JAVA PROGRAMMING UNIT-1

History of Java:
Before starting to learn Java, let us plunge into its history and see how the language
originated. In 1990, Sun Microsystems Inc. (US) was conceived a project to develop software
for consumer electronic devices that could be controlled by a remote. This project was called
Stealth Project but later its name was changed to Green Project.
In January of 1991, Bill Joy, James Gosling, Mike Sheradin, Patrick Naughton, and
several others met in Aspen, Colorado to discuss this' project. Mike Sheradin was to focus on
business development; Patrick Naughton was to begin work on the graphics system; and
James Gosling was to identify the proper programming language for the project. Gosling
thought C and C++ could be used to develop the project.
But the problem he faced with them is that they were system dependent languages and
hence could not be used on various processors, which the electronic devices might use. So he
started developing a new language, which was completely system independent. This language
was initially called Oak. Since this name was registered by some other company, later it was
changed to Java.
Why the name Java? James Gosling and his team members were consuming a lot of
tea while developing this language. They felt that they were able to develop a better language
because of the good quality tea they had consumed. So the tea also had its own role in
developing this language and hence, they fixed the name for the language as Java. Thus, the
symbol for Java is tea cup and saucer.

 James Gosling was born on May 19, 1955.

 James Gosling received a Bachelor of Science from the
University of Calgary and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Carnegie
Mellon University. He built a multi-processor version of Unix for
a 16-way computer system while at Carnegie Mellon University,
before joining Sun Microsystems.

By September of 1994, Naughton and Jonathan Payne started writing WebRunner-a

Java-based Web browser, which was later renamed as HotJava. By October 1994, HotJava
was stable and was demonstrated to Sun executives. HotJava was the fIrst browser, having
the capabilities of executing applets, which are programs designed to run dynamically on
Internet. This time, Java's potential in the context of the World Wide Web was recognized.
Sun formally announced Java and HotJava at SunWorld conference in 1995. Soon
after, Netscape Inc. announced that it would incorporate Java support in its browser Netscape
Navigator. Later, Microsoft also announced that they would support Java in their Internet
Explorer Web browser, further solidifying Java's role in the World Wide Web. On January
23rd 1996, JDK 1.0 version was released. Today more than 4 million developers use Java
and more than 1.7 5 billion devices run Java. Thus, Java pervaded the world.

Features of Java:
 Simple: Java is a simple programming language. Rather than saying that this is the
feature of Java, we can say that this is the design aim of Java. JavaSoft (the team who
developed Java is called with this name) people maintained the same syntax of C and
C++ in Java, so that a programmer who knows C or C++ will find Java already familiar.
 Object-oriented: Java is an object oriented programming language. This means Java
programs use objects and classes. What is an object? An object is anything that really
exists in the world and can be distinguished from others.

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 Distributed: Information is distributed on various computers on a network. Using Java,

we can write programs, which capture information and distribute it to the clients. This is
possible because Java can handle the protocols like TCP/IP and UDP.
 Robust: Robust means strong. Java programs are strong and they don't crash easily like
a C or C++ program. There are two reasons -for this. Firstly, Java has got excellent
inbuilt exception handling features.
 Secure: Security problems like eavesdropping, tampering, impersonation, and virus
threats can be eliminated or minimized by using Java on Internet.
 System independence: Java's byte code is not machine dependent. It can be run on any
machine with any processor and any operating system.
 Portability: If a program yields the same result on every machine, then that program is
called portable. Java programs are portable. This is the result of Java's System
independence nature.
 Interpreted: Java programs are compiled to generate the byte code. This byte code can
be downloaded and interpreted by the interpreter in JVM. If we take any other
language, only an interpreter or a compiler is used to execute the programs. But in Java,
we use .both compiler and interpreter for the execution.
 High Performance: The-problem with interpreter inside the JVM is that it is slow.
Because of this, Java programs used to run slow. To overcome this problem, along with
the interpreter, JavaSoft people have introduced JIT (Just In Time) compiler, which
enhances the speed of execution. So now in JVM, both interpreter and JIT compiler
work together to run the program.
 Multithreaded: A thread represents an individual process to execute a group of
statements. JVM uses several threads to execute different blocks of code. Creating
multiple threads is called 'multithreaded'.
 Scalability: Java platform can be implemented on a wide range of computers with
varying levels of resources-from embedded devices to mainframe computers. This is
possible because Java is compact and platform independent.
 Dynamic: Before the development of Java, only static text used to be displayed-in the
browser. But when James Gosling demonstrated an animated atomic molecule where
the rays are moving and stretching, the viewers are dumbstruck. This animation was
done using an applet program, which are the dynamically interacting programs on
Internet.
Java Virtual Machine:

Fig: Components in JVM Architecture

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First of all, the .java program is converted into a .class file consisting of byte code
instructions by the java compiler. Remember, this java compiler is outside the JVM: Now this
.class file is given to the JVM. In JVM, there is a module (or program) called class loader
sub system, which performs the following functions:
 First of all, it loads the .class file into memory.
 Then it verifies whether all byte code instructions are proper or not. If it finds any
instruction suspicious, the execution is rejected immediately.
 If the byte instructions are proper, then it allocates necessary memory to execute the
program.
This memory is divided into 5 parts, called run time data areas, which contain the data and
results while running the program. These areas are as follows:
 Method area: Method area is the memory block, which stores the class code, code of
the variables, and code of the methods in the Java program. (Method means functions
written in a class)
 Heap: This is the area where objects are created. Whenever JVM loads a class, a
method and a heap area are immediately created in it.
 Java Stacks: Method code is stored on Method area. But while running a method, it
needs some more memory to store the data and results. This memory is allotted on Java
stacks.
 PC (Program Counter) registers: These are the registers (memory areas), which
contain memory address of the instructions of the methods. If there are 3 methods, 3 PC
registers will be used to track the instructions of the methods.
 Native method stacks: Java methods are executed on Java stacks. Similarly, native
methods (for example C/C++ functions) are executed on Native method stacks. To
execute the native methods, generally native method libraries (for example C/C++
header files) are required. These header files are located and connected to JVM by a
program, called Native method interface.
Execution engine contains interpreter and JIT (Just In Time) compiler, which are
responsible for converting the byte code instructions into machine code so that the processor
will execute them. Most of the JVM implementations use both the interpreter and JIT
compiler simultaneously to convert the byte code. This technique is also called adaptive
optimizer. Generally, any language (like C/C++, Fortran, COBOL, etc.) will use either an
interpreter or a compiler to translate the source code into a machine code. But in JVM, we got
interpreter and JIT compiler both working at the same time on byte code to translate it into
machine code.
Java Program Structure:
 Documentation Section
 Package Statement
 Import Statements
 Interface Statement
 Class Definition
 Main Method Class
o Main Method Definition

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It comprises of a comment line which gives the names program, the

Documentation programmer’s name and some other brief details. In addition to the 2
Section other styles of comments i.e. /**/ and //, Java also provides another
style of comment i.e. /**….*/
The first statement allowed in Java file is the Package statement
Package which is used to declare a package name and it informs the compiler
statement that the classes defined within the program belong to this package.
package package_name;
The next is the number of import statements, which is equivalent to
Import #include statement in C++.
statements Example:
import calc.add;

Interfaces are like class that includes a group of method declarations.

Interface
This is an optional section and can be used only when programmers
statement
want to implement multiple inheritance(s) within a program.
A Java program may contain multiple class definitions. Classes are
Class
the main and important elements of any Java program. These classes
Definition
are used to plot the objects of real world problem.
Since every Java stand alone program requires a main method as the
Main Method starting point of the program. This class is essentially a part of Java
Class program. A simple Java program contains only this part of the
program.

Sample Code of Java “Hello Java” Program

Example:
// Hello java program
import java.lang.System;
import java.lang.String;
class Hello
{
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello Java");
}
}
Program Output:
Hello Java
Comments:
 Single line comments: These comments are for marking a SL'1gle line as a comment.
These comments start with double slash symbol / / and after this, whatever is written
till the end of the line is taken as a comment. For example,
// This is single line comment

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 Multi-line comments: These comments are used for representing several lines as
comments. These comments start with / * and end with * /. In between / * and * /,
whatever is written is treated as a comment. For example,
/* This is Multi line comment,
Line 2 is here
Line 3 is here */
Importing Classes:
In C/C++ compiler to include the header file <stdio.h>. What is a header file? A
header file is a file, which contains the code of functions that will be needed in a program. In
other words, to be able to use any function in a program, we must first include the header file
containing that function's code in our program. For example, <stdio.h> is the header me that
contains functions, like printf (), scanf (), puts (), gets (), etc. So if we want to use any of
these functions, we should include this header file in our C/C++ program.
A similar but a more efficient mechanism, available in case of Java, is that of
importing classes. First, we should decide which classes are 'needed in our program.
Generally, programmers are interested in two things:
 Using the classes by creating objects in them.
 Using the methods (functions) of the classes.
In Java, methods are available in classes or interfaces. What is an interface? An interface
is similar to a class that contains some methods. Of course, there is a lot of difference
between an interface and a class, which we will discuss later. The main point to be kept in
mind, at this stage, is that a class or an interface contains methods. A group of classes and
interfaces are contained in a package. A package is a kind of directory that contains a group
of related Classes and interfaces and Java has several such packages in its library,

Java library
|
Packages
|
Classes and interfaces
|
Methods

In our first Java program, we are using two classes namely, System and String. These
classes belong to a package called java .lang (here lang represents language). So these two
classes must be imported into our program, as shown below:
import java.lang.System;
import java.lang.String;
Whenever we want to import several classes of the same package, we need not write
several import statements, as shown above; instead, we can write a single statement as:
import java.lang.*;
Here, * means all the classes and interfaces of that package, i.e. java.lang, are
imported made available) into our program. In import statement, the package name that we
have written acts like a reference to the JVM to search for the classes there. JVM will not
copy any code from the classes or packages. On the other hand, when a class name or a

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method name is used, JVM goes to the Java library, executes the code there, comes back, and
substitutes the result in that place of the program. Thus, the Java program size will not be
increased.
After importing the classes into the program, the next step is to write a class, Since
Java is purely an object-oriented programming language and we cannot write a Java program
without having at least one class or object. So, it is mandatory that every Java program should
have at least one class in it, How to write a class? We should use class keyword for this
purpose and then write the class name.
class Hello{
statements;
}
A class code starts with a { and ends with a }. We know that a class or an object
contains variables and methods (functions), 'So we can create any number of variables and
methods inside the class. This is our first program, so we will create only one method, i.e.
compulsory, main () method.
The main method is written as follows:
public static void main(String args[ ])
 Here args[ ] is the array name and it is of String type. This means that it can store a
group of strings. Remember, this array can also store a group of numbers but in the
form of strings only. The values passed to main( ) method are called arguments. These
arguments are stored into args[ ] array, so the name args[ ] is generally used for it.
 If a method is not meant to return any value, then we should write void before that
method's name. void means no value. main() method does not return any value, so void
should be written before that method's name.
 static methods are the methods, which can be called and executed without creating the
objects. Since we want to call main()method without using an object, we should
declare main( ) method as static. Then, how is the main( ) method called and executed?
The answer is by using the classname.methodname(). JVM calls main() method
using its class name as Hello.main() at the time of running the program.
 JVM is a program written by JavaSoft people (Java development team) and main() is
the method written by us. Since, main() method should be available to the JVM, it
should be declared as public. If we don't declare main() method as public, then. It
doesn't make itself available to JVM and JVM cannot execute it:
So, the main()method should always be written as shown here:
public static void main(String args[ ])
If at all we want to make any changes, we can interchange public and static and write it as
follows:
static public void main(String args[])
Or, we can use a different name for the string type array and write it as:
public static void main(String x[])
Q) When main() method is written without String args[args]:
public static void main ()
Ans: The code will compile but JVM cannot run the code because it cannot
recognize the main () method as the method from where it should start
execution of the Java program. Remember JVM always looks for main () method
with string type array as parameter.

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print method in java:

In Java, print() method is used to display something on the monitor. So, we can
write it as:
print(“Welcome to java”);
But this is not the correct way of calling a method in Java. A method should be called by
using objectname .methodname( ). So, to call print() method, we should create an object to
the class to which print() method belongs. print() method belongs to PrintStream class.
So, we should call print() method by creating an object to PrintStream class as:
PrintStream obj.print(“Welcome to java”);
But as it is not possible to create the object to PrintStream class directly, an alternative is
given to us, i.e. System.out. Here, System is the class name and out is a static variable in
System class. Out is called a field in System class. When we call this field, a PrintStream class
object will be created internally. So, we can call the print() method as shown below:

System.out.print(“Welcome to java”);
System.out gives the PrintStream class object. This object, by default, represents the standard
output device, i.e. the monitor. So, the string "Welcome to Java" will be sent to the monitor.
class Hello
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.print(“Welcome to java”);
}
}
Save the above program in a text editor like Notepad with the name Hello.java. Now, go to
System prompt and compile it using javac compiler as:
javac Hello.java
The compiler generates a file called Hello.class that contains byte code instructions. This file
is executed by calling the JVM as:
java Hello
Then, we can see the result.
Note: In fact, JVM is written in C language.
Output:
C:\> javac Hello.java
C:\> java Hello
Welcome to Java
Program: Write a program to find the sum of addition of two numbers.
class Add
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x, y;
x = 27;
y = 35;
int z = x + y;
System.out.print(“The Sum is “+z);
}
}

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Variables:
A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can manipulate. Each
variable in Java has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of the variable's
memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the set of operations
that can be applied to the variable.
You must declare all variables before they can be used. Following is the basic form
of a variable declaration −
DataType variable [ = value][, variable [ = value] ...] ;
Here DataType is one of Java's datatypes and variable is the name of the variable. To
declare more than one variable of the specified type, you can use a comma-separated list.
Following are valid examples of variable declaration and initialization in Java −
Example
int a, b, c; // Declares three ints, a, b, and c.
int a = 10, b = 10; // Example of initialization
byte B = 22; // initializes a byte type variable B.
double pi = 3.14159; // declares and assigns a value of PI.
char a = 'a'; // the char variable a is initialized with value 'a'

There are three kinds of variables in Java −

a) Local variables
b) Instance variables
c) Class/Static variables
a) Local Variables
 Local variables are declared in methods, constructors, or blocks.
 Local variables are created when the method, constructor or block is entered and the
variable will be destroyed once it exits the method, constructor, or block.
 Access modifiers cannot be used for local variables.
 Local variables are visible only within the declared method, constructor, or block.
 Local variables are implemented at stack level internally.
 There is no default value for local variables, so local variables should be declared and
an initial value should be assigned before the first use.
Example 1
Here, age is a local variable. This is defined inside pupAge() method and its scope is limited
to only this method.
class Test {
void pupAge( ) {
int age = 0;
age = age + 7;
System.out.println("Puppy age is : " + age);
}

public static void main(String args[]) {

Test test = new Test();
test.pupAge();
}
}
This will produce the following result −
Puppy age is: 7

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b) Instance Variables
 Instance variables are declared in a class, but outside a method, constructor or any
block.
 When a space is allocated for an object in the heap, a slot for each instance variable
value is created.
 Instance variables hold values that must be referenced by more than one method,
constructor or block, or essential parts of an object's state that must be present
throughout the class.
 Instance variables can be declared in class level before or after use.
 Access modifiers can be given for instance variables.
 The instance variables are visible for all methods, constructors and block in the class.
Normally, it is recommended to make these variables private (access level). However,
visibility for subclasses can be given for these variables with the use of access
modifiers.
 Instance variables have default values. For numbers, the default value is 0, for
Booleans it is false, and for object references it is null. Values can be assigned during
the declaration or within the constructor.
 Instance variables can be accessed directly by calling the variable name inside the
class. However, within static methods (when instance variables are given
accessibility), they should be called using the fully qualified
name. ObjectReference.VariableName.
Example 1
import java.io.*;
public class Employee {
public String name;
public Employee (String empName) {
name = empName;
}
public void printEmp() {
System.out.println("name : " + name );
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee empOne = new Employee("Sai krishna");
empOne.printEmp();
}
}
This will produce the following result −
Output
name : Sai krishna

c) Class/Static Variables
 Class variables also known as static variables are declared with the static keyword in
a class, but outside a method, constructor or a block.
 There would only be one copy of each class variable per class, regardless of how
many objects are created from it.
 Static variables are rarely used other than being declared as constants. Constants are
variables that are declared as public/private, final, and static. Constant variables
never change from their initial value.

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 Static variables are stored in the static memory. It is rare to use static variables other
than declared final and used as either public or private constants.
 Static variables are created when the program starts and destroyed when the program
stops.
 Visibility is similar to instance variables. However, most static variables are declared
public since they must be available for users of the class.
 Default values are same as instance variables. Static variables can be accessed by
calling with the class name ClassName.VariableName.

Example 1
import java.io.*;
public class Employee {
private static double salary;
public static void main(String args[]) {
salary = 1000;
System.out.println("average salary:" + salary);
}
}
This will produce the following result −
average salary:1000

Identifiers:
Identifiers are the names of variables, methods, classes, packages and interfaces. In the Hello
program, Hello, String, args, main and print are identifiers. There are a few rules and
conventions related to the naming of variables.
The rules are:
1. Java variable names are case sensitive. The variable name money is not the same
as Money or MONEY.
2. Java variable names must start with a letter, or the $ or _ character.
3. After the first character in a Java variable name, the name can also contain numbers
(in addition to letters, the $, and the _ character).
4. Variable names cannot be equal to reserved key words in Java. For instance, the
words int or forare reserved words in Java. Therefore you cannot name your
variables int or for.
Here are a few valid Java variable name examples:
myvar myVar MYVAR _myVar
$myVar myVar1 myVar_1
Data types:
Based on the data type of a variable, the operating system allocates memory and
decides what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning different data
types to variables, you can store integers, decimals, or characters in these variables.
There are two data types available in Java −
a) Primitive Data Types
b) Reference/Object Data Types
a) Primitive Data Types
There are eight primitive datatypes supported by Java. Primitive datatypes are
predefined by the language and named by a keyword. Let us now look into the eight
primitive data types in detail.

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Integer Data Types: Float Data Types:

Data Type Memory Size Data Type Memory Size
byte 1 byte float 4 byte
short 2 bytes double 8 bytes
int 4 bytes
long 8 bytes
Character Data Types:
The Character Data type is having 2 bytes of memory size.
String Data Types:
A String represents a group of characters, like New Delhi, AP123, etc. The simplest way to
create a String is by storing a group of characters into a String type variable as:
String str=”New Delhi”;
Now, the String type variable str contains "New Delhi". Note that any string written directly
in a program should be enclosed by using double quotes.
There is a class with the name String in Java, where several methods are provided to
perform different operations on strings. Any string is considered as an object of String class.
b) Reference Datatypes
 Reference variables are created using defined constructors of the classes. They are used
to access objects. These variables are declared to be of a specific type that cannot be
changed. For example, Employee, Puppy, etc.
 Class objects and various type of array variables come under reference datatype.
 Default value of any reference variable is null.
 A reference variable can be used to refer any object of the declared type or any
compatible type.
 Example: Animal an = new Animal("giraffe");

Java Literals
A literal is a value that is stored into a variable directly in the program. There are 5
types of literals.
a) Integer Literals
b) Float Literals
c) Character Literals
d) String Literals
e) Boolean Literals
a) Integer Literals
class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int dec = 101; // decimal-form literal
int oct = 0100; // octal-form literal
int hex = 0xFace; // Hexa-decimal form literal

System.out.println(dec); //101
System.out.println(oct); //64
System.out.println(hex); //64206
}
}

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b) Float Literals
class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double d1 = 123.4;
double d2 = 1.234e2; //Same value as d1, but in scientific notation
float f1 = 123.4f;

System.out.println(d1); //123.4
System.out.println(d2); //123.4
System.out.println(f1); //123.4
}
}
c) Character Literals
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
char ch1 = 'a';
char ch2 = '\"';
char ch3 = '\n';
char ch4 = '\u0015';

System.out.println(ch1); // a
System.out.println(ch2); // “
System.out.println(ch3); //
System.out.println(ch4); // §
}
}
d) String Literals
String literals represent objects of String class. For example, Hello, Anil
Kumar, AP1201, etc. will come under string literals, which can be directly stored into
a String object.
e) Boolean Literals
Boolean literals represent only two values-true and false, It means we can
store either true or false into a boolean type variable.

Operators:
Java provides a rich set of operators to manipulate variables. We can divide all the Java
operators into the following groups −
 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Logical Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Misc Operators

The Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way that they
are used in algebra. The following table lists the arithmetic operators −
Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

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Operator Description Example

+ (Addition) Adds values on either side of the operator. A + B will give 30
Subtracts right-hand operand from left-hand
- (Subtraction) A - B will give -10
operand.
Multiplies values on either side of the
* (Multiplication) A * B will give 200
operator.
Divides left-hand operand by right-hand
/ (Division) B / A will give 2
operand.
Divides left-hand operand by right-hand
% (Modulus) B % A will give 0
operand and returns remainder.
++ (Increment) Increases the value of operand by 1. B++ gives 21
-- (Decrement) Decreases the value of operand by 1. B-- gives 19

The Relational Operators

There are following relational operators supported by Java language.
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −
Operator Description Example
Checks if the values of two operands are equal (A == B) is not
== (equal to)
or not, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the values of two operands are equal
!= (not equal to) or not, if values are not equal then condition (A != B) is true.
becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is greater
> (greater than) than the value of right operand, if yes then (A > B) is not true.
condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than
< (less than) the value of right operand, if yes then (A < B) is true.
condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is greater
>= (greater than (A >= B) is not
than or equal to the value of right operand, if
or equal to) true.
yes then condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than
<= (less than or
or equal to the value of right operand, if yes (A <= B) is true.
equal to)
then condition becomes true.

The Bitwise Operators

Java defines several bitwise operators, which can be applied to the integer types,
long, int, short, char, and byte.
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. Assume if a = 60
and b = 13; now in binary format they will be as follows –
a = 0011 1100
b = 0000 1101

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-----------------
a&b = 0000 1100
a|b = 0011 1101
a^b = 0011 0001
~a = 1100 0011

Assume integer variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13 then −

Operator Description Example
Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the (A & B) will give 12
& (bitwise and)
result if it exists in both operands. which is 0000 1100
Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists (A | B) will give 61 which
| (bitwise or)
in either operand. is 0011 1101
^ (bitwise Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is (A ^ B) will give 49 which
XOR) set in one operand but not both. is 0011 0001
(~A ) will give -61 which
~ (bitwise Binary Ones Complement Operator is is 1100 0011 in 2's
compliment) unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits. complement form due to a
signed binary number.
Binary Left Shift Operator. The left
operands value is moved left by the A << 2 will give 240
<< (left shift)
number of bits specified by the right which is 1111 0000
operand.
Binary Right Shift Operator. The left
operands value is moved right by the A >> 2 will give 15 which
>> (right shift)
number of bits specified by the right is 1111
operand.
Shift right zero fill operator. The left
operands value is moved right by the
>>> (zero fill A >>>2 will give 15
number of bits specified by the right
right shift) which is 0000 1111
operand and shifted values are filled up
with zeros.

The Logical Operators

The following table lists the logical operators −
Assume Boolean variables A holds true and variable B holds false, then −
Operator Description Example
&& (logical Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are (A && B) is
and) non-zero, then the condition becomes true. false
Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands
|| (logical or) (A || B) is true
are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the
! (logical !(A && B) is
logical state of its operand. If a condition is true then
not) true
Logical NOT operator will make false.

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The Assignment Operators

Following are the assignment operators supported by Java language –
Operator Description Example
Simple assignment operator. Assigns values from C = A + B will assign
=
right side operands to left side operand. value of A + B into C
Add AND assignment operator. It adds right
C += A is equivalent to
+= operand to the left operand and assign the result to
C=C+A
left operand.
Subtract AND assignment operator. It subtracts
C -= A is equivalent to
-= right operand from the left operand and assign the
C=C–A
result to left operand.
Multiply AND assignment operator. It multiplies
C *= A is equivalent to
*= right operand with the left operand and assign the
C=C*A
result to left operand.
Divide AND assignment operator. It divides left
C /= A is equivalent to
/= operand with the right operand and assign the result
C=C/A
to left operand.
Modulus AND assignment operator. It takes
C %= A is equivalent
%= modulus using two operands and assign the result
to C = C % A
to left operand.
C <<= 2 is same as C =
<<= Left shift AND assignment operator.
C << 2
C >>= 2 is same as C =
>>= Right shift AND assignment operator.
C >> 2
C &= 2 is same as C =
&= Bitwise AND assignment operator.
C&2
bitwise exclusive OR and assignment operator. C ^= 2 is same as C =
^=
C^2
bitwise inclusive OR and assignment operator. C |= 2 is same as C = C
|=
|2

Miscellaneous Operators
There are few other operators supported by Java Language.
Conditional Operator ( ? : )
Conditional operator is also known as the ternary operator. This operator consists of three
operands and is used to evaluate Boolean expressions. The goal of the operator is to decide,
which value should be assigned to the variable. The operator is written as −
variable x = (expression) ? value if true : value if false

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Example
public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]) {

int a, b;
a = 10;
b = (a == 1) ? 20: 30;
System.out.println( "Value of b is : " + b );

b = (a == 10) ? 20: 30;

System.out.println( "Value of b is : " + b );
}
}
This will produce the following result −
Output
Value of b is : 30
Value of b is : 20

instanceof Operator
This operator is used only for object reference variables. The operator checks whether the
object is of a particular type (class type or interface type). instanceof operator is written as −
( Object reference variable ) instanceof (class/interface type)
If the object referred by the variable on the left side of the operator passes the IS-A check for
the class/interface type on the right side, then the result will be true. Following is an example
Example
public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]) {

String name = "James";

// following will return true since name is type of String

boolean result = name instanceof String;
System.out.println( result );
}
}
This will produce the following result −
Output
true
This operator will still return true, if the object being compared is the assignment compatible
with the type on the right. Following is one more example −
Example
class Vehicle {}
public class Car extends Vehicle {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Vehicle a = new Car();
boolean result = a instanceof Car;
System.out.println( result );

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}
}
This will produce the following result −
Output
true
Precedence of Java Operators
Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This affects
how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence than others; for
example, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the addition operator −
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has higher
precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3 * 2 and then adds into 7.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with
the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be
evaluated first.
Category Operator Associativity
Postfix >() [] . (dot operator) Left toright
Unary >++ - - ! ~ Right to left
Multiplicative >* / Left to right
Additive >+ - Left to right
Shift >>> >>> << Left to right
Relational >> >= < <= Left to right
Equality >== != Left to right
Bitwise AND >& Left to right
Bitwise XOR >^ Left to right
Bitwise OR >| Left to right
Logical AND >&& Left to right
Logical OR >|| Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment >= += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Primitive Type Conversion and casting:

Java supports two types of castings – primitive data type casting and reference type
casting. Reference type casting is nothing but assigning one Java object to another object. It
comes with very strict rules and is explained clearly in Object Casting. Now let us go for data
type casting.
Java data type casting comes with 3 flavors.
a) Implicit casting
b) Explicit casting
c) Boolean casting.

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a) Implicit casting (widening conversion)

A data type of lower size (occupying less memory) is assigned to a data type of higher
size. This is done implicitly by the JVM. The lower size is widened to higher size. This is
also named as automatic type conversion.
Examples:
int x = 10; // occupies 4 bytes
double y = x; // occupies 8 bytes
System.out.println(y); // prints 10.0
In the above code 4 bytes integer value is assigned to 8 bytes double value.
b) Explicit casting (narrowing conversion)
A data type of higher size (occupying more memory) cannot be assigned to a data
type of lower size. This is not done implicitly by the JVM and requires explicit casting; a
casting operation to be performed by the programmer. The higher size is narrowed to lower
size.
double x = 10.5; // 8 bytes
int y = x; // 4 bytes ; raises compilation error
In the above code, 8 bytes double value is narrowed to 4 bytes int value. It raises error. Let us
explicitly type cast it.
double x = 10.5;
int y = (int) x;
The double x is explicitly converted to int y. The thumb rule is, on both sides, the same data
type should exist.
c) Boolean casting
A boolean value cannot be assigned to any other data type. Except boolean, all the
remaining 7 data types can be assigned to one another either implicitly or explicitly; but
boolean cannot. We say, boolean is incompatible for conversion. Maximum we can assign a
boolean value to another boolean.
Following raises error.
boolean x = true;
int y = x; // error
boolean x = true;
int y = (int) x; // error
byte –> short –> int –> long –> float –> double
In the above statement, left to right can be assigned implicitly and right to left requires
explicit casting. That is, byte can be assigned to short implicitly but short to byte requires
explicit casting.
Following char operations are possible
class Demo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
char ch1 = 'A';
double d1 = ch1;

System.out.println(d1); // prints 65.0

System.out.println(ch1 * ch1); // prints 4225 , 65 * 65

double d2 = 66.0;
char ch2 = (char) d2;
System.out.println(ch2); // prints B
}
}

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Procedure oriented approach:

The Languages like C, Fortran, Pascal, etc., are called procedure oriented programming
languages since in these languages, a programmer uses procedures or functions to perform a
task. When the programmer wants to write a program, he will first divide the task into several
subtasks, each of which expressed as a function. So, C program generally contains several
functions which are called and controlled from main() function. This approach is called
procedure oriented approach.

Fig: Procedure oriented approach

Object oriented approach:

On the other hand, languages like C++ and Java use classes and objects in their
programs and are called Object Oriented Programming languages. A class is a module which
itself contains data and methods (functions) to achieve the task. The main task is divided into
several modules, and these are represented as, classes. Each class can perform some tasks for
which several methods are written in a class. This approach is called Object oriented
approach.

Fig: Object oriented approach

Problems in Procedural oriented approach:

 There is NO Reusability.
 The lines of code are very high.
 Security is very less.
 Don’t have any access specifier.

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Difference between POP and OOP:

Procedure Oriented Programming Object Oriented Programming
In POP, program is divided into small partsIn OOP, program is divided into parts
called functions. called objects.
In POP, Importance is not given to data butIn OOP, Importance is given to the data
to functions as well as sequence of actionsrather than procedures or functions
to be done. because it works as a real world.
POP follows Top Down approach. OOP follows Bottom Up approach.
OOP has access specifiers named Public,
POP does not have any access specifier.
Private, Protected, etc.
In OOP, objects can move and
In POP, Data can move freely from
communicate with each other through
function to function in the system.
member functions.
To add new data and function in POP is OOP provides an easy way to add new
not so easy. data and function.
In OOP, data cannot move easily from
In POP, Most function uses Global data for
function to function, it can be kept public
sharing that can be accessed freely from
or private so we can control the access of
function to function in the system.
data.
POP does not have any proper way for OOP provides Data Hiding so
hiding data so it is less secure. provides more security.
In OOP, overloading is possible in the
In POP, Overloading is not possible. form of Function Overloading and
Operator Overloading.
Examples of POP are: C, VB, Examples of OOP are: C++, JAVA,
FORTRAN, Pascal. VB.NET, C#.NET.

Principles of OOP:
The key ideas of the object oriented approach are:
 Class / Objects
 Abstraction
 Encapsulation
 Inheritance
 Polymorphism
Class / Objects
Entire OOP methodology has been derived from a single root concept, called 'object'.
An object is anything that really exists in the world and can be distinguished from others.
This definition specifies that everything in this world is an object. For example, a table, a
ball, a car, a dog, a person, etc., everything will come under objects.
Every object has properties and can perform certain actions. For example, let us take a
person whose name is 'Raju'. Raju is an object because he exists physically. He has properties

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like name, age, gender, etc. These properties can be represented by variables in our
programming.
String name;
int age;
char gender;
Similarly, Raju can perform some actions like talking, walking, eating and sleeping.
We may not write code for such actions in programming. But, we can consider calculations
and processing of data as actions. These actions are performed by methods (functions), So an
object contains variables and methods.

Fig: Person class and Raju Object

From the above diagram we can understand that Person is class and Raju is an object
i.e., instance of class.
Note: A class is ｾmodel for creating objects and does not exist physically. An object is
anything that exists physically. Both the class and objects contain variables and methods.

Abstraction
There may be a lot of data, a class contains and the user does not need the entire data.
The user requires only some part of the available data. In this case, we can hide the
unnecessary data from the user and expose only that data that is of interest to the user. This is
called abstraction.
A bank clerk should see the customer details like account number, name and balance
amount in the account. He should not be entitled to see the sensitive data like the staff
salaries, profit or loss of the bank amount paid by the bank and loans amount to be recovered
etc,. So such data can abstract from the clerk's view. Whereas the bank manager is interested
to know this data, it will be provided to the manager.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation in Java is a mechanism of wrapping the data (variables) and code
acting on the data (methods) together as a single unit. In encapsulation, the variables of a
class will be hidden from other classes, and can be accessed only through the methods of
their current class. Therefore, it is also known as data hiding.
To achieve encapsulation in Java −
 Declare the variables of a class as private.
 Provide public setter and getter methods to modify and view the variables values.

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Inheritance
It creates new classes from existing classes, so that the new classes will acquire all the
features of the existing classes is called Inheritance. A good example for Inheritance in nature
is parents producing the children and children inheriting the qualities of the parents.
There are three advantages inheritance. First, we can create more useful classes
needed by the application (software). Next, the process of creating the new classes is very
easy, since they are built upon already existing classes. The last, but very important
advantage is managing the code becomes easy, since the programmer creates several classes
in a hierarchical manner, and segregates the code into several modules.
Polymorphism
The word polymorphism came from two Greek words 'poly' meaning 'many' and
'morphos' meaning 'forms'. Thus, polymorphism represents the· ability to assume several
different forms. In programming, we can use a single variable to refer to objects of different
types and thus using that variable we can call the methods of the different objects. Thus
method call can perform different tasks depending on the type of object.
Polymorphism provides flexibility in writing programs in such a way that the
programmer uses same method call to perform different operations depending on the
requirement.
Application of OOP:
The promising areas includes the followings,
1. Real Time Systems Design
2. Simulation and Modeling System
3. Object Oriented Database
4. Object Oriented Distributed Database
5. Client-Server System
6. Hypertext, Hypermedia
7. Neural Networking and Parallel Programming
8. Decision Support and Office Automation Systems
9. CIM/CAD/CAM Systems
10. AI and Expert Systems
Accessing Input from the keyboard:
 Input represents data given to a program and output represents data displayed as a result
of a program.
 A stream is required to accept input from the keyboard. A stream represents flow of
data from one place to another place.
 It is like a water-pipe where water flows. Like a water-pipe carries water from one
place to another, a stream carries data from one place to another place.
 A stream can carry data from keyboard to memory or from memory to printer or from
memory to a file.
 A stream is always required if we want to move data from one place to another.
 Basically, there are two types of streams: input streams and output streams.
 Input streams are those streams which receive or read data coming from some other
place.
 Output streams are those streams which send or write data to some other place.
 All streams are represented by classes in java.io (input and output) package.

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 This package contains a lot of classes, all of which can be classified into two basic
categories: input streams and output streams.
 Keyboard is represented by a field, called in System class. When we write System.in,
we are representing a standard input device, i.e. keyboard, by default. System class is
found in java.lang (language) package and has three fields' as shown below.
 All these fields represent some type of stream:
System.in: This represents Ii1putStream object, which by default represents
standard input device, i.e., keyboard.
System.out: This represents PrintStream object, which by default represents
standard output device, i.e., monitor.
System.err: This field also represents PrintStream object, which by default
represents monitor.
 Note that both System.out and System.err can be used to represent the monitor and hence
any of these two can be used to send data to the monitor.
 To accept data from the keyboard i.e., System.in. we need to connect it to an input stream.
And input stream is needed to read data from the keyboard.

 Connect the keyboard to an input stream object. Here, we can use InputStreamReader that
can read data from the keyboard.
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(System.in);
 Connect InputStreamReader to BufferedReader, which is another input type of stream.
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(isr);
 Now we can read data coming from the keyboard using read( ) and readLine( ) methods
available in BufferedReader class.
Ex: Write a JAVA Program to read Single character from the keyboard.
import java.io.*;
import java.lang.*;
class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)throws IOException
{
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(System.in);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(isr);
System.out.print("Enter a single Character: ");
char ch = (char)br.read();
System.out.print("\n The Character is "+ch);
}
}
Output:
javac Test.java
java Test
Enter a single Character: m
The Character is m

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Ex: Write a JAVA Program to read String from the keyboard.

import java.io.*;
import java.lang.*;
class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)throws IOException
{
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(System.in);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(isr);
System.out.print("Enter the String: ");
String str = br.readLine();
System.out.print("\n The String is "+str);
}
}
Output:
javac Test.java
java Test
Enter the String: mothi
The String is mothi

Ex: Write a JAVA Program to read Integer from the keyboard.

import java.io.*;
import java.lang.*;
class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)throws IOException
{
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(System.in);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(isr);
System.out.print("Enter the Number: ");
int n = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());
System.out.print("\n The number is "+n);
}
}
Output:
javac Test.java
java Test
Enter the Number: 56
The Number is 56
 To accept Float value we have to use
float f = Float.parseFloat(br.readLine());
 To accept Double value we have to use
double d = Double.parseDouble(br.readLine());

Reading Input with java.util.Scanner Class:

We can use Scanner class of java.util package to read input from the keyboard or a
text file. When the Scanner class receives input, it breaks the input into several pieces, called.
tokens. These tokens can be retrieved from the Scanner object using the following methods
 next() - to read a string
 nextByte() - to read byte value
 nextlnt() - to read an integer value
 nextFloat() - to read float value
 nextLong()- to read long value.
 nextDouble () -to read double value

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To read input from keyboard, we can use Scanner class as:

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
Ex: Write a JAVA Program to read different types of data separated by space, from the
keyboard using the Scanner class.
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.lang.*;
class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter id name sal: ");
int id = sc.nextInt();
String name = sc.next();
float sal = sc.nextFloat();
System.out.println("Id is: "+id);
System.out.println("Name is: "+name);
System.out.println("Sal is: "+sal);

}
}
Output:
javac Test.java
java Test
Enter id name sal: 09 sudheer 40000.00
Id is: 09
Name is: sudheer
Sal is: 40000.00

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