Non-Traditional Machining

NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING

SYLLABUS

MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTION
 Introduction to Non-traditional machining
 Need for non-traditional machining process
 Comparison between conventional and non-conventional machining process
 Classification of non-traditional machining processes
 Selection of non-traditional machining processes
 Advantages, limitations & applications of non-traditional machining processes

MODULE 2 - USM , AJM , WJM

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 Introduction
 Equipments and operation
 Effect of process parameters
 Process characteristics
 Applications, advantages & limitations of USM
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)
 Introduction
 Equipment and process of material removal
 Process variables
 Process characteristics
 Applications, advantages & limitations of AJM
WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)
 Equipment & operation
 Process parameters
 Applications, advantages & limitations of WJM

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MODULE 3 - ECM , CHM

ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)
 Introduction
 Principle of electro chemical machining
 Equipments and operation
 Chemistry of ECM.
 ECM Process characteristics
 Process parameters
 ECM Tooling
 Applications, advantages & limitations of ECM
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) & Electrochemical Honing (ECH) processes
 Advantages, limitations and applications of ECG & ECH
CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM)
 Elements of the process : Resists (maskants) & etchants
 Types of CHM processes
- Chemical blanking process
- Chemical milling process
 Process characteristics of CHM
 Applications, advantages & limitations of CHM

MODULE 4 - EDM , PAM

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
 Introduction
 Mechanism of metal removal
 EDM equipments
 Flushing types
 Process parameters
 Applications, advantages & limitations of EDM
 Electrical discharge grinding & traveling wire EDM

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PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

 Introduction
 Non-thermal generation of plasma
 Equipments and mechanism of metal removal
 Plasma torch
 Process parameters
 Process characteristics
 Safety precautions
 Applications, advantages & limitations of PAM

MODULE 5 - LBM , EBM

LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)
 Introduction
 Generation of LASER
 Equipment and mechanism of metal removal
 Process parameters & characteristics
 Applications, advantages & limitations of LBM
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM)
 Introduction
 Principle of EBM
 Equipment and mechanism of metal removal
 Applications, advantages & limitations of EBM

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MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Non-traditional machining

Non-traditional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes that remove excess
material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or
combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for
traditional manufacturing processes.

Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining processes
such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling. Non-traditional machining processes, also called
advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not
feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined below.
 Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining
 When the workpiece is too flexible or slender
 When the shape of the part is too complex

Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra required
machining conditions. When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages
over non-traditional machining processes. The common non-traditional machining processes are
described in this section.

Definition:
A machining process is called non-traditional if its material removal mechanism is basically
different than those in the traditional processes, i.e. a different form of energy (other than the
excessive forces exercised by a tool, which is in physical contact with the work piece) is applied
to remove the excess material from the work surface, or to separate the workpiece into smaller
parts.

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Need for non-traditional machining process

The strength of steel alloys has increased five folds due to continuous R and D effort. In aero-
space requirement of High strength at elevated temperature with light weight led to development
and use of hard titanium alloys, nimonic alloys, and other HSTR alloys. The ultimate tensile
strength has been improved by as much as 20 times. Development of cutting tools which has
hardness of 80 to 85 HRC which cannot be machined economically in conventional methods led
to development of non –traditional machining methods.
1. Technologically advanced industries like aerospace, nuclear power, ,wafer fabrication,
automobiles has ever increasing use of High –strength temperature resistant (HSTR) alloys
(having high strength to weight ratio) and other difficult to machine materials like titanium,
SST,nimonics, ceramics and semiconductors. It is no longer possible to use conventional
process to machine these alloys.
2. Production and processing parts of complicated shapes (in HSTR and other hard to machine
alloys) is difficult , time consuming an uneconomical by conventional methods of machining.
3. Innovative geometric design of products and components made of new exotic materials with
desired tolerance , surface finish cannot be produced economically by conventional
machining.
4. The following examples are provided where NTM processes are preferred over the
conventional machining process :
♦ Intricate shaped blind hole – e.g. square hole of 15 mmx15 mm with a depth of 30 mm
with a tolerance of 100 microns
♦ Difficult to machine material – e.g. Inconel, Ti-alloys or carbides, Ceramics, composites ,
HSTR alloys, satellites etc.,
♦ Low Stress Grinding – Electrochemical Grinding is preferred as compared to conventional
grinding
♦ Deep hole with small hole diameter – e.g. φ 1.5 mm hole with l/d = 20
♦ Machining of composites

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Comparison between conventional and non-conventional machining process

Sl. Non-conventional or Non-traditional

Conventional or Traditional machining
No. machining
1. The cutting tool must be harder than the Cutting tool need not be harder than the
workpiece material. workpiece material. In some processes like
laser beam machining, physically there is no
cutting tool, instead, the laser beam acts as
cutting tool.
2. Conventional machining involves direct There is no physical contact the cutting tool
contact between the tool and the workpiece. and workpiece.
3. Tool life is less due to wear of the tool Tool life is comparatively more.
resulting from its direct contact with the
workpiece metal.
4. Conventional processes use mechanical NTM processes utilize different energy
energy (application of cutting forces) for sources like mechanical, electrical, chemical
metal removal. and thermal sources.
5. Machining is characterized by macroscopic Machining is mostly characterized by
chip formation by shear deformation. microscopic formation. In some processes
like electrochemical machining, there is no
chip formation, instead material removal
occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at
atomic level.
6. Difficult to obtain high accuracy and NTM processes result in high accuracy and
surface finish. surface finish.
7. Metal removal rate is limited by the No such limitations. NTM process can
mechanical properties of the workpiece remove material with much ease even with
material. difficult-to-cut materials.
8. Relative motion between tool and work is Many NTM processes are capable of
typically rotary or reciprocating. Thus the producing complex 3D shapes and cavities.
shape of work is limited to circular or flat
shapes. Inspite of CNC systems, production
of 3D surfaces is still a difficult task.
9. Machining of small cavities, slits, blind Machining of small cavities, slits and
holes or through holes are difficult. production of non-circular micro-sized holes
are easy using NTM.
10. Conventional processes may require skilled Requires skilled operator.
or unskilled operator.
11. Low capital and maintenance cost. Comparatively higher.
12. Easy set-up of equipment. Comparatively complex.

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Classification of non-traditional machining processes

Type of Mechanism of Transfer Energy

Processes
energy metal removal media source
Pnematic/
High velocity AJM, USM,
Erosion hydraulic
particles WJM
Mechanical pressure
Conventional
Shear Physical contact Cutting tool
machining
Electrochemical Ion displacement Electrolyte High current ECM, ECG
Reactive
Chemical Ablative relation Corrosive agent CHM
environment
Hot gases Ionized material IBM, PAM
Fusion
Electrons High voltage EDM
Thermoelectric
Radiation Amplified light LBM
Vapourization
Ion stream Ionized material PAM

Non-traditional machining processes are typically classified based on the nature of energy
employed in machining. These include :
a) Mechanical energy

The excess material is removed by the mechanical erosion of the workpiece material. The
various machining processes that utilize mechanical energy include :
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
 Water Jet Machining (WJM)

b) Chemical or Electrochemical energy

Material is removed from the work surface by the mechanism of ion displacement, or by
chemical dissolution using chemical reagents or etchants like acids and alkaline solutions.
Machining process that utilize chemical energy include :
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
 Electrochemical Honing (ECH)
 Chemical Machining (CHM)

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c) Thermal or Electrothermal energy

Thermal energy is employed to melt and vaporize tiny bits of the workpiece material by
concentrating the heat energy on a small area of the workpiece. Machining processes that utilize
thermal energy include :
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
 Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
 Ion Beam Machining (IBM)

Selection of non-traditional machining processes

The correct selection of the non-traditional machining methods must be based on the following
aspects.
i) Physical parameters of the process
ii) Shape to be machined
iii) Process capability
iv) Economics of the processes

Physical parameter of the process:

The physical parameters of the different NTM are given in the Table 1.0 which indicates that
PAM and ECM require high power for fast machining. EBM and LBM require high voltages and
require careful handling of equipment. EDM and USM require medium power . EBM can be
used in vacuum and PAM uses oxygen and hydrogen gas.

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Shapes cutting capability : The different shapes can be machined by NTM. EBM and LBM are
used for micro drilling and cutting. USM and EDM are useful for cavity sinking and standard
hole drilling. ECM is useful for fine hole drilling and contour machining. PAM can be used for
cutting and AJM is useful for shallow pocketing

Process capability : The process capability of NTM is given in Table 2.0 EDM which achieves
higher accuracy has the lowest specific power requirement. ECM can machine faster and has a
low thermal surface damage depth. USM and AJM have very material removal rates combined
with high tool wear and are used non metal cutting. LBM and EBM are, due to their high
penetration depth can be used for micro drilling, sheet cutting and welding. CHM is used for
manufacture of PCM and other shallow components.

Advantages of NTM

 Ability to machine non-conducting materials like glass, ceramics etc.

 Ability to machine very hard & brittle, heat sensitive work piece materials.
 Ability to cut intricate shapes.
 Accurate shape with good surface finish can be obtained.
 No physical contact between the tool and the workpiece. Hence no tool wear.
 In some processes, machining can be achieved in a single pass.
 High production rates are possible.
 No distortion of thin and fragile parts. No thermal stresses.
 Design changes can be implemented quickly.
 Thin and small size workpiece can be easily machined, which is not possible by conventional
methods due to cutting tool pressure.
 Faster cutting speeds due to high velocity and high temperature.
 Can remove material in very small amounts.
 Most of the processes can be easily automated.
 No burrs are formed (burr - rough surface finish after drilling or cutting.

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Disadvantages of NTM
 Process becomes costlier for complex shapes and very hard materials.
 Abrasives cannot be re-used.
 High pressure and noise demands safety equipments and shielding for human operators.
 High electrical power is consumed.
 Some processes are not environmental friendly.
 In ECM processes, frequent cleaning of equipment is necessary to avoid corrosion of parts
due to electrolytes used.
 Also in ECM, space and floor requirements are higher than conventional machines.
 Handling and disposal of chemicals could be troublesome . Also, difficult to maintain clean
wok environment.
 High temperature and high velocity cause metallurgical alterations (in the microstructure) of
the workpiece material.
 High capital and maintenance cost.
 Complex set up of equipments.
 Requires skilled operator.

Applications of NTM
 Drilling and machining cavities or holes in conducting and non-conducting materials like
glass, ceramics etc.
 Threading of glass and ceramic materials, also engraving of similar kind of materials.
 Cutting of semiconductor materials for electronic applications.
 Hard materials and precious stones such as ruby are successfully machined.
 Used to machine brittle and heat sensitive materials.
 Remove glue and paint from paintings and leather objects.
 CHM is used to thin out walls that have been produced by forging, casting etc.
 Engraving highly intricate details on any metal piece.
 Widely used in aerospace applications to produce turbine blades, nozzle holes etc.
 LBM is used to perform precision micro-machining.
 High strength steel machined by laser beam have applications in car industry and boiler
works.

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 Hard and brittle composite materials like marble, stone and concrete having wide
applications in the field of civil structures can be successfully cut with laser beam.
 Laser marking systems are used in cosmetics, food & beverage, optical industries etc.
 Re-sharpening of cutting tools.

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MODULE 2 - USM , AJM , WJM

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to erode holes or
cavities on hard or brittle workpiece by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical motion
and an abrasive slurry. USM offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle
materials such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and increasing complex
operations to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles. It is therefore used extensively in
machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to machine by traditional manufacturing
processes.
Ultrasonic Machining is a non-traditional process, in which abrasives contained in a slurry are
driven against the work by a tool oscillating at low amplitude (25-100 μm) and high frequency
(15-30 KHz). The process was first developed in 1950s and was originally used for finishing
EDM surfaces. The basic process is that a ductile and tough tool is pushed against the work with
a constant force. A constant stream of abrasive slurry passes between the tool and the work (gap
is 25-40 μm) to provide abrasives and carry away chips. The majority of the cutting action comes
from an ultrasonic (cyclic) force applied.
The basic components to the cutting action are believed to be,
 brittle fracture caused by impact of abrasive grains due to the tool vibration;
 cavitation induced erosion;
 chemical erosion caused by slurry.

USM working principle

 Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the
brittle work material.
 Other than this brittle failure of the work material due to indentation some material removal
may occur due to free flowing impact of the abrasives against the work material and related
solid-solid impact erosion,
 Tool’s vibration – indentation by the abrasive grits.
 Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the
brittle work material.

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 Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the
brittle work material.
 Other than this brittle failure of the work material due to indentation some material removal
may occur due to free flowing impact of the abrasives against the work material and related
solid-solid impact erosion,
 Tool’s vibration – indentation by the abrasive grits.
 During indentation, due to Hertzian contact stresses, cracks would develop just below the
contact site, then as indentation progresses the cracks would propagate due to increase in
stress and ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work material under each individual
interaction site between the abrasive grits and the workpiece.
 The tool material should be such that indentation by the abrasive grits does not lead to
brittle failure.
 Thus the tools are made of tough, strong and ductile materials like steel, stainless steel and
other ductile metallic alloys.

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USM Machine

The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press.

However, it has additional features to carry out USM of brittle work material. The work piece is
mounted on a vice, which can be located at the desired position under the tool using a 2 axis
table. The table can further be lowered or raised to accommodate work of different thickness.

The typical elements of an USM are

 Slurry delivery and return system
 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining
 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration
 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to the required
amplitude of 15 – 50 μm and accommodates the tool at its tip.

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Working of horn as mechanical amplifier of amplitude of vibration

The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable
signal generator followed by power amplifier. The transducer for USM works on the following
principle
 Piezoelectric effect
 Magnetostrictive effect
 Electrostrictive effect

Magnetostrictive transducers are most popular and robust amongst all. Figure shows a typical
magnetostrictive transducer along with horn. The horn or concentrator is a wave guide, which
amplifies and concentrates the vibration to the tool from the transducer.

The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like

 Tapered or conical
 Exponential
 Stepped

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Machining of tapered or stepped horn is much easier as compared to the exponential one. Figure
shows different horns used in USM

PROCESS VARIABLES:
 Amplitude of vibration (ao ) – 15 – 50 μm
 Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz
 Feed force (F) – related to tool dimensions
 Feed pressure (p)
 Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm
 Abrasive materials – Al2 O3 , SiC, B4 C, Boronsilicarbide, Diamond
 Flow strength of work material
 Flow strength of the tool material
 Contact area of the tool – A
 Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C

Applications of USM
 Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics,
carbides etc.
 Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.
 Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

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Advantages of USM
USM process is a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes in the microstructures,
chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress free machined
surfaces.
The main advantages are :
 Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity
 Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials
 Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher structural integrity.
 USM does not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface.

Disadvantages of USM
 USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal rates than traditional
fabrication processes.
 Tool wears fast in USM.
 Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

Introduction

Abrasive water jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which the water jet
contains abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or aluminium oxide in order to increase the
material removal rate above that of water jet machining. Almost any type of material ranging
from hard brittle materials such as ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials such as
foam and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The narrow cutting stream and
computer controlled movement enables this process to produce parts accurately and efficiently.
This machining process is especially ideal for cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or
thermal cut. Metallic, non-metallic and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can
be cut by this process. This process is particularly suitable for heat sensitive materials that cannot
be machined by processes that produce heat while machining.

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Working principle

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material at
a high velocity. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. The high velocity
stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its
kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled
manner onto the work material, so that the distance between the nozzle and the work piece and
the impingement angle can be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the
material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material.

AJM Equipment

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In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure of around 5 bar
is used as the carrier gas. Figure also shows the other major parts of the AJM system. Gases like
CO2 , N2 can also be used as carrier gas which may directly be issued from a gas cylinder.
Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas. The carrier gas is first passed through a pressure
regulator to obtain the desired working pressure. To remove any oil vapour or particulate
contaminant the same is passed through a series of filters. Then the carrier gas enters a closed
chamber known as the mixing chamber. The abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper
through a metallic sieve. The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass
flow rate of abrasive entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and
its frequency. The abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining chamber
via an electro-magnetic on-off valve. The machining enclosure is essential to contain the
abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-friendly manner. The machining is carried out
as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued from the nozzle onto a work piece
traversing under the jet.

Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics.

The process parameters are listed below:
 Abrasive Material
o Al2 O3 / SiC / glass beads
o Shape – irregular / spherical
o Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
o Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min
 Carrier gas
o Composition – Air, CO2 , N2
3
o Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m

o Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s

o Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
o Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
 Abrasive Jet
o Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
o Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas
o Stand-off distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm
o Impingement Angle – 600 ~ 900

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 Nozzle
o Material – WC / sapphire
o Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
o Life – 10 ~ 300 hours

The important machining characteristics in AJM are

3
 The material removal rate (MRR) mm /min or gm/min

 The machining accuracy

 The life of the nozzle

Effect of process parameters MRR

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Parameters of Abrasive Jet Maching (AJM) are factors that influence its Metal Removal Rate
(MRR). In a machining process, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) is the volume of metal removed
from a given work piece in unit time. The following are some of the important process
parameters of abrasive jet machining:
1. Abrasive mass flow rate
2. Nozzle tip distance
3. Gas Pressure
4. Velocity of abrasive particles
5. Mixing ratio
6. Abrasive grain size

Abrasive mass flow rate:

Mass flow rate of the abrasive particles is a major process parameter that influences the metal
removal rate in abrasive jet machining.

In AJM, mass flow rate of the gas (or air) in abrasive jet is inversely proportional to the mass
flow rate of the abrasive particles.

Due to this fact, when continuously increasing the abrasive mass flow rate, Metal Removal Rate
(MRR) first increases to an optimum value (because of increase in number of abrasive particles
hitting the work piece) and then decreases.

However, if the mixing ratio is kept constant, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) uniformly increases
with increase in abrasive mass flow rate.

Nozzle tip distance:

Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) is the gap provided between the nozzle tip and the work piece. Up to
a certain limit, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) increases with increase in nozzle tip distance. After
that limit, MRR remains constant to some extent and then decreases. In addition to metal
removal rate, nozzle tip distance influences the shape and diameter of cut. For optimal
performance, a nozzle tip distance of 0.25 to 0.75 mm is provided.

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Gas pressure:
Air or gas pressure has a direct impact on metal removal rate. In abrasive jet machining, metal
removal rate is directly proportional to air or gas pressure.

Velocity of abrasive particles:

Whenever the velocity of abrasive particles is increased, the speed at which the abrasive particles
hit the work piece is increased. Because of this reason, in abrasive jet machining, metal removal
rate increases with increase in velocity of abrasive particles.

Mixing ratio:
Mixing ratio is a ratio that determines the quality of the air-abrasive mixture in Abrasive Jet
Machining (AJM). It is the ratio between the mass flow rate of abrasive particles and the mass
flow rate of air (or gas). When mixing ratio is increased continuously, metal removal rate first
increases to some extent and then decreases.

Abrasive grain size:

Size of the abrasive particle determines the speed at which metal is removed. If smooth and fine
surface finish is to be obtained, abrasive particle with small grain size is used. If metal has to be
removed rapidly, abrasive particle with large grain size is used.

Applications
 Abrasive water jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and electronics industries.
 In aerospace industries, parts such as titanium bodies for military aircrafts, engine
 Components (aluminium, titanium, heat resistant alloys), aluminium body parts and interior
cabin parts are made using abrasive water jet cutting.
 In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, trunk liners, door panels) and
fibre glass body components and bumpers are made by this process. Similarly, in electronics
industries, circuit boards and cable stripping are made by abrasive water jet cutting.

Advantages of abrasive water jet cutting

 In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required
 No cutter induced distortion
 Low cutting forces on workpieces
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 Little to no cutting burr

 Typical finish 125-250 microns
 Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
 Limited tooling requirements
 No heat affected zone
 Localises structural changes
 No cutter induced metal contamination
 Eliminates thermal distortion
 No slag or cutting dross
 Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.

Limitations of abrasive water jet cutting

 Cannot drill flat bottom
 Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
 Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for rough cutting.
 The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost and high
 Noise levels during operation.

WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)

Introduction

Abrasive water jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which the water jet
contains abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or aluminium oxide in order to increase the
material removal rate above that of water jet machining. Almost any type of material ranging
from hard brittle materials such as ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials such as
foam and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The narrow cutting stream and
computer controlled movement enables this process to produce parts accurately and efficiently.
This machining process is especially ideal for cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or
thermal cut. Metallic, non-metallic and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can
be cut by this process. This process is particularly suitable for heat sensitive materials that cannot
be machined by processes that produce heat while machining.
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The schematic of abrasive water jet cutting is shown in Figure which is similar to water jet
cutting apart from some more features underneath the jewel; namely abrasive, guard and mixing
tube. In this process, high velocity water exiting the jewel creates a vacuum which sucks
abrasive from the abrasive line, which mixes with the water in the mixing tube to form a high
velocity beam of abrasives.

Figure: Abrasive water jet machining

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MODULE 3 - ECM , CHM

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

Introduction

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a metal-removal process based on the principle of reverse

electroplating. In this process, particles travel from the anodic material (workpiece) toward the
cathodic material (machining tool). A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated
material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool. The cavity produced is the female
mating image of the tool shape.

ECM process

Similar to EDM, the workpiece hardness is not a factor, making ECM suitable for machining
difficult-to –machine materials. Difficult shapes can be made by this process on materials
regardless of their hardness. A schematic representation of ECM process is shown in Figure 8.
The ECM tool is positioned very close to the workpiece and a low voltage, high amperage DC
current is passed between the workpiece and electrode. Some of the shapes made by ECM
process is shown in Figure.
Material removal rate, MRR, in electrochemical machining:
3
MRR = C .I. h (cm /min)
3
C : specific (material) removal rate (e.g., 0.2052 cm /amp-min for nickel);

I : current (amp); h: current efficiency (90–100%)

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The rates at which metal can electrochemically remove are in proportion to the current passed
through the electrolyte and the elapsed time for that operation. Many factors other than current
influence the rate of machining. These involve electrolyte type, rate of electrolyte flow, and
some other process conditions.

Parts produced by ECM process

Advantages of ECM
 The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.
 No tool wear during ECM process.
 Fragile parts can be machined easily as there is no stress involved.
 ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.
 High surface finish (up to 25 µm in) can be achieved by ECM process.
 Complex geometrical shapes in high-strength materials particularly in the aerospace industry
for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts and nozzles can be machined
repeatedly and accurately.
 Deep holes can be made by this process.

Limitations of ECM
 ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners or flat bottoms because of the tendency
for the electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles.

 ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the high equipment costs, is usually used
primarily for highly specialised applications.

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CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM)

Introduction

Chemical machining (CM) is the controlled dissolution of workpiece material (etching) by

means of a strong chemical reagent (etchant). In CM material is removed from selected areas of
workpiece by immersing it in a chemical reagents or etchants; such as acids and alkaline
solutions. Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action, as occurs in corrosion
or chemical dissolution of a metal. This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch
all exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the material removal may be only
0.0025–0.1 mm/min. The basic process takes many forms: chemical milling of pockets, contours,
overall metal removal, chemical blanking for etching through thin sheets; photochemical
machining (pcm) for etching by using of photosensitive resists in microelectronics; chemical or
electrochemical polishing where weak chemical reagents are used (sometimes with remote
electric assist) for polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining where a single chemically
active jet is used. A schematic of chemical machining process is shown in Figure.

(a) Schematic of chemical machining process (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity
by chemical machining (Kalpakjain & Schmid)

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CHEMICAL MILLING

In chemical milling, shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets, forgings and extrusions. The
two key materials used in chemical milling process are etchant and maskant. Etchants are acid or
alkaline solutions maintained within controlled ranges of chemical composition and temperature.
Maskants are specially designed elastomeric products that are hand strippable and chemically
resistant to the harsh etchants.

Steps in chemical milling

 Residual stress relieving: If the part to be machined has residual stresses from the previous
processing, the stresses should be relieved inorder to prevent warping after chemical milling.
 Preparing: The surfaces are degreased and cleaned thoroughly to ensure both good adhesion
of the masking material and the uniform material removal.
 Masking: Masking material is applied (coating or protecting areas not to be etched).
 Etching: The exposed surfaces are machined chemically with etchants.
 Demasking: After machining, the parts should be washed thoroughly to prevent further
reactions with or exposure to any etchant residues. Then the rest of the masking material is
removed and the part is cleaned and inspected.

Applications:
Chemical milling is used in the aerospace industry to remove shallow layers of material from
large aircraft components missile skin panels (Figure ), extruded parts for airframes

Figure : Missile skin-panel section

contoured by chemical milling to
improve the stiffness- to- weight
ratio of the part (Kalpakjain & Schmid)

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MODULE 4 - EDM , PAM

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
Introduction
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-traditional machining
processes. The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as metal
cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilises thermoelectric process to
erode undesired materials from the workpiece by a series of discrete electrical sparks between
the workpiece and the electrode. A picture of EDM machine in operation is shown in Figure.

Figure : Electrical discharge machine

The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove the softer
material whereas non-traditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark or
thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shape. So, the hardness of
the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process. A schematic of an EDM process
is shown in Figure 2, where the tool and the workpiece are immersed in a dielectric fluid.

Working principle of EDM

As shown in Figure 1, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across the
narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece. This high voltage induces an electric field
in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece. This
cause conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of strongest
electrical field. When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is
sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the
dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface. The volume of
-6 -6 3
the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10 to 10 mm .

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The material removal rate, MRR, in EDM is calculated by the following formula:
1.23 3
MRR = 40 I / Tm (cm /min)

where, I is the current amp,

0
Tm is the melting temperature of workpiece in C

Figure: Schematic of EDM process

EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor bank,
across a small gap between the tool (cathode) and the workpiece (anode) typically in the order of
50 volts/10amps.

Dielectric fluids
Dielectric fluids used in EDM process are hydrocarbon oils, kerosene and deionised water. The
functions of the dielectric fluid are to:
 Act as an insulator between the tool and the workpiece.
 Act as coolant.
 Act as a flushing medium for the removal of the chips.
The electrodes for EDM process usually are made of graphite, brass, copper and copper-tungsten
alloys. Design considerations for EDM process are as follows:
 Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided.
 The surface smoothness value should not be specified too fine.
 Rough cut should be done by other machining process. Only finishing operation should be
done in this process as MRR for this process is low.
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Wire EDM
EDM, primarily, exists commercially in the form of die-sinking machines and wire-cutting
machines (Wire EDM). The concept of wire EDM is shown in Figure 4. In this process, a slowly
moving wire travels along a prescribed path and removes material from the workpiece. Wire
EDM uses electro-thermal mechanisms to cut electrically conductive materials. The material is
removed by a series of discrete discharges between the wire electrode and the workpiece in the
presence of dieelectirc fluid, which creates a path for each discharge as the fluid becomes ionized
in the gap. The area where discharge takes place is heated to extremely high temperature, so that
the surface is melted and removed. The removed particles are flushed away by the flowing
dielectric fluids.
The wire EDM process can cut intricate components for the electric and aerospace industries.
This non-traditional machining process is widely used to pattern tool steel for die manufacturing.

Wire erosion of an extrusion die

The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum. Zinc or brass coated
wires are also used extensively in this process. The wire used in this process should posses high
tensile strength and good electrical conductivity. Wire EDM can also employ to cut cylindrical
objects with high precision. The sparked eroded extrusion dies are presented in Figure.

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Sparked eroded extrusion dies

This process is usually used in conjunction with CNC and will only work when a part is to be cut
completely through. The melting temperature of the parts to be machined is an important
parameter for this process rather than strength or hardness. The surface quality and MRR of the
machined surface by wire EDM will depend on different machining parameters such as applied
peak current, and wire materials.

Application of EDM
The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine materials. Parts with
complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging, press tools, extrusion dies, difficult internal
shapes for aerospace and medical applications can be made by EDM process. Some of the shapes
made by EDM process are shown in Figure.

Figure: Difficult internal parts made by EDM process

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Advantages of EDM
The main advantages of DM are:
 By this process, materials of any hardness can be machined;
 No burrs are left in machined surface;
 One of the main advantages of this process is that thin and fragile/brittle components can be
machined without distortion;
 Complex internal shapes can be machined

Limitations of EDM
The main limitations of this process are:
 This process can only be employed in electrically conductive materials;
 Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow compared to conventional
machining processes;
 Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur;
 Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.

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MODULE 5 - LBM , EBM

LASER–BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

Introduction
Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-energy,
coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non-metallic
workpieces. Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and mark. LBM is particularly suitable for
making accurately placed holes. A schematic of laser beam machining is shown in Figure.

Different types of lasers are available for manufacturing operations which are as follows:
 CO2 (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas laser that emits light in the infrared region. It
can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave mode.
 Nd:YAG: Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet (Y3 Al5 O12 ) laser is a solid-state
laser which can deliver light through a fibre-optic cable. It can provide up to 50 kW power in
pulsed mode and 1 kW in continuous-wave mode.

Figure: Laser beam machining schematic

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Laser beam cutting (drilling)

 In drilling, energy transferred (e.g., via a Nd:YAG laser) into the workpiece melts the
material at the point of contact, which subsequently changes into a plasma and leaves the
region.

 A gas jet (typically, oxygen) can further facilitate this phase transformation and departure of
material removed.

 Laser drilling should be targeted for hard materials and hole geometries that are difficult to
achieve with other methods.

A typical SEM micrograph hole drilled by laser beam machining process employed in making a
hole is shown in Figure

rd
Figure: SEM micrograph hole drilled in 250 micro meter thick Silicon Nitride with 3
harmonic Nd: YAG laser

Laser beam cutting (milling)

 A laser spot reflected onto the surface of a workpiece travels along a prescribed trajectory
and cuts into the material.
 Continuous-wave mode (CO 2) gas lasers are very suitable for laser cutting providing
high-average power, yielding high material-removal rates, and smooth cutting surfaces.

Advantage of laser cutting

 No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move any path.
 The process is stress less allowing very fragile materials to be laser cut without any support.
 Very hard and abrasive material can be cut.
 Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process.
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 It is a cost effective and flexible process.

 High accuracy parts can be machined.
 No cutting lubricants required
 No tool wear
 Narrow heat effected zone

Limitations of laser cutting

 Uneconomic on high volumes compared to stamping
 Limitations on thickness due to taper
 High capital cost
 High maintenance cost
 Assist or cover gas required

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