫أ( ﻗﺘﻞ أﻋﻀﺎء ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ب( إﻟﺤﺎق أذى ﺟﺴﺪي أو ﻋﻘﻠﻲ ﺟﺴﯿﻢ ﻷﻋﻀﺎء اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ج( إﺧﻀﺎع اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﻋﻤﺪا ‪ ،‬ﻟﻈﺮوف ﻣﻌﯿﺸﯿﺔ ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﮭﺎ إھﻼﻛﮭﺎ اﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ ﻛﻠﯿﺎ أو ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎ‪.‬‬
‫د( ﻓﺮض ﺗﺪاﺑﯿﺮ ﺗﺴﺘﮭﺪف اﻟﺤﯿﻠﻮﻟﺔ دون إﻧﺠﺎب اﻷﻃﻔﺎل داﺧﻞ اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ه( ﻧﻘﻞ اﻷﻃﻔﺎل ﻗﺴﺮا ﻣﻦ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ أﺧﺮى‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﺿﺪ اﻻﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﺿﺪ اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ ھﻲ ﻗﺪﯾﻤﺔ ﻗﺪم اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﮭﺎ ‪ ،‬و ﺗﻨﻄﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ارﺗﻜﺎب أﻋﻤﺎل‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ إﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻘﺘﻞ واﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ واﻻﻏﺘﺼﺎب واﻻﺳﺘﻌﺒﺎد اﻟﺠﻨﺴﻲ ‪،‬‬
‫واﻻﺿﻄﮭﺎد واﻷﻓﻌﺎل ﻏﯿﺮ اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﺳﯿﺎق ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ‪ ،‬وﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﺟﺰءا‬
‫ﻣﻦ ھﺠﻮم واﺳﻊ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق أو ﻣﻨﮭﺠﻲ ﻣﻮﺟﮫ ﺿﺪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻜﺎن اﻟﻤﺪﻧﯿﯿﻦ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺤﺮب‬
‫ﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﺤﺮب ھﻲ اﻧﺘﮭﺎك ﺧﻄﯿﺮ ﻟﻠﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ واﻷﻋﺮاف اﻟﻤﻄﺒﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺰاﻋﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﺔ‬

‫)اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺮف أﯾﻀﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ اﻷﻧﺴﺎﻧﻰ( ‪ ،‬وﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ھﻨﺎك ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك واﻟﻨﺰاع اﻟﻤﺴﻠﺢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﻓﺎ ﻟﻠﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﺿﺪ اﻻﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﯾﺸﺘﺮط ﻓﻰ ﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺤﺮب ارﺗﻜﺎﺑﮭﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺳﯿﺎق واﺳﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻨﻄﺎق أو ﻣﻨﮭﺠﻲ‪ .‬وﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻔﻌﻞ واﺣﺪ ﻣﻌﺰول ان ﯾﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ ﺣﺮب‪.‬‬
‫‪١٠٥‬‬

‫وﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺤﺮب اﻷﻓﻌﺎل اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ‪ :‬اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﻜﺒﺔ ﺿﺪ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺗﻠﯿﻦ ‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﮭﺠﻤﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ أھﺪاف ﻣﺤﻈﻮرة واﻟﮭﺠﻤﺎﺗﺎﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺴﺘﮭﺪف إﻟﺤﺎق أﺿﺮار ﻣﻔﺮﻃﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺪﻧﯿﯿﻦ ‪ ،‬وﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺤﺮب ﺿﺪ اﻟﻤﻤﺘﻠﻜﺎت واﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻤﺤﻈﻮرة ﻟﻠﺤﺮب )اﻷﺳﻠﺤﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﺪوان‬
‫ﯾﻨﻈﺮ ﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺪوان ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ ﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺮﻓﻰ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻣﺤﺪد ﻣﺘﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺪوان‪ ،‬وﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ دوﻟﯿﺔ او اى‬
‫ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﺧﺮى ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ ان ﺗﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ وﺟﻮدھﺎ رﺳﻤﯿﺎً ﺿﻤﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺨﺘﺺ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ‪ ،‬إﻻ ان اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻻ‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ أن ﺗﻤﺎرس أﺧﺘﺼﺎﺻﮭﺎ‪ ،‬اﻻ اذا ﺗﻢ اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ﻋﻠﻰ وﺿﻊ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻟﻠﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ‬
‫وﺷﺮوط ﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻻﺧﺘﺼﺎﺻﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺪوان ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻗﺎدة اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ وﺻﻨﺎع اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ‬
‫اﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﻌﺪواﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺴﺎدس‬
‫اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﻮﻃﻨﯿﺔ واﻹرھﺎب واﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ وﺳﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﯾﻌﻨﻰ ﺗﺠﺎھﻞ ﺟﺰء ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﻲ اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻟﮫ ﻣﻦ آﺛﺎر دوﻟﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬وھﻨﺎك ﻏﯿﺮھﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺜﯿﺮ ﻗﻠﻘﺎ‬
‫دوﻟﯿﺎ واﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﮭﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ أﻧﺤﺎء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫أن اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺨﻀﻊ ﻟﻼﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ وﻟﻜﻦ ﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺣﺘﻰ اﻻن ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ دوﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺨﺘﺺ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﺗﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﺳﻢ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﻮﻃﻨﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ‬
‫ﻟﮭﺎ آﺛﺎر ﻋﺎﺑﺮة ﻟﻠﺤﺪود ﻓﻌﻠﯿﺔ او ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ‪ ،‬ﻗﺪ ﯾﺘﻢ ارﺗﻜﺎﺑﮭﺎ داﺧﻞ دوﻟﺔ واﺣﺪة‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻨﮭﺎ‬
‫ﺗﺴﻲء إﻟﻰ ﻗﯿﻢ أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‪.‬‬
‫‪١٠٦‬‬

‫أن ﻣﻨﻊ وﻣﻌﺎﻗﺒﺔ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻌﺎﺑﺮة ﻟﻠﺤﺪود اﻟﻮﻃﻨﯿﺔ ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﺘﻌﺎون ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎت وﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫وﻛﺎﻻت إﻧﻔﺎذ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن ‪ ،‬وﯾﺠﺮي إﺑﺮام ﻋﺪد ﻣﺘﺰاﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎت ﻟﺘﻮﻓﯿﺮ ھﺬا ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﮭﺮﯾﺐ اﻟﻤﺨﺪرات واﻟﻘﺮﺻﻨﺔ واﻟﻌﺒﻮدﯾﺔ ‪ ،‬وﺟﺮاﺋﻢ اﻹرھﺎب ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ‬
‫واﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮي واﻻﺧﺘﻔﺎء اﻟﻘﺴﺮي‪ ،‬واﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ‬
‫اﻻﺗﺠﺎر ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺸﺮ وﺗﮭﺮﯾﺐ اﻟﻤﮭﺎﺟﺮﯾﻦ واﻻﺗﺠﺎر ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع ﺑﺎﻷﺳﻠﺤﺔ واﻟﻔﺴﺎد‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺾ‬
‫ھﺬه اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ ھﻲ أﯾﻀﺎ ﺟﺮاﺋﻢ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻟﻌﺮﻓﻲ أو ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺟﺮاﺋﻢ دوﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﺗﻜﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻇﺮوف ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻹرھﺎب‬
‫ﺣﺘﻰ اﻵن ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻟﻺرھﺎب ﻓﻰ ﺻﻚ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻰ ﻣﻠﺰم ﯾﮭﺪف ﻟﻔﺮض ﺣﻈﺮ‬
‫ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻟﻸﻋﻤﺎل اﻹرھﺎﺑﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎن اﻻرھﺎب ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ ھﻮ ارﺗﻜﺎب اﻻﻓﻌﺎل اﻻﺟﺮاﻣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺄﻟﻮﻓﺔ ﻓﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﻰ ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﻄﯿﺮ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ ﺗﻮاﻓﺮ ﻗﺼﺪ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﻣﻦ اﺗﯿﺎن ﺗﻠﻚ اﻻﻓﻌﺎل‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺪول ‪ ،‬ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ‪ ،‬ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﺗﺸﺮﯾﻊ ﯾﺠﺮم‬
‫اﻹرھﺎب ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ وﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﻲ اﻟﻌﺎدي ﻟﻤﻼﺣﻘﺔ اﻟﺠﺮاﺋﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺨﻄﯿﺮة ﻛﺎﻟﻌﻨﻒ اﻹرھﺎﺑﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺠﺪ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ اﻹرھﺎب اﻵن ﺗﺪاﺑﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة اﻷوﺟﮫ‪ ،‬آﺧﺮھﺎ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺤﺮب ﺿﺪ‬
‫اﻻرھﺎب واﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻀﻤﻨﺖ ﺗﺪاﺑﯿﺮ ﻛﺜﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﻰ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻘﻮة‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ‬
‫ھﻨﺎك ﺣﻈﺮ واﺿﺢ وﻣﻄﻠﻖ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‪ .‬وﯾﺴﺮي اﻟﺤﻈﺮ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻓﻲ‬
‫أوﻗﺎت اﻟﺤﺮوب أو اﻟﻄﻮارىء اﻟﻮﻃﻨﯿﺔ ‪ ،‬وﻟﯿﺲ ھﻨﺎك أي اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎءات أو ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺮات ﻟﺘﻠﻚ‬
‫اﻟﺠﺮﯾﻤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺔ ﻣﻨﺎھﻀﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ وﻏﯿﺮه ﻣﻦ ﺿﺮوب اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﺳﯿﺔ أواﻟﻼإﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ أو اﻟﻤﮭﯿﻨﺔ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ اﺑﺮﻣﺖ ﻟﺘﻜﻮن اﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻈﺮ اﻟﺬى ﻛﺎن واردا ﻓﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﻰ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻧﮫ‬
‫ﯾﻘﺘﻀﻲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺪول اﻷﻃﺮاف ان ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑﺘﺠﺮﯾﻢ ﺟﺮﯾﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻤﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻤﺤﺎوﻟﺔ واﻟﺘﻮاﻃﺆ وﻛﺬﻟﻚ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﻌﺬﯾﺐ ﯾﺸﻤﻞ أي ﻋﻤﻞ ﯾﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﮫ أﻟﻢ أو ﻋﺬاب ﺷﺪﯾﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺟﺴﺪﯾﺎ ﻛﺎن أم ﻋﻘﻠﯿﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪١٠٧‬‬

‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ‬
‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ واﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻻﻧﻜﻠﯿﺰي‬
‫ھﻨﺎك ﺛﻼث ﺳﻠﻄﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ —١‬اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﯿﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻓﻰ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‪ ،‬ﻓﺎن اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﯿﺎ ﻟﺴﻦ اﻟﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ ھﻰ " اﻟﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن" وﯾﻌﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم ھﻮ اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻚ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺳﻦ اﻟﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ‪ ،‬ﻗﺎدة اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﯾﻜﻮﻧﻮا اﺳﺎﺳﺎ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم‪ ،‬وﯾﻨﻈﺮ ﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم ﻓﻰ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻧﮫ ﻣﮭﻢ ﺟﺪاً ﻟﺪرﺟﺔ ان‬
‫رﺋﯿﺲ اﻟﻮزراء ﻻﺑﺪ ان ﯾﻜﻮن ﻋﻀﻮاً ﻓﻰ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -- ٢‬اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪١٠٨‬‬

‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻨﻔﯿﺬ اﻟﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻘﺮھﺎ اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫أ( "اﻟﺘﺎج" ھﻲ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ‪ ،‬اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل وزراء اﻟﺘﺎج ﺑﺎﺳﻢ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ب( وزراء اﻟﺘﺎج ﯾﺘﺼﺮﻓﻮن ﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت ﻣﻦ رﺋﯿﺲ اﻟﻮزراء‪.‬‬
‫ج( ﻋﻦ ﻛﻞ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻦ أﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻟﮫ وزﯾﺮ ﻣﺴﺆول ﻋﻨﮫ ‪ ،‬اﻟﺘﺎج ﯾﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﯿﺔ ‪،‬‬
‫وﺗﻮﻇﯿﻒ اﻟﻤﻮﻇﻔﯿﻦ ‪ ،‬ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﺿﺎة اﻟﺘﺎج ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﻮاﻃﻨﯿﻦ ﻋﻦ اﻻﺧﻼل ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬
‫واﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻘﺼﯿﺮﯾﺔ ‪ ،‬واﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻲ اﻟﺬى ﻻ ﯾﻌﺪ ﺧﺮﻗﺎ ﻟﻠﻌﻘﺪ‪ .‬وﯾﺤﺎﻛﻢ اﻟﺘﺎج‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﻦ ﻋﻦ اﻻﺧﻄﺎء ﻧﯿﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻷﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -- ٣‬اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﯿﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫وﺗﻤﺎرس اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻘﻀﺎء ‪ ،‬وھﯿﺌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻀﺎة ﯾﻌﻤﻠﻮن ﻓﻲ ﻣﺤﺎﻛﻢ‬

‫اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﻄﻖ اﻟﻘﻀﺎة اﻻﺣﻜﺎم ﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰى ﺳﻮاء ﻛﺎن ﻣﻜﺘﻮب او ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻜﺘﻮب‪،‬‬
‫وﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﯾﺘﻮﻟﻮن ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﻟﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ ‪ ،‬أو أﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ اﻗﺮارھﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﮭﯿﺌﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻌﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻣﺒﺪأ "ﻓﺼﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎت"‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻤﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أﻧﮫ إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻨﺎس اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺼﻨﻌﻮن اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن ھﻢ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻻﺷﺨﺎص اﻟﺬﯾﻦ‬
‫ﯾﻄﺒﻘﻮﻧﮫ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻮف ﯾﺆدي ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻰ اﻟﻄﻐﯿﺎن‪ ،‬وﺑﺎﻟﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﺎن اﻟﻄﻐﯿﺎن ﺳﯿﺤﺪث اذا ﻗﺎم ذات‬
‫اﻻﺷﺨﺎص ﺑﺼﻨﻊ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن واﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻧﺘﮭﺎﻛﮫ‪.‬‬
‫وﺣﯿﺚ ان اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﮭﺎ دﺳﺘﻮر ﻣﻜﺘﻮب ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎن ﻓﻘﮫ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎت ﻟﻢ‬
‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻘﺔ ﻛﺨﻄﺔ ﻣﺪروﺳﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﻤﺪة‪.‬‬
‫أ( اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﺣﻘﻘﺖ اﺳﺘﻘﻼﻟﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺻﺪور ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﺔ ‪ .١٧٠١‬وﻻ‬
‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻋﺰل اﻟﻘﻀﺎة ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﺻﺒﮭﻢ إﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﺠﻠﺴﻲ اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن‪.‬‬
‫ب( اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن ھﻮ أﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻠﻄﺔ ﺻﻨﻊ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﯿﺎ ﺗﻌﻘﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻓﻌﺎﻟﮫ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ھﻮ اﻟﺤﺎل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﯿﺎ ان ﺗﻘﻀﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪم دﺳﺘﻮرﯾﺔ اﻻﻓﻌﺎل اﻟﺼﺎدره ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻮﻧﺠﺮس‪.‬‬
‫‪١٠٩‬‬

‫ج( ﺗﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬﯾﺔ وﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﺪﺳﺘﻮر‪ ،‬وﺳﻠﻄﺔ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺗﻤﻜﻨﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﯿﻄﺮة‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن ﻷن ﻗﺎدة اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ھﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم‬
‫‪١١٠‬‬

١١١

PART FOUR
ANSWER KEY
١١٢

Chapter 1
The essential elements of the contract
1)Fill in the sentences with the suitable term:
1- every person has the capacity to contract unless he is

incapacitated.
١١٣

2- The parties must have consent to contract in order to have
a valid contract.
3- duress affected the consent of the contract.
4- if the subject matter of the contract is unlawful, Then the

contract is void.
5- If the subject matter of the contract is impossible then the

contract is null.
2) what are the essential elements of a valid contract?
1- capacity to contract.
2-consent to contract.
3-subject matter.
4-cause.
3) What are the vitiating factors?
1- Misrepresentation.
٢- Duress.
٣- Mistake.
٤- Deceit.
4) Mark the following statement true OR false:
1- Cause is the direct purpose for the contract. ( T )
١١٤

2- if the cause is unlawful, the contract shall be valid. ( F )
3- the person who have mental incapacity have the capacity to

contract. ( F )
4- the subject matter of the contract should be lawful. ( T )
٦- The parties must have consent to contract. ( T )
5) What are the essential factors of any agreement?
1- an offer which is accepted by the offeree.
2- second, both parties intended to enter legal relations.
3-both parties having capacity to contract.
4- the subject matter is lawful.
6) What are the conditions for a lawful cause?
1-existent.
2-valid.
3-permissible.
4-not contrary to public order.
7) The contract is void if
١١٥

1- the cause is unlawful.
2-the subject matter is contrary to public order.
8) The contract is null, if the subject matter of the contract is

impossible.
9) The contract is valid if,
1-the subject matter is lawful.
2-both parties have the capacity to contract.
3-the cause is lawful.
10) Mark the following statement with:
Valid- void- null

٦- The person who conclude the contract enjoys capacity.
( Valid )
٧- The subject- matter of the contract is impossible.
( Null )
٨- The person who conclude the contract was mistaken about

essential term of the contract.
( Void )
١١٦

٩- The cause of the contract is contrary to public order
( Void )
١٠- The subject – Matter of the contract is lawful.
( Valid )
Chapter 2
Sources of Commercial Law
Unterstanding Details:
1- Out line below the sources of commercial law.
a) First, Commercial legislations.
b) Second, Special agreement of the parties.
d) Third, Rules of commercial practices.
e) Fourth, Provisions of civil law.
١١٧

f) Fifth, The principles of Islamic Sharia.
g) Sixth, Principles of Natural law.
h) Finally, Rules of equity.
2- Circle the most suitable word to complete the following

sentences:
1- In Egypt, the competent authority which format the legal rules,
is entrusted in Parliament.
2- Lawyers usually use the word contract to mean an agreement.
3- The agreement between contractors should not be opposed to
mandatory legal provisions.
4- Contrary to custom, commercial usage is not binding except
when it is incorporated into the parties agreement.
5- Civil law is in fact the original source of other branches of
private law.
3- Mark these statements T (true) or F (false) according to the

passage.
1- Mandatory rules are rules which all individuals should
respect and comply. ( T )
2- any agreement opposes commercial complimentary rules
shall be absolutely null and void. ( F )
3- Commercial legislation contains only mandatory rules.( F )
4-There is no difference between commercial usage and
custom. ( F )
١١٨

٥- The court can depend on Islamic sharia as a source of
commercial law. ( T )
4- Identify the suitable term for each group.

٦- Commercial custom
-material element
-psychological element
-general, ancient, stable and continuous.
2- commercial law
-Complimentary provisions
-Mandatory provisions
3- Islamic shareia
-holy Quran
-sunna.
4- sources of commercial law
-commercial legislations
-special agreement of the parties
-provisions of civil law.
5- Discussion
Use your law dictionary and make a list of ten terms used in
commercial law.
* you can use online dictionary (http://dictionary.law.com ).
6- What are the elements of commercial custom ?
1- material element
2- psychological element
١١٩

7- Give one–sentence summary of the main idea of the
following sources of commercial law.
1- legislation.
Legislation means the formation of the legal rules by a
competent authority.
2- Special agreement
The agreement between contractors should not be opposed to
mandatory legal provisions.
3- Commercial practice
The commercial practice shall be general, ancient, stable and
continuous.
4- Provisions of civil law
where a commercial matter is not regulated by any sources,
reference shall be made to civil law.
5- Principles of Islamic sharia
If the court does not find a provision in any sources to resolve the
commercial conflict, it turns to the principles of Sharia.
8- Write on the distinction between

١- a) mandatory provisions .
the agreement between parties cannot contradict mandatory
provisions.
b) complimentary provisions .
These rules are complied and interpret the intention of the
parties.
١٢٠

٢- a) Commercial usage .
the merchants are applying the commercial usages without
believing that they are compulsory, whereas the usage
consists of the material element only.
b) custom .
Commercial Custom consists of two elements:
a. Material element:
This element consists of the rules or us age followed by the
merchants regularly for a long time.
b. Psychological element:
This element consists of the convocation of the merchants
that such rules or usages is binding upon them.
Chapter 3
Commercial Sales
(II) Fill on the spaces with words on the box:
offer – the ownership – acceptance – rejection - consideration
١٢١

(1) Commercial sales is a contract which the seller is obliged to
transfer the ownership of a property for a cash price.
(2) The consideration may be in cash and in kind.
(3) The acceptance must be communicated to the offeror and
accepted by him.
(4) The offer must be communicated to the offeree.
(5) The offer may be terminated by rejection.
(II) Circle the most suitable word to complete the sentence

1- The person who made the offer called offeror.
2- The offer must be definite.
3- revocation means withdrawal of an offer by the offeror
4- Acceptance must be unconditional.
5- Lapse of Time is a reason for offer termination
(III) Outline below the reasons for offer termination:

1) rejection.
2) revocation.
3) lapse of time.
(IV) Outline the principal rules for validity of acceptance :

1- it must take place before the offer has capsed or been revoked.
2- it must be unconditional.
3- it must be on the same terms as the offer.
4- it must be communicated to the offer or.
١٢٢

(V) Make these statements T (true) or F (false) according to
the passage
1- Offer and acceptance need not to be in any particular form.
(T)
2- The acceptance must be communicated to the offeror.( T )
3- The offer can be revoked at anytime. ( T )
4- The person who receive the offer called the offeree. ( T )
5- The offeree cannot reject the offer. ( F )
(VI) Match column (A) with suitable sentence from column

(B):
(A) (B)
Acceptance Must be communicated to the offeror
Consideration Is made in cash and in kind
Rejection Is a reason for offer termination
Offeror Is the person who made offere
Offeree Is the person who accepts offer
(VII) Express in one sentence the meaning of each term:

1- Commercial sales
Commercial sales is a contract by which the seller is
obliged to transfer the ownership of a property in thing to the
buyer for a cash price.
2- Offer
١٢٣

An offer is made where a person (the offeror) expresses to
another (the offeree) who have willingness to make a binding
agreement.
3- Acceptance
It is the main condition of a contract, the valid acceptance
converts the offer into legally binding contract.
4- Rejection
Once an offer is rejected by the offeree and the rejection is
communicated to the offeror, the offer shall be terminated
5- Revocation
It means withdrawal of an offer by the offeror so that it
can no longer be accepted.
6- Lapse of time
The offer may be terminated if the contract was made for
a fixed period, and the time runs out.
Chapter 4
The traditional sources of international law
1. What does Article 38 of the Statute of the International

Court of Justice contain?
It listed sources that the court should apply in deciding cases

before it
١٢٤

2. What are the three main sources of International Law?
1- Treaties.
2-International Custom.
3-General Principle of Law.
3. Explain what a treaty is ?
Treaties are written agreements between two or more states and

represent one of the basic way in which countries create rules to
regulate their behavior. They are similar to contracts under
domestic law.
4. What other legal document is similar to a treaty?
Contracts.
5. Give two features of a norm of customary international law.
a) there must be normal state practice from a state. (material

element)
b) and this practice must be seen as being required by law.

(psychological element)
١٢٥

6. Outline below the various steps by which a treaty becomes
law.
a) First, the parties enter into negotiations
b) Then, they reach an agreement.
c) After, they sign the treaty.
d) Next, the treaty submitted for the internal domestic ratification

processes of each of the parties.
e) Then, the countries submit their ratified instruments.
f) Finally, the treaty becomes binding to each party.
7. Write (T) if the statement contains true information or (F)

if it contains false information
1. Both treaties and contracts create law between individuals. (F)
2.The American President cannot ratify a treaty without the

consent of the Senate. (T)
3. Diplomats are arrested in host countries because this custom

has become an international norm. (F)
4. The principles of international legal system are present in many

domestic legal systems.(T)
5. All states must be bound by laws created by custom whether

they accept them or not.(F)
١٢٦

6. "General principles of law" is more controversial and difficult
to grasp than the other two sources.(T)
9. State the meaning of the following phrases from the context

of the passage.
a) a bilateral treaty.
It is a treaty between only 2 parties.
b) a multilateral treaty
it is a treaty between more than 2 parties.
c) enters into force
when the treaty enters into force, it becomes binding.
d) pacta sunt servanda (Latin)
promises must be kept.
10. Circle the most suitable word to complete the following

sentences.
1. A treaty between nations creates a law.
2. Before a treaty can become valid, it has to be ratified by the

domestic legal system of each participating nation.
3. The 1988 Intermediate Nuclear Force Treaty between the US

and the former USSR was a bilateral treaty.
١٢٧

4. Treaties or conventions, as they are sometimes referred to, are
one of the main sources of international law.
5. Laws concerning the internal government of a country are

known as domestic laws.
6. Once a treaty becomes valid, all participating parties are bound

by it.
Chapter 5
International Crimes
"core crimes"
Understanding details
1- Identify the suitable term for each group
1- genocide
b) national group.
١٢٨

c) religious group.
2- aggression.
a) customary International law.
b) no agreed definition.
c) no court try.
3 – crimes against humanity.
4 – war crimes
a) armed conflict.
b) crimes against non-combatants.
c) prohibited means of warfare.
2- Mention the crimes within the jurisdiction of the

international criminal court (ICC).
١- Genocide.
٢- Crimes against humanity.
٣- War crimes.
٤- Aggression.
١٢٩

3- Choose the correct answer for each statement:
1- genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and war of

aggression are core crimes.
2- international crimes are offences which international courts

can try.
3- genocide is a denial of the right of existence for entire

human groups.
4- war crimes is a serious violation of the laws and customs

applicable in armed conflict:
5- The only crime that have no agreed definition is aggression.
4- Give one- sentence summary for each crime of the

following:
1-Genocide.
Genocide is a denial of the right of existence of entire human

groups crimes against humanity.
2-Crimes against humanity.
it involves the commission of certain inhumane acts, in a

certain context, as a part of a widespread or systematic attack
directed against a civilian population.
١٣٠

3-war crimes.
A war crime is a serious violation of the laws and customs

applicable in armed conflict Aggression.
4-Aggression.
it comprises the participation by a state's leaders and policy-

makers in certain aggressive acts by a state.
5- state the meaning of the following phrases from the context

of the passage.
1-Core crimes.
It comprises genocide, crime against humanity, war crimes,

and aggression.
2-ICC.
International Criminal Court.
3-Widespread or systematic.
An essential factor of the crime against humanity.
4-(groups) in genocide crime.
Means any national, ethnical, racial or religious group.
6-Make the following statements T(true) or F(false):
١٣١

1-Core crimes are genocide, crimes against humanity, war
crimes, and the crime of aggression. (T)
2- genocide have no definition till today.(T)
3- ICC doesn't have jurisdiction over core crimes.(F)
4- War crime is a serious violations of the laws and customs

applicable in armed conflict.(T)
٥- Aggression is widely regarded as a crime under customary

international law.(T)
7.Use your dictionary or online legal dictionary to find more

terms on international crimes.
8- What are the core crimes?
١- Genocide.
٢- Crimes against humanity.
٣- War crimes.
٤- Aggression.
9- Write the most distinguish feature for the following:
1- genocide
١٣٢

b) is a denial of the right of existence.
c) destruction of a national, ethnical, racial or religious

group
2- aggression.
a) it is widely regarded as a crime under customary

International law.
b) it has no agreed definition.
c) it comprises the participation by a state's leaders and policy-

makers in certain aggressive acts by a state.
3 – crimes against humanity.
4 – war crimes
a) a serious violation of the laws and customs of armed

conflict.
b) there should be a nexus between the conduct and the armed

conflict.
c) War crimes include the following act: crimes against non-

combatants, attacks on prohibited targets, attacks inflicting
١٣٣

excessive civilian damage, war crimes against property and
prohibited means of warfare
Chapter 6
Transnational crimes, terrorism, and torture
1- Fill in spaces with the suitable term:
1- the prevention of transnational crimes requires

………………… among governments.
a) offences.
b) crimes
c) cooperation.
١٣٤

2- ………………… like piracy, apartheid, and drug
trafficking.
d) International Crimes.
e) Transnational Crimes.
f) Core Crimes.
3-…………………… include measurement of criminal law

enforcement to face the crime of terrorism.
i) War on Terror.
j) Transnational Crimes.
k) Terrorism.
4- UK, doesn't have specific offence of …………. in domestic

law.
a) International crimes.
b) core crimes.
c) terrorism.
5- There is a clear prohibition of ………….. in international

law.
a) torture.
b) war on terror.
c) prosecution.
2- List 5 of the transnational crimes.
١٣٥

١- drugs trafficking.
٢- Piracy.
٣- Slavery.
٤- terrorism offences.
٥- enforced disappearances.
3- What is the convention which prohibit torture?
The convention against torture and other cruel, in humane and

degrading treatment or punishment.
4- Write one sentence to define the following"
٦- War on terror.
it have engaged so much measures of criminal law enforcement

as the use of armed force.
٧- Torture.
Torture comprises any act by which severe pain or suffering,

physical or mental, is inflicted on a person.
٨- Terrorism.
the commission of ordinary, though serious, criminal act,

with a particular purpose.
5- Make the following statements F(False) or T(True):
١٣٦

1- Torture comprises any act which cause serve pain or
suffering. (T)
2- Terrorism is the commission of ordinary criminal act.(F)
3- torture is a prohibited crime at any time.(T)
٩- There are some exceptions for the crime of torture.(F)
١٠- War on terror is prohibited by International Law.(F)
Chapter 7
Government and power in English law
1- What are the three powers exercised in UK government?
١- The legislative power.
٢- The executive power.
٣- The judicial power.
2- Fill in the spaces with suitable term:
1- The leaders of the government are mainly in

the………………
١٣٧

a) house of commons.
b) house of lords.
c) crown.
2- The prime minister should be a member of

the……………….
a) house of lords.
c)crown.
3- The …………………… is the supreme executive.
a) house of lords.
c) crown.
4- The ministers of the crown are acting on the instructions of

the…………………….
a) Queen.
b) prime minister.
c) state.
5- The judicial power is exercised by the……………………….
a) judiciary.
b) Queen.
١٣٨

c)Prime minister.
3- Write 4 features of the "Crown"?
1- the supreme executive.
2- acting through ministers.
3- the crown can hold property, and employ servants.
٤- the crown can be sued by citizens for breach of contract.
4- Write one sentence on the following:
٤- Judicial power.
The judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, the body of

judges acting in the courts of law.
٥- The Crown.
The "Crown" is the supreme executive, acting through ministers

of the crown in the name of the Queen.
٦- The legislative power.
The legislative power is the supreme law-making authority.
5- Make the following sentences V (true) or x (false):
1- UK has a written constitution.(F)
١٣٩

2- The Judiciary has achieved independence since the act of
settlement 1701. (T)
3- Parliament is the supreme law- making authority.(T)
4- The power of government is not able to dominate parliament.

(F)
5- The crown is the supreme executive.(T)
6- State the suitable term for each group.
1- The Crown
a) the supreme executive.
b) the government.
c) acting through ministers.
2- The Judicial Power
a) Is exercised by the judiciary.
b) judges.
c) pronounce judgments.
d) achieved independence since to
١٤٠

١٤١

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LEGAL

Public International Law Dep.

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Chapter 1: The Essential Elements of Contract.

Chapter 2: Sources of Commercial Law.

Chapter 3: Commercial Sales.

Chapter 4: The Traditional Sources of International

Chapter 5: International Crimes (core crimes).

Chapter 6: Transnational Crimes.

Chapter 7: Government and Power in English Law.

Part (II) : Glossary.

Part (III) : Topics Translation.

Part (IV) : Answer Key.

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Certain essential elements must be fulfilled in order to

Every person has the capacity to contract unless he/she is

The parties must have consent to contract in order to have a

Every contract must have lawful subject matter the subject

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It is to be noted that if the cause of contract is unlawful the

So it can be said that the essential factors of any

١- An offer which is accepted, by the offeree.

٢- Both Parties intending to enter legal relations.

٣- Both parties having capacity to contract.

٤- There being no mistake, misrepresentation or induced

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1- every person has the…………..to contract unless he

2- The parties must have consent to contract in order to

3-…………..affected the consent of the contract.

4- if the subject matter of the contract is unlawful, Then

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2) what are the essential elements of a valid contract?

3) What are the vitiating factors?

4) Mark the following statement true OR false:

1- Cause is the direct purpose for the contract.

2- if the cause is unlawful, the contract shall be valid.

3- the person who have mental incapacity have the capacity to

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٥- The parties must have consent to contract.

5) What are the essential factors of any agreement?

6) What are the conditions for a lawful cause?

7) The contract is void if

8) The contract is null, if ………………………………

9) The contract is valid if,

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10) Mark the following statement with:

Valid- void- null

٢- The subject- matter of the contract is impossible.

٣- The person who conclude the contract was mistaken about

٤- The cause of the contract is contrary to public order

٥- The subject – Matter of the contract is lawful.

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