As discussed earlier 10, A PLC is essentially a microcomputer consisting of

hardware and software. The major components are

1. Power Supply module

2. Input module
3. Central processing unit
4. Output modules
5. Software

a)Power supply module:

Usually input output modules require 24V DC and processor require 5V DC.
Usually power
supply is integral part of PLC. Power supply units convert 120/230 V AC line
voltage to
standard supply of 24 VDC or 5V DC using standard rectifier circuits

b)Input module
Input devices include push buttons, sensors, potentiometers, pressure switches.
The function of
the input module is to covert high voltages from input devices to low level logic
voltages that the
CPU uses internally for processing.
Input module can process both analog input and digital input. Digital inputs are
more preferred in
Industry.

c)Analog input module

These are used to convert analog signal form analog devices like temperature
sensors, pressure sensors etc. to digital signals using ADC (Analog –to digital
convertor).
Analog signal is varying voltage in the range of 0-12 V or current in the range of
5-20 mA.
These values of current or voltage is converted into integer value (say16 bit
word)

Digital `is used to convert signal digital input to 5V digital signals that CPU uses
internally to
execute a user program.

d)Central processing unit

The central processing unit controls and processes all operations within the PLC
and hence
called brain of the PLC. The CPU can perform various arithmetic and data
manipulation function
with the local and remotely located Input/output sections.

Further, the processor can perform many communication functions it needs to

interface with a personal computer, remote Input/Output, other PLCs and
peripheral devices

Functions of CPU are :

1. It receives input from various sensing devices and switches

2. It executes the user program
3. It makes various decisions to control the operation of the equipment or
process
4. It can perform various arithmetic and data manipulation functions
5. It delivers corresponding output signals to various load control devices
such as relay coils
and solenoids
e)Output module
Output devices include contactor coils, solenoid coils, lamps, etc. Output module
amplifies the
low–level logic signals generated by the CPU and pass these modified signals to
the final control
elements to operate the output devices.

f) Software
PLC consists of two parts: Operating systems and user program. The PLC
operating system
provides effective support ranging from the creation of project structure to the
creation of user
programs. The OS system is accessed through a graphical user interface window
( also known as
Main window). The main window contains all the functions needed to set up a
project , configure
the hardware , write and test programs. User program can be written in any
standard PLC
programming language like ladder diagram or statement list.

While processing a PLC program, the CPU scans and executes the main
program cyclically;A
program scan cycle consists of sequential operations that include input scan,
program scan, and
output scan. In the input scan, the CPU updates the process image input table, in
the output scan;
the CPU updates the process image output table.

After the completion of each scan cycle, the CPU returns to the beginning of the
next cycle and again repeats the cycle. The time taken to scan one program is
called scan –cycle time.

 Instrumentation Tools
PLC Programming Tutorials | Ladder Logics | InstrumentationTools
PLC Programming Tutorials, PLC Theory, PLC Ladder Logic, PLC Interview Questions and
Answers, PLC MCQ, Programmable Logic Controllers Study Materials.
0

WELCOME TO
THE INDUSTRIAL WIKI
RESEARCH CONTENT IN GREATER DETAIL

Enter th

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
 K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
WIKI Talk Page
MEN
U PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
WIKI (PLC)
HOM
E Talk Page
RAND Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) have become an integral part of the industrial
OM environment. As a technician involved with the processes controlled by PLCs, it is important
PAGE to understand their basic functionalities and capabilities.
MY Menu
SAVE
1 PLC Overview
D
ARTI 1.1 What is a Programmable Logic Controller?
CLES 1.2 History of the PLC
1.2.1 Advantages of PLCs
 1.2.2 Components of a PLC
SITE 1.2.2.1 Input/Output Modules
MEN 1.2.2.2 Power Supply
U 1.2.2.3 Central Processing Unit CPU
STOR 1.2.2.4 Co-processor Modules
E 1.2.2.5 Software
VIDE 1.2.2.6 Peripheral Device
O
1.3 Basic Operation of a PLC
ARC
HIVE 1.3.1 Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System
EVEN 1.3.2 Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit
T 2 PLC Operations
CENT 2.1 Basic Operation
ER 2.1.1 Operational Sequence
FORU 2.1.2 The Scan Cycle
M 2.2 Logic Scan
3 PLC Hardware
3.1 PLC Components
3.2 Power Supply
3.3 Input/Output Modules
3.3.1 Input Modules
3.3.2 Input Module Wiring
3.3.3 Input Indicators
3.4 Output Module
3.4.1 Output Module Wiring
3.5 Discrete Modules
3.5.1 Discrete Module Wiring
3.6 Numerical Data Modules
3.7 AC/DC Input Modules
3.7.1 AC Input Modules
3.7.2 DC Input Discrete Modules
3.7.3 DC Input Analog Modules
3.8 AC/DC Output Modules
3.8.1 AC Output Modules
3.8.2 DC Output Modules Discrete
3.8.3 DC Output Modules Analog
3.8.4 Proportional Integral and Derivative PID Processor Module
3.9 Controls and Indicators
3.10 Scanning
3.11 User Program
4 Addressing and Number Systems
4.1 Number Systems
4.2 Types of Number Systems
4.2.1 Binary
4.3 Octal
4.3.1 Decimal to Octal/Octal to Decimal Conversion
4.3.2 Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion
4.4 Hexadecimal
4.4.1 Binary Coded Decimal
4.5 Addressing
4.5.1 Addressing Terminology
4.5.1.1 Chassis
4.5.1.2 Group
4.5.1.3 Rack
4.5.1.4 Slot
4.5.1.5 Elements
4.5.1.6 Words
4.5.1.7 Bit
4.5.1.8 Bytes
4.5.2 Rack Addressing Rules
4.5.3 Addressing Examples
5 PLC Communications
5.1 PLC Communication Description
5.2 PLC Communication Protocols
5.3 PLC Networking
5.3.1 Device Net
5.3.2 Control Net
5.3.3 Ethernet
5.3.4 Data Highway Plus DH+
5.3.5 PLC Terms
5.3.5.1 ASCII
5.3.5.2 ASCII Module
5.3.5.3 Bus Topology
5.3.5.4 CPU
5.3.5.5 Daisy Chain
5.3.5.6 Distributed Control
5.3.5.7 Host Computer
5.3.5.8 Intelligent Device
5.3.5.9 I/O
5.3.5.10 Kbps
5.3.5.11 Mbps
5.3.5.12 Node
5.3.5.13 Protocol
5.3.5.14 Ring Topology
5.3.5.15 RS232
5.3.5.16 Serial
5.3.5.17 Serial Port
5.3.5.18 Star Topology
5.3.5.19 Topology
5.3.5.20 Transparent
5.4 Remote I/O Configurations
5.5 Peer-to-Peer Configurations
5.6 Host Computer
6 PLC Software
6.1 Software vs. Firmware
6.2 HMI Human Machine Interface
6.3 Ladder Logic Diagrams
6.4 Logic Instructions
6.5 Relays
6.5.1 Examine If Closed XIC
6.5.2 Examine If Open XIO
6.5.3 Output Energized OTE
6.5.4 Output Latched OTL
6.5.5 Output Unlatched OTU
6.6 Timers
6.6.1 Timer On Delay TON
6.6.2 Timer Off Delay TOF
6.6.3 Retentive Timer On RTO
6.7 Counters
6.7.1 Count Up Counter CTU
6.7.2 Count Up Counter CTD
6.8 Reset Command RES
6.9 Data Transfer Instructions
6.10 Arithmetic Commands
6.11 Data Manipulation Instructions
6.11.1 Master Control Reset
6.12 Program Control Instructions
6.12.1 Subroutines
Talk Page

PLC Overview
Talk Page

What is a Programmable Logic Controller?

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for automation of
electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines,
amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines.
Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-
backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output
results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise
unintended operation will result. Figure 1 shows a graphical depiction of typical PLCs.

Figure 1: Typical PLCs

 Figure 2: Examples of Hardware PLCs Control
Talk Page

History of the PLC

PLC invention was in response to the needs of the American automotive manufacturing
industry where software revision replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired relay based control
panels when production models changed.
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing
automobiles relied on hundreds or, in some instances, thousands of relays, cam timers, and
drum sequencers and dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such
facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as
electricians needed to individually and manually rewire each and every relay.
In 1968 GM Hydramatic issued a request for proposal for an electronic replacement for hard-
wired relay systems. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford,
Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associateseighty-
fourth project, was the result. Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to
developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: MODICON, which stood
for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that project was Dick
Morley, the "father" of the PLC.
In other industries, PLCs replaced relay systems used in manufacturing applications. This
eliminated the high cost of maintaining these inflexible systems. In 1970, with the innovation
of the microprocessor, the machine that was originally used as a relay replacement device
only, evolved into the advanced PLC of today.
Talk Page

Advantages of PLCs
There are six major advantages of using PLCs over relay systems as follows:

 Flexibility
 Ease of troubleshooting
 Space efficiency
 Low cost
 Testing
 Visual operation

Flexibility: One single PLC can easily run many machines.

Ease of Troubleshooting: Back before PLCs, wired relay-type panels required time for
rewiring of panels and devices. With PLC control any change in circuit design or sequence is
as simple as retyping the logic. Correcting errors in PLC is both fast and cost effective.
Space Efficient: Fewer components are required in a PLC system than in a conventional
hardware system. The PLC performs the functions of timers, counters, sequencers, and
control relays, so these hardware devices are not required. The only field devices that are
required are those that directly interface with the system such as switches and motor starters.
Low Cost: Prices of PLCs vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is minimal
compared to the prices of the contact, coils, and timers that companies pay to match the same
things. Using PLCs also saves on installation cost and shipping.
Testing: A PLC program can be tested, evaluated, and validated in a lab prior to
implementation in the field.
Visual observation: When running a PLC program a visual operation displays on a screen or
module mounted status lamps assist in making troubleshooting a circuit quick, easy, and
relatively simple.
Talk Page

Components of a PLC
All PLCs have the same basic components. These components work together to bring
information into the PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send information
back out to various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to
function properly.
The basic components include a power supply, central processing unit (CPU or processor),
co-processor modules, input and output modules (I/O), and a peripheral device.
 Figure 3: PLC Components
Talk Page

Input/Output Modules
The type of input modules used by a PLC depends on the type of input device. For example,
some respond to digital inputs, which are eitheronoroffwhile others respond to analog
signals. In this case, analog signals represent machine or process conditions as a range of
voltage or current values. The PLC input circuitry converts signals into logic signals that the
CPU can use. The CPU evaluates the status of inputs, outputs, and other variables as it
executes a stored program. The CPU then sends signals to update the status of outputs.
Output modules convert control signals from the CPU into digital or analog values that can
be used to control various output devices. The programming device is used to enter or
change the PLCs program or to monitor or change stored values. Once entered, the program
and associated variables are stored in the CPU. In addition to these basic elements, a PLC
system may also incorporate an operator interface device to simplify monitoring of the
machine or process.
Talk Page

Power Supply
The function of the power supply is to provide the DC power to operate the PLC. It is
supplied by single-phase 120 or 240 VAC line power that powers the PLC system. See
Figure x.
 Figure 4:PLC Power Supply
The Power Supply is a module located in the PLC system module rack. The DC power
(voltage and current) it provides power the other modules in the rack, such as the CPU, Co-
processor Modules, and I/O Modules.
The line power provided to the PLC system also powers the I/O Field Devices. The PLC
system is protected against PLC module or field device malfunctions. The Fuse in Figure 4
provides this protection.
Talk Page

Central Processing Unit CPU

The function of the CPU is to store and run the PLC software programs. It also interfaces
with the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules, the peripheral device, and runs
diagnostics. It is essentially the "brains" of the PLC.
The CPU, shown in Figure X, contains a microprocessor, memory, and interface adapters.
 Figure 5: CPU
The items shown inside the CPU and their basic functions are as follows:

 The microprocessor codes, decodes, and computes data.

 The memory (ROM, PROM/EEPROM/UVPROM, and RAM) stores both the
control program and the data from the field devices.
 The I/O Interface adapter connects the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules and
the Peripheral Device to the CPU.

Talk Page

Co-processor Modules
Co-Processor Modules are programmable general-purpose microcomputers that expand the
capability and functionality of a PLC system. A Co-Processor Module is controlled by the
CPU, and interfaces with the CPU as shown above.
Co-Processor Modules monitor and control peripheral systems such as the following:

 Alphanumeric Displays
 Video Graphics Displays
 Communication Networks

Talk Page

Software
The function of Software is to provide instructions to the CPU and Co-Processor Modules.
Physically, software is a large group of logic ones and zeros stored in the memory of the
CPU.
Talk Page

Peripheral Device
The function of the peripheral device is to input data and monitor the equipment operation. It
may be a personal computer, handheld programmer, or an operator touch screen.
Talk Page

Basic Operation of a PLC

The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes decisions based on a "ladder
logic" program written by the user. In order to use the program properly, the PLC must
communicate with the various field devices it monitors and controls. It then compares the
actual conditions of the field devices with what the program instructs them to do, and
updates the output devices accordingly.

1. Input switch is pressed

2. Input module places a "1" in the input data table
3. The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into the output data
table
4. The output data table causes the output module to energize associated point
5. The output device energizes
 Figure 6: PLC Operation
Talk Page

Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System

Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a graphical diagram
based on the circuit diagrams of relay-based logic hardware. It is primarily used to develop
software PLCs used in industrial control applications. The name is based on the observation
that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a series of
horizontal rungs between them.
Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs, where sequential control of a process or
manufacturing operation is required. Ladder logic is useful for simple but critical control
systems, or for reworking old hardwired relay circuits. As PLCs became more sophisticated,
it has also been used in very complex automation systems. Often the ladder logic program is
used in conjunction with a HMI program operating on a computer workstation.
Manufacturers of programmable logic controllers generally also provide associated ladder
logic programming systems. Typically, the ladder logic languages from two manufacturers
will not be completely compatible; ladder logic is better thought of as a set of closely related
programming languages rather than one language (the IEC 61131-3 standard has helped to
reduce unnecessary differences, but translating programs between systems still requires
significant work). Even different models of PLCs within the same family may have different
ladder notation such that programs cannot be seamlessly interchanged between models.
Ladder logic is a rule-based language rather than a procedural language. A "rung" in the
ladder represents a rule. When implemented with relays and other electromechanical devices,
the various rules "execute" simultaneously and immediately. When implemented in PLC, the
rules execute sequentially by software in a continuous loop (scan). By executing the loop fast
enough, the effect of simultaneous and immediate execution is achieved to within the
tolerance of the time required to execute every rung in the "loop" (the "scan time").
Talk Page

Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit

The language itself is a set of connections between logical checkers (contacts) and actuators
(coils). If a path traced between the left side of the rung and the output, through asserted
(true or closed) contacts, the rung is true and the output coil storage bit is asserted 1. If no
path is traced, then the output is false (0) and the coil by analogy to electromechanical relays
is considered de-energized.
Ladder logic has contacts that make or break circuits to control coils. Each coil or contact
corresponds to the status of a single bit in the PLCs memory. Unlike electromechanical
relays, a ladder program can refer any number of times to the status of a single bit,
equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely large number of contacts.
Contacts may refer to physical or hard inputs to the PLC from devices such as pushbuttons
and limit switches via an integrated or external input module, or may represent the status of
internal storage bits, which may be generated elsewhere in the program.
Each rung of ladder language typically has one coil at the far right. Some manufacturers may
allow more than one output coil on a rung.

 ( ) - Regular coil. It is energized whenever its rung is closed.

 (\\) - "Not" coil. It is energized whenever its rung is open.
 [ ] - Regular contact. It is closed whenever its corresponding coil or an input which
controls it is energized.
 [\\] - "Not" contact. It is open whenever its corresponding coil or an input which
controls it is energized.

The coil or output of a rung, may represent a physical output, which operates some device
connected to the PLC, or may represent an internal storage bit for use elsewhere in the
program.
 Figure 7: Simple Ladder Diagram
Ladder logic is typically read left to right and top to bottom. As each of the lines or rungs are
evaluated, the output coil of a rung may feed into the next stage of the ladder as an input. In a
complex system there will be many rungs on a ladder, which are numbered in order of
evaluation.
Talk Page

PLC Operations
Talk Page

Basic Operation
The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes decisions based on a ladder
logic program written by the user (see Topic I). In order to use the program properly, the
PLC must communicate with the various field devices it is tasked with monitoring and
controlling. It then compares the actual conditions of the field devices with what the program
instructs them to do, and updates the output devices accordingly.
Talk Page

Operational Sequence
The operational sequence shown in Figure 6 is as follows:

1. Input switch is pressed

2. Input module places a "1" in the input data table
3. The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into the output data
 table
4. The output data table causes the output module to energize associated point
5. The output device energizes

Figure 8: PLC Operational Sequence

Talk Page

The Scan Cycle

PLCs operate by continually scanning programs and repeat this process many times per
second. When a PLC starts, it runs checks on the hardware and software for faults, also
called a self-test. If there are no problems, then the PLC will start the scan cycle. The scan
cycle consists of three steps: input scan, executing program(s), and output scan. Figure 7
shows the three steps.
Input Scan: A simple way of looking at this is the PLC takes a snapshot of the inputs and
solves the logic. The PLC looks at each input card to determine if it isonoroffand saves this
information in a data table for use in the next step. This makes the process faster and avoids
cases where an input changes from the start to the end of the program.
Execute Program (or Logic Execution): The PLC executes a program one instruction at a
time using only the memory copy of the inputs the ladder logic program. For example, the
program has the first input ason, since the PLC knows which inputs are on/off from the
previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on.
Output Scan: When the ladder scan completes, the outputs are updated using the temporary
values in memory. The PLC updates the status of the outputs based on which inputs were on
during the first step and the results of executing a program during the second step. The PLC
now restarts the process by starting a self-check for faults.

Figure 9: PLC Scan Cycle

Talk Page

Logic Scan
Ladder logic programs are modeled after relay logic. In relay logic, each element in the
ladder will switch as quickly as possible. Program elements can only be examined one at a
time in a fixed sequence. The ladder logic graphic in Figure 8 is interpreted left-to-right, top-
to-bottom. The ladder logic scan begins at the top rung. At the end of the rung, it interprets
the top output first, then the output branched below it. On the second rung, it solves
branches, before moving along the ladder logic rung.

Figure 10: PLC Logic Scan

Talk Page

PLC Hardware
Talk Page
PLC Components
PLCs have grown throughout industrial control applications because of the ease they bring to
creating a controller: ease of programming, ease of wiring, ease of installation, and ease of
changing. All PLCs have the same basic components. These components work together to
bring information into the PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send
information back out to various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will
fail to function properly. PLCs span a wide range of sizes, but all contain six basic
components as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10:

1. Power supply
2. Input module
3. Output module
4. Processor (CPU)
5. Rack or mounting assembly
6. Programming unit (software)

Figure 11: PLC Rack

 Figure 12: PLC Components
Talk Page

Power Supply
The power supply, as shown in Figure 13, provides power for the PLC system. The power
supply provides internal DC current to operate the processor logic circuitry and input/output
assemblies. Common power levels used are 24V DC or 120 VAC.

Figure 13: Power Supply

Talk Page
Input/Output Modules
Many types of inputs and outputs can be connected to a PLC, and they can all be divided into
two large groups analog (discrete) and digital. Digital inputs and outputs are those that
operate due to a discrete or binary change - on/off, yes/no. Analog inputs and outputs change
continuously over a variable range - pressure, temperature, potentiometer. AC modules are
always discrete. DC modules can be either discrete or analog.
The standard PLC module types and their descriptions are as follows:

 AC Input - Uses AC voltage for input field device status.

 DC Input (Discrete) - Uses DC voltage for input field device status.
 DC Input (Analog) - The input is a variable DC signal level.
 AC Output - Controls the ON/OFF state of AC output field devices such as relays,
coils, and solenoids.
 DC Output (Discrete) - Discrete DC output modules control the ON/OFF states of
DC output field devices.
 DC Output (Analog) - Provides a variable DC level.

I/O modules are available with various numbers of field device points, such as 4, 8, 16 and
32 point. Optocouplers in the modules are used to electrically isolate the module from the
CPU.
Talk Page

Input Modules
Input modules provide the electrical connection between field devices (pushbuttons, limit
switches, photoeyes) and internal process of the PLC. They differ in voltages and types of
signals produced such ason,offor a variable voltage. Figure 14 shows an example of a
generic input module.
 Figure 14: PLC Input Module
Talk Page

Input Module Wiring

During normal PLC operation, different methods of connecting the field device wires to the
I/O Modules offer no significant advantages over each other. Field devices can be wired
differently to provide safety and protection in the event of failures in field devices, or faults
in their electrical circuits.
"Backups" are field devices required to operate properly to provide safety in the event of a
failure of another device or fault in a circuit. If the circuit for a backup is not affected, the
backup should operate properly and continue to provide safety.
The safety of sequentially controlled systems, industrial facilities, and even personnel
frequently depends on field devices (especially the backups) operating properly.
Sink and Source connections at a DC Input Module are defined by whether or not the field
device DC power comes from a power supply external to the PLC (see Figure 14). Neither
connection has any fault protection advantage
Talk Page

Input Indicators
Indicator lights are located on the digital input modules. These lights indicate the status of
the input point on the module. The active light indicates whether or not the module is active
and communicating with the processor.
The indicator lights are numbered in two rows, 00-7 and 10-17 (I/O addressing will be
discussed later). These numbers represent each of the input points on the module. If an input
point has power applied to it, the associated light illuminates. The lights are very useful in
verifying that field devices, such as switches and photoeyes, are properly operating.
Figure 15 shows the common layout for indicator lights on an input module. Note that these
lights ONLY show the user that power is getting to this point on the module. They do NOT
indicate whether or not the processor is actually receiving that indication.

Figure 15: Input Indicators

Talk Page

Output Module
Outputs are the devices that the PLC uses to send changes out to the world. These are the
actuator the PLC can change to adjust or control the process - motors, lights, relays, pumps,
etc. Figure 16 shows an example of an output module.

Figure 16: PLC Output Module

Talk Page

Output Module Wiring

DC Modules use "Sink" and "Source" connections. The connections are determined by the
configuration of the module being used. DC Modules are configured differently because of
the DC polarity differences required of the two connections.
Talk Page

Discrete Modules
The term refers to an Off switching output. One type of PLC module that produces discrete
signals is a relay module. It has physical relay that opens (Figure 17) or closes (Figure 18)
to make or break a circuit connected to its terminals. Relay modules have several pairs; each
of which are connected to internal relay contacts.

Figure 17: Relay Module Open Contact

 Figure 18: Relay Module Closed Contact
Another type of discrete module is the sinking output module so named because
conventional current flows into its terminal when a specific output is turned on.
Conventional current flows from a positive to negative potential.

Figure 19: Sinking Output Module

Figure 20 and Figure 21 show the sequence sinking output module activated and not
activated.
Figure 20: Output Module Activated
 Figure 21: Output Module NOt Activated
Figure 22 shows a graphical depiction of events when the output is activated:

1. An NPN transistor turns on

2. The output terminal goes to LOW
3. Conventional current flows from the positive of the power supply through the field
device into the sinking terminal of the output module through the transistor to the
negative of the power supply.
 Figure 22: Output Activated
Talk Page

Discrete Module Wiring

The DC Output (Discrete) Module field device DC power always comes from a power
supply external to the PLC (see Figure X). For certain fault conditions, the source output
connection offers additional safety and protection.
Talk Page

Numerical Data Modules

With the integration of the microprocessor into PLC architecture in the early 1970s arrived
new capabilities for arithmetic operation and data manipulation. This expanded processing
capability led to a new class of I/O interfaces known as numerical data I/O. Numerical input
interfaces allowed measured quantities to be input from instruments and other devices that
provided numerical data, while numerical output interfaces allowed control of devices that
required numerical data.
In general, numerical data I/O interfaces can be categorized into two groups: those that
provide interface-to-multi-bit digital devices and those that provide interface-to-analog
devices. The multi-bit interfaces are like the discrete I/O in that the processed signals are
discrete. The difference, however, is that with the discrete I/O, only a single bit is required to
read an input or control an output. Multi-bit interfaces allow a group of bits to be input or
output as a unit to accommodate devices that require the bits to be handled in parallel form
or in serial form. The numerical data I/O allows monitoring and control of analog voltages
and currents, which are compatible with many sensors, motors drives, and process
instruments. With the use of multi-bit or analog I/O, most process variables can be measured
or controlled with appropriate interfacing.
Talk Page

AC/DC Input Modules

Talk Page

AC Input Modules
AC input modules detect the presence or absence of AC voltage, and convert that voltage to
a low level for input to the CPU. The AC voltage indicates the field device status. The
voltage level is commonly 24, 115 or 220 VAC. Modules are available for up to 1,000 VAC.
An AC Input module schematic diagram is shown in Figure X. When the field device
completes the input circuit, a path for AC exists. An LED on the front of the module,
indicates the input is present.
 Figure 23: AC Input Module Schematic
A rectifier converts the AC to DC. The optocoupler isolates the input module from the CPU
and effectively drops the DC voltage level to a level safe for CPU operations.
Most AC input modules use an external AC power supply for "interrogation" of the field
devices. On-board AC power supplies increase the size of the module and require additional
heat dissipation considerations.
AC inputs may use a common neutral connection for several points or there may be an
"isolated" neutral for each point for additional fault protection. The input module shown in
Figure 7 uses neutral C1 for points 00-07 and neutral C2 for points 10-17. Analog AC input
modules are not commonly used because there are no standardized analog AC voltage or
current signals.
Talk Page

DC Input Discrete Modules

Discrete DC input modules detect the presence or absence of DC voltage, and convert that
voltage to a low level for input to the CPU. The DC voltage is used to indicate the field
device status. Figure X shows a DC Input module schematic diagram.

Figure 24: DC Input Module (Discrete)

The DC voltage may be supplied by the input module (sink input) or it may be supplied by
an external power supply (source input). Detailed explanations of "sinked" and "sourced"
connections are given in this module later under "Field Device Wiring Connections."
As with AC input modules, the input is optocoupled to the CPU for isolation and CPU
protection. An LED provides indication when the input is present (true).
Talk Page

DC Input Analog Modules

Analog DC input modules detect a DC voltage or current level, convert that variable into a
proportional digital signal and transmit that data to the CPU for processing. The modules can
be configured to operate on standard instrumentation signal ranges such as 4-20 mA, 10-50
mA, 15V, 0-1 0V.
A schematic diagram of an analog DC input module is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 25: DC Input Module (Analog)

After the module converts the analog value to digital, the PLC can turn control functions on
and off at preset analog values. For example, when the input analog value reaches 70
percent, an alarm sounds.
In special applications, an analog input can be combined with an analog output module.
Through programming, the PLC can then perform like a conventional single loop controller.
Talk Page
AC/DC Output Modules
Talk Page

AC Output Modules
AC output modules control the ON/OFF states of AC output field devices such as relays,
coils, and solenoids. They do not normally supply power to the field devices. Figure X is a
schematic diagram of the module.

Figure 26: AC Output Module

The CPU uses a low-voltage DC signal to activate an opto-coupler in the output module. The
opto-coupler gates a TRIAC or SCR that in turn completes the current path for the external
power supply and field device. As with most PLC modules, the voltage rating and the
number of points are selectable and the outputs may have common or isolated neutrals.
Talk Page

DC Output Modules Discrete

Discrete DC output modules control the on/off states of DC output field devices. Power is
supplied by an external power supply. A schematic diagram of the module is shown in
Figure 27.

Figure 27: DC Output Module (Discrete)

The CPU sends a low-level DC signal to an opto-coupler that completes the external DC
current path that energizes the output field device. Field device connections may either be
"sinked" or "sourced".
Talk Page

DC Output Modules Analog

Analog DC output modules convert digital data from the CPU to analog data for field device
use. A Digital to Analog (D/A) converter in the module performs the conversion. See Figure
28 for a schematic diagram of the module.
 Figure 28: DC Output Module (Analog)
Analog outputs conform to standard instrumentation signals (4-20 mA, 10-50 mA, 1-5V, 0-1
0V). An external DC power supply is used to power the output field device and the
optocoupler in the module.
Analog outputs and inputs require more computing time than discrete modules. The
additional time is needed to perform A/D and D/A conversions and to "block transfer" the
additional information to and from the CPU.
For this reason, most PLC applications use on/off control with only a small amount of analog
I/O. If a large amount of analog data requires processing, other systems (loop controllers,
Digital Control Systems) are usually used.
Talk Page

Proportional Integral and Derivative PID Processor Module

A PID module combines analog input, analog output, and a control program of a typical
single loop controller. A PID module is a smart module. This means that it has an on-board
microprocessor and program.
The module carries out loop control without the use of the CPU in the PLC. These modules
do communicate with the CPU for non-routine functions such as alarm reporting and
programming changes.
Talk Page
Controls and Indicators
Most processor modules have front panel lights or indications to provide the user with status
indications of PLC operation. These lights are very useful in troubleshooting. Also provided
on most processor modules is a switch used to change the module mode of operation from
RUN to PROGRAM. Additional connections are also usually provided to allow the
connection of a terminal for programming the PLC and a port for connections to external
I/O.
Talk Page

Scanning
The processor module controls the PLC by executing the software program. During program
execution, the processor reads all the inputs and uses the values, in accordance with the
control logic, to energize or de-energize the outputs, thus solving the ladder network. Once
all the logic is solved, the processor updates all outputs. The process of reading the inputs,
executing the program, and updating the outputs is known as a scan. The time required to
make a single scan varies from 1 msec to 100 msec.
The scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of reading the status of inputs,
evaluating the control logic, and updating outputs. The common scan method of monitoring
the inputs at the end of each scan is inadequate for reading certain rapid inputs. Some PLCs
provide software instructions that will allow the interruption of the continuous program scan
to immediately receive an input or update an output. These immediate instructions are very
useful when the PLC must instantaneously react to a critical input or output.
Talk Page

User Program
The user program memory is an area reserved in the application memory for the storage of
the control logic. All the PLC instructions that control the machine or process are stored
here. The addresses of inputs and outputs, whether real or internal, are specified in this
section of memory.
When the processor is in the run mode and the program is executed, the processor interprets
the user program memory locations and controls the bits of the data table that correspond to
real or internal outputs. The interpretation of the user program is accomplished by the
processors execution of the executive program.
The maximum amount of available user program memory is normally a function of the
processor size (i.e., I/O capacity). In medium and large controllers, the user program area is
normally flexible by altering the size of the data table so that it meets the minimum data
storage requirements. In small processors, however, the user program area is normally fixed.
Talk Page

Addressing and Number Systems

Talk Page
Number Systems
The earliest number or counting system known to man was developed to help determine a
quantity for a collection of possessions. As daily activities became more complex, numbers
became more important in trade, time, distance, and all other aspects of human life.
Numbers are extremely important in everyday life. As such, a more complex system was
required than counting everything on ones fingers and toes.
Ever since the necessity to count objects was discovered, man has been looking for easier
ways to count them. The abacus, developed by the Chinese, is one of the earliest known
methods for counting. The simple system of beads and wires arranged within a frame
provided an early means for calculation. The apparatus proved helpful and is still used in
some parts of the world today.
As time, technology, and need progressed, so did the means and methods required for
accurate calculation. The first adding machine was invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642.
Twenty years later, an Englishman, Sir Samuel Morland, developed a more compact device
that could multiply, add, and subtract. Then, Wilhelm Liebnitz perfected a machine in 1671
that could perform all the basic operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, as well as the extraction of the square root. The principles pioneered by
Liebnitz are still used today by modern electronic digital computers.
Computers are used wherever repeated calculations or the processing of large amounts of
data is necessary. Some of the greatest applications are found in the military, scientific, and
commercial fields. These fields have applications ranging from manufacturing processes to
engineering design, to the identification and destruction of enemy targets. The advantages of
digital computers include speed, accuracy, and labor savings. Often, computers are used to
manage routine jobs, allowing personnel to perform other tasks, which may require a human
touch.
People and computers normally do not speak the same language. However, methods of
translating information into forms that are understood and used by both are necessary.
Humans generally speak in words and numbers expressed in the decimal number system,
while computers only understand coded electronic pulses that represent digital information.
In this section, you will learn about number systems, in general, and specifically learn about
binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems. The methods for converting numbers in the
binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems to equivalent numbers in the decimal system, and
vice versa, will also be discussed. This training module will discuss the different types of
number systems that can be converted easily to the electronic pulses necessary for digital
equipment and industrial communications.
Talk Page

Types of Number Systems

The decimal system is the most commonly used number system. The Roman numeral
system, though seldom used, is another well-known number system. Other number systems
include binary, octal, and hexadecimal. All number systems have a base and a number value.
Talk Page

Binary
The simplest possible number system is the binary, or base 2, system. Since the binary
number system is a base 2 system, only two symbols, 0 and 1, are used.
The binary system is also a positional notation system. While the decimal system uses
powers of 10 to determine the value of a position, the binary system uses powers of 2 to
determine the value of a position. A bar graph showing the positions and the powers of the
base is shown below:

Table 1 provides a comparison of decimal and binary numbers. Notice each time the total
number of binary symbol positions increases, the binary number indicates the next higher
power of 2. The table also shows that more symbol positions are necessary in the binary
system to represent equivalent values in the decimal system.
Talk Page

Octal
The octal, or base 8, number system is a common system used with computers. Because of
its relationship with the binary system, it is useful in programming some types of computers.
As with the other systems, the base, or radix, is the number of symbols used in the system.
The octal system uses eight symbols, 0 through 7. The base is indicated by the subscript 8.
Table 2 compares the binary, octal, and decimal number systems and shows that one octal
digit is the equivalent value of three binary digits.

Similar to the decimal and binary systems, the octal system is a positional notation system.
The octal system uses powers of 8. The following bar graph shows the positions and the
power of the base:

Here the power, orexponent, indicates the number of times the base is multiplied by itself.
The value of thismultiplicationis expressed in base 10 as shown below:

Talk Page

Decimal to Octal/Octal to Decimal Conversion

In decimal systems, each decimal place is a base of 10. For example:

In octal, numerals each place is a power with base 8. For example:

By performing the calculation above in the familiar decimal system we see why 112 in octal
is equal to 64 + 8 + 2 = 74 in decimal.
Talk Page

Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion

The following example further illustrates this comparison and shows the conversion of octal
2258to binary and back to octal:

Talk Page

Hexadecimal
The hexadecimal, or hex, number system is a more complex system in use with computers.
The name is derived from the fact that the system uses 16 symbols. It is beneficial in
computer programming because of its relationship to the binary system. Since 16 in the
decimal system is the 2 to the fourth power (or 24), one hex digit has a value equal to four
binary digits. Table 2 compares the binary and hexadecimal number systems.
As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands for a single object. A number in the
hex system is the symbol used to represent a unit or quantity. The Arabic numerals 0 through
9 are used with the first six letters of the alphabet. Letters are sometimes used in math
problems to represent unknown quantities but in the hex system, A, B, C, D, E, and F each
have a definite value as shown below:
The base, or radix, of the hex system is 16, which represents the number of symbols used in
the system. A quantity expressed in hex is annotated by the subscript 16, as shown below:

Like the binary, octal, and decimal systems, the hex system is a positional notation system.
Powers of 16 are used for the positional values of a number. The following bar graph shows
the positions:

Multiplying the base times itself the number of times indicated by the exponent will show
the equivalent decimal value:

As seen by the positional values, usually fewer symbol positions are required to express a
number in hex than in decimal. The following example shows this comparison:

Talk Page

Binary Coded Decimal

Computers and microprocessors both operate on a series of electrical pulses called words. A
word can be represented by a binary number such as 101100112. The word length is
described by the number of digits or BITS in the series. A series of four digits would be
called a 4-bit word and so forth. The most common are 4-, 8-, and 16-bit words. Quite often,
these words must use binary-coded decimal inputs.
Binary-coded decimal, or BCD, is a method of using binary digits to represent the decimal
digits 0 through 9. A decimal digit is represented by four binary digits, as shown below:
You should note in the table above that the BCD coding is the binary equivalent of the
decimal digit.
Since many devices use BCD, knowing how to handle this system is important. You must
realize that BCD and binary are not the same. For example, 4910in binary is 1100012, but
4910in BCD is 01001001BCD. Each decimal digit is converted to its binary equivalent.
Talk Page

Addressing
Addressing is the most important concept to understand when learning PLCs. Addressing is
how we make a correlation between the field devices controlled by the PLC, and the data
that is stored in the PLCs memory. If you cannot address a point or group of points in the
PLCs memory, then you cannnot control the field device associated with that point.
The easiest way to approach understanding the addressing used in the Allen Bradley PLC-5
is to view all addresses from the processors point of view. By this, we mean that in order for
a real device in the field, such as a relay, to be operated by the PLC, the PLC must first have
a record of that point in its memory. That point can then be accessed by the PLC. The Allen
Bradley PLC-5 stores the information regarding all of the points it can address in areas
called Data Tables as shown in figure 29. The data tables are divided up by function.
 Figure 29: Data Table Files
Talk Page

Addressing Terminology
There are seven terms one must know in order to understand addressing as defined below.
Talk Page

Chassis
Hardware assembly (physical rack) that houses devices such as I/O modules, adapter
modules, processor modules, and power supplies. Chassis are available in six sizes: 4-, 8-,
12-, and 16-slot.
Talk Page

Group
An I/O addressing unit consisting of one input and one output word (16 bits each) of the data
table. Depending on the density of the I/O module and the addressing mode used, some of
the bits in a group may be unused. The group number is included in I/O addresses in the
position represented with agin the format: I:rrg/xx.
Talk Page

Rack
An I/O addressing unit that corresponds to eight input image table words and eight output
image table words (8 groups). A rack is a logical entity not to be confused with the physical
chassis. 8 groups = 1 full rack, 6 groups = rack, 4 groups = rack, 2 groups = rack. The rack
number is included in I/O addresses in the position represented with an "rr" in the format:
I:rrg/xx.
Talk Page

Slot
A location in a chassis for installing a module. The number of physical slots per group
determines the addressing mode.
Talk Page

Elements
Data files are made up of individual data blocks called "Elements" or "Structures". Each
element is composed of "words", and each word is composed of "bits". Elements are
comprised of from 1 to 56 words, depending on the instruction. Most instructions you will
encounter will have from one to three words to an element.
An example of an element level address is T4:0
T4:0 indicates the first timer (0) in the default timer file (T4). Each timer is comprised of
three (3) 16 bit words. When you say T4:0, you are referring to all three of these words as a
group.
 Figure 30: Elements
Another example, illustrated on the right, is the address N7:15. This identifies element 15 in
the integer file N7. Since integer files have one word elements, the element number and
word number will match in this case as shown in Figure X and Figure Y.
 Figure 31: Element Address
Talk Page

Words
Words are the next level of identification down from elements. Each "word" in the PLC is
comprised of 16 bits as shown in Figure 32.
When an instruction is addressed to the word level, it is looking at all 16 bits of a particular
word in an element. When an element is comprised of more than one word, the 0 word
contains status data in bit form, and the other words contain data which must be stored in
more than one bit.
A good example is a timer file. Timers elements are comprised of three words. The 0 word
contains status information which can be stored in individual bits. For example, the 17 bit in
the 0 word is the done bit, indicating that the timer has timed out.
The one and two words contain information which require a full word to contain. In the
timer, the one word contains the value of the preset (PRE) of the timer, and the two word
contains the information about the Accumulator (ACC). These words are addressed by their
symbols, PRE and ACC. When accessing an element to the word level, the period (.) is used
to delimit instead of the slash (/).
 Figure 32: Word Address
Talk Page

Bit
The smallest unit of data in a PLC is the bit. Bits make up words, which in turn make up
elements. Many instructions must be specified down to the bit level. For example, if you
want to know the status of the Done bit on a timer, you must specify the address down to the
bit level. The address would be:
T4:0/DN
T4:0 is the element we are addressing. Since we are addressing a single bit, we put the "/"
sign as a bit delimiter, and then specify the bit. In this case the Done bit. Figure 33 shows the
element B3:63 and the bit 15. Note that in this case, the individual bits are identified by
numbers, not names (as in the done bit in the timer). This is true of bits in all files except
those having more than one word in an element.

Figure 33: Bit Address

Talk Page

Bytes
A group of bits forming a piece of data. Usually a subset of a word consisting of eight bits.
Talk Page

Rack Addressing Rules

Addressing to a rack is just assigning a physical slot in the chassis to a logical word in the
processor. Rack addressing involves only data tables 0 and 1, the output and input data
tables. The type of addressing shown in figure x is called single slot addressing, and is the
most common type of addressing used in Allen Bradley PLCs. To review the rules for rack
addressing, use the following while referring to the previous figure on PLC 5 Racks.:

 A rack is a logical term that defines 8 words in the processor input data table and 8
words in the processor output data table.
 These words are numbered 0-7.
 Each logical rack can store 128 bits of information in its input rack and 128 bits in
its output rack. (8 words per rack x 16 bits per word=128 bits of data storage)
 In single slot addressing, each physical slot is addressed to one input word and also
to one output word. This makes it possible to put either an input module or an output
module in any slot.
 The number of logical racks determines how many points a particular model of PLC
can address. This number is fixed for any particular processor and cannot be
changed.
 Rack addressing is always in the format shown in Figure 34 below.

Figure 34: Rack Addressing Format

Talk Page

Addressing Examples
Each type of device has its own table in which to store data. In order to specify exactly
which piece of data is to be accessed, an addressing format is used which makes use of this
data structure.
In Figure 35, addresses for input and output addresses are shown. Reading from the left to
the right, the addresses tell the following:

 Which data table a point exist in

 Which rack of data the point is in
 Which group the point is in
 The exact point

Note that a colon separates the file identifier from the rest of the address. This is constant
for ALL addresses.

Figure 35: Rack Addressing Format

Talk Page

PLC Communications
Talk Page

PLC Communication Description

PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the Data Highway+and also communicate
with their own remote racks via the remote I/O communications channel. Some guidelines
for PLC communications are as follows:

 The DH+provides communications between processors on the DH+

 Each processor on the DH+MUST have its own unique address
 A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link.
 If a processor has enough communications channels (like the 5/40), it can
communicate on more than one DH+peer link at a time.
 DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another. It DOES
NOT allow one PLC to control another PLC. It just lets you talk from PLC to PLC.
It also makes it possible to plug a terminal into ANY PLC on the peer link and talk
to any other PLC on the peer link with the terminal.
 Each chassis MUST have either an Adapter module or a Processor module installed
in the left most slot.
 In order for a processor to have remote chassis, one channel MUST be set up as a
 scanner channel.

Talk Page

PLC Communication Protocols

Today, most manufacturers of PLC systems have developed their own proprietary
communication protocol, making it difficult to combine PLC components from different
manufacturers. Communication protocols set the standards for data representation, signaling,
authentication, and error detection required to send information over a communications
channel. MODBUS is currently the most common protocol used by PLC manufacturers.
Talk Page

PLC Networking
Talk Page

Device Net
Device Net is one of the most widely supported networks. It is an open standard, so
components from a variety of manufacturers can be used together in the same control
system. It is supported and promoted by the Open Device Net Vendors Association (ODVA).
This group includes members from all of the major controls manufacturers. The network is
noise-resistant and robust. One major change for the control engineer is that the PLC chassis
can be eliminated and the network can be directly connected to the sensors and actuators.
This reduces the total amount of system wiring by moving I/O points closer to the
application point. Two-way communication inputs and outputs allow diagnosis of network
problems from the main controller.
Device Net covers all seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standard. The
protocol has a limited number of network addresses with very small data packets. This helps
limit network traffic and ensures responsiveness. The length of the network cables limits the
maximum speed of the network. The basic features include:

 A single bus cable that delivers data and power

 Up to 64 nodes on the network
 A data packet size of 0-8 bytes
 Cable lengths of 500m/250m/100m for speeds of 125kbps/250kbps/500kbps,
respectively
 Devices can be added or removed while power is on
 Based on the CANbus (Controller Area Network) protocol for OSI levels 1 and 2
 Addressing includes peer-to-peer, multicast, master/slave, polling, or change of state

Talk Page

Control Net
Control Net is complimentary to Device Net. The standard is designed for communication
among controllers and it permits more complex messages than Device Net. It is not suitable
for communication with individual sensors and actuators, or with devices off the factory
floor. Control Net is a more complicated protocol method than Device Net. Control Net
features include:

 Multiple controllers and I/O on one network

 Deterministic
 Data rates up to 5Mbps
 Multiple topologies (bus, star, tree)
 Multiple media (coax, fiber, etc.)
 Up to 99 nodes with addresses; up to 48 without a repeater
 Data packets up to 510 bytes
 Unlimited I/O points
 Maximum length examples:
o 1000m with coax at 5Mbps - 2 nodes
o 250m with coax at 5Mbps - 48 nodes
o 5000m with coax at 5Mbps with repeaters
o 3000m with fiber at 5Mbps
o 30Km with fiber at 5Mbps and repeaters
o Five repeaters in series, 48 parallel segments
 Devices individually powered (no network power)
 Devices can be removed while network is active

The network is unique because it supports a real-time messaging scheme called Concurrent
Time Domain Multiple Access (CTDMA). The network has scheduled, high priority and
unscheduled, low priority updates. When collisions are detected, the system waits at least
2ms for unscheduled messages. However, scheduled messages will be passed sooner, during
a special time window.
Talk Page

Ethernet
Ethernet is the predominate networking format. The first version was released in 1980 by a
consortium of companies, and various versions of Ethernet frames were released in the
subsequent years. These include Version II and Novell Networking (IEEE 802.3). Most
modern Ethernet cards support different types of frames.
The Ethernet frame is shown in Figure 36. The first six bytes make up the destination
address for the message. If all of the bits in the bytes are set, then any computer that receives
the message will read it. The first three bytes of the address are specific to the card
manufacturer, and the remaining bytes specify the remote address. The address is common
for all versions of Ethernet. The source address specifies the message sender. The Ethernet
type identifies the frame as a Version II Ethernet packet if the value is greater than 05DChex.
Other Ethernet types use these two bytes to indicate the data length. The data can be from 46
to 1,500 bytes in length. The frame concludes with a checksum that is used to verify data is
correctly transmitted. When the end of the transmission is detected, the last four bytes are
used to verify the frame is correctly received.
Talk Page

Data Highway Plus DH+

Allen-Bradley PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the DH+protocol and also
communicate with their own remote chassis via the remote I/O communications channel.
Some guidelines for DH+communications include:

 The DH+provides communication among DH+processors.

 Each processor on the DH+must have its own unique address.
 A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link.
 If a processor has enough communication channels (like the 5/40), it can
communicate on more than one DH+peer link at a time.
 DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another. It does not
allow one PLC to control another PLC; it just lets you talk from PLC to PLC. It also
makes it possible to plug a terminal into any PLC on the peer link and talk to any
other PLC on the peer link with the terminal.
 Each chassis must either have an adapter module or a processor module installed in
the leftmost slot.
 In order for a processor to have a remote chassis, one channel must be set up as a
scanner channel.

Talk Page

PLC Terms
Talk Page

ASCII
Stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." For example, when the
letter "A" is transmitted it is automatically coded as "65" by the sending equipment. The
receiving equipment translates the "65" back to the letter "A." Thus, different devices can
communicate with each other as long as both use ASCII code.
Talk Page

ASCII Module
This intelligent PLC module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of
communicating using ASCII code as a vehicle.
Talk Page

Bus Topology
This is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement in which individual nodes are tapped
into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast messages. These messages
travel in both directions on the bus from the point of connection until terminators at each end
of the bus dissipate them.

Figure 36: Bus Network Topology

Talk Page

CPU
Stands for "central processing unit," which is that part of a computer, PLC, or other
intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are
decoded and executed.
Talk Page

Daisy Chain
This is a description of the connection of individual devices in a PLC network, where each
device is connected to the next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in
a sequential fashion.
Talk Page

Distributed Control
This is an automation concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by
separate controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control
(control is decentralized and spread out over the system).
Talk Page

Host Computer
A computer used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in a PLC/computer network.
Talk Page

Intelligent Device
Any device equipped with its own CPU.

I/O
Abbreviation for Inputs and Outputs, which are modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs)
or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an external device.
Talk Page

Kbps
This stands for "kilobits (thousand) bits per second," a rate of measure for electronic data
transfer.
Talk Page

Mbps
Abbreviation for "million bits per second."
Talk Page

Node
This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node
incorporates a device that can communicate with all other devices on the network.
Talk Page
Protocol
Manner in which data is arranged and coded for transmission on a network.
Talk Page

Ring Topology
This is a LAN arrangement in which each node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in
a continuous, closed, circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction
(Figure X). Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them to
continue functioning even if the main cable is severed.

Figure 37: Ring Topology

Talk Page

RS232
An IEEE standard for serial communications that describes specific wiring connections,
voltage levels, and other operating parameters for electronic data communications. There
also are several other RS standards defined.
Talk Page

Serial
Electronic data transfer scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time.
Talk Page

Serial Port
Communication access point, shown in Figure 38, on a device that is set up for serial
communications.

Figure 38: Serial Communications Port

Talk Page

Star Topology
A LAN arrangement in which nodes are connected to one another through a central hub,
which can be active or passive (Figure 39). An active hub performs network duties such as
message routing and maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to
all the nodes connected to it.
 Figure 39: Star Topology
Talk Page

Topology
This relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN in relation to one another. See
Figure 40 for the most commonly used types topologies.

Figure 40: Topology

Talk Page
Transparent
This term describes automatic events or processes built into a system that require no special
programming or prompting from an operator.
Talk Page

Remote I/O Configurations

It is common in the industry to centralize PLCs in relation to the process being controlled.
This cuts down on the number and length of cabling used to transmit information to and from
the PLC. In some cases, this is not feasible or ideal because an industrial environment can be
quite harsh on the sensitive electronics used in PLCs. For this reason, remote I/O modules
have come into existence. There are many advantages to using remote I/O modules,
including:

 Remote I/Os eliminate expensive point-to-point wires by networking just a few, or

thousands of, process signals onto one digital communication link.
 For data acquisition, remote I/O modules send signals from field-mounted sensors,
transmitters, transducers, and alarms directly to DCS, PLC, and PC-based systems.
 Ability to send control signals long distances to remote valves, pumps, and motors
with remote?I/O.
 Unburdening of an overworked computer system by distributing signal conditioning
and intelligence.
 Can be used as expansion I/O to add points to a PLC system.
 Convert weak sensor signals to immune digital signals to avoid damage during long-
distance transmission through a noisy industrial environment.
 Remote I/O allows signals to be transmitted any distance and over any terrain with
twisted-pair wires, fiber optics, radio link, or modems.

Talk Page

Peer-to-Peer Configurations
Peer-to-peer networks, as shown in Figure 40, enhance reliability by decentralizing the
control functions without sacrificing coordinated control. In this type of network, numerous
PLCs are connected to one another in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common memory table is
duplicated in the memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory
area, the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network. They then
can use this information in their own operating programs.
With peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own control site
and only needs to be programmed for its own area of responsibility. This aspect of the
network significantly reduces programming and debugging complexity; because all
communications occur transparently to the user, communications programming is reduced to
simple read-and-write statements.
In a peer-to-peer system, theres no master PLC. However, its possible to designate one of the
PLCs as a master for use as a type of group controller. This PLC then can be used to accept
input information from an operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary
parameters to other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events.
Talk Page

Host Computer
PLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs,
from the small to the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi-
drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and
controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as
the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator interface.
In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all communications are initiated by the
host computer, which is connected to all the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer
individually addresses each of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information. The
addressed PLC then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis.
This cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.
Host computers also can aid in programming PLCs; powerful programming and
documentation software is available for program development. Programs then can be written
on the computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you can
create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer terminal.
In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other devices, such as operator
interface terminals for large security and building management systems. Although many
intelligent devices can communicate directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and
serial ASCII code, some do not have the software ability to interface with individual PLC
models. Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It is the PLC
programmers responsibility to provide the necessary software interface.
The easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is to use an
ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small computer that plugs
into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and programmed in BASIC, the module
easily can handle ASCII communications with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions,
programming sequences, "number crunching," report and display generation, and other
requirements.
Talk Page

PLC Software
Talk Page

Software vs. Firmware

The terms software and firmware both refer to digitally stored programs and data structures
that are read and written by computers. In the PLC world, software is usually reserved for
computer applications that allow the logical creation, monitoring, and troubleshooting of a
PLC program. One example of PLC software is the RSLogix program developed by Allen-
Bradley for use with their controllers. Firmware can be referred to as the actual program a
PLC uses to execute logical instruction. Firmware is often stored in internal memory or on an
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM). EEPROMs can be
used to store program backups if there is a program fault or a sustained power loss to the
PLC.
Talk Page

HMI Human Machine Interface

The basic purpose of an HMI is to allow convenient and intuitive graphical interface with a
process and for control systems to be more interactive and user-friendly. HMIs provide a
simple display that helps an operator determine machine conditions and make simple
settings. The following are the most common uses of HMIs:

 Display of machine and process faults and status

 Simple operational commands such as stop/start
 Monitor of production/process counts and values

Talk Page

Ladder Logic Diagrams

The ladder logic used in PLCs today was once referred to as relay logic due to the
implementation of physical relay coils used to control processes. Relay logic is now known
as ladder logic because when the logic circuit schematic is laid out with electrical notation, it
resembles a ladder with separate rungs, perpendicular between rails, containing symbols
used to represent Boolean logic expressions such as AND, OR, and NOT.

Figure 41: Ladder Logic

The example in Figure 41 shows two rungs containing a series of relays denoted as X, Y,
and Z. These are inputs while the symbol for S is an output.
The logical expression for this circuit is S=X AND (Y OR Z). If normally open contacts X
and Y are closed, there is an output at S. Likewise, because of the OR function of Y and Z,
there also is an output at S if X and Z are closed, but Y remains open. Any combination of
Boolean expressions can be used in ladder logic, including but not limited to AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR. Figure 32 shows a ladder logic circuit with two normally
closed contacts, X and Y, connected in an OR configuration with the output S. Their
equivalent Boolean logic gate symbols are also shown. Table 5 is a logic chart showing the
combination of inputs that create a logic high or low output from this circuit.
Figure 42: NAND Circuit
The two NOT gates leading into the OR gate in Figure 42(b) represent the normally closed
contacts in Figure 42(a). The NOT gate function reverses the logic of any incoming signal,
turning a HI into a LO and vice versa. When multiple rungs are connected to a single output
on a ladder logic diagram, an OR function exists, as represented by the OR gate in Figure
42(b). The combination of these three logic gates can be shown as a single NAND gate, as
in Figure 32(c). The NAND gate functions just like an AND gate, creating a logic HIGH
output in the presence of logic HI inputs X and Y. The only difference is the addition of the
NOT function, reversing the output from a logic HI to a logic LO so that two HI inputs equal
a LO output. Understanding the logic of this circuit, you can see that to turn the lamp off, X
and Y must be HI. It is common when examining logic circuits to refer to logic levels as true
or false, with true representing logic HI and false representing logic LO.
Talk Page

Logic Instructions
In order to use the PLC and make simple edits, it is necessary to understand some basic
commands. The commands are all entered in ladder logic format, and many of them are
based on nomenclature used in relay logic. There are timers, counters, coils, and contacts,
among other commands.
Talk Page

Relays
Talk Page
Examine If Closed XIC
This command functions as the input or storage bit (Figure 43). The command is addressed
to the bit level. If the corresponding memory bit is 1 (true), the instruction allows rung
continuity and outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction does not allow rung continuity (it
assumes its normally open state) and outputs on the rung are de-energized (other factors can
influence rung continuity).

Figure 43: XIC Command

A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point of view. The processor
is looking for power on that input point to make this statement a true statement. If a switch in
the field is closed, the processor sees power on the point and makes the XIC true. This
causes the rung to be true and enables any output that is present.
This command is similar to a normally open contact on a real world relay. If power is not on
the relay, the contact is open and continuity through the rung is not allowed. If power is not
on the PLC point, this command is false and does not allow continuity through the rung, just
like the relay contact.
If power is applied to the relay, the contact is closed and allows continuity through the rung.
In the case of the XIC, as shown in Figure 43, if power is applied to the field point, the
instruction becomes true and allows continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page

Examine If Open XIO

Figure 44: XIO Command

This command is similar to the XIC, except it works in reverse, as shown in Figure 34. If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction allows rung continuity and outputs are
energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the corresponding memory bit is 1
(true), this instruction does not allow rung continuity and outputs on the rung are de-
energized (other factors can influence rung continuity).
A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point of view. The processor
is looking for no power on that input point to make this statement a true statement. If a
switch in the field is opened, the processor sees no power on the point, and makes the XIO
true. This causes the rung to be true, and enables any output that is present.
This command is similar to a normally closed contact on a real world relay. If power is not
on the relay, the contact is closed and continuity through the rung is allowed. If power is not
on the PLC point, this command is true, and allows continuity through the rung, just like the
relay contact.
If power is applied to the relay, the contact is open, and does not allow continuity through
the rung. In the case of the XIC, if power is applied to the field point, the instruction is false,
and does not allow continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page

Output Energized OTE

Figure 45: OTE Command

The OTE instruction, which is shown in Figure 45, is used to control a bit in memory. If the
bit corresponds to an output module terminal, the device wired to the terminal is energized
when the instruction is enabled and de-energized when the instruction is disabled. If the
input conditions that precede the OTE instruction are true, the processor enables that
instruction. If the input conditions are false, the processor disables that instruction. When
rung conditions are false, the corresponding device de-energizes.
An OTE instruction is similar to a relay coil. The OTE instruction is controlled by preceding
input instructions and the relay coil is controlled by contacts in its hardwired rung.
Talk Page

Output Latched OTL

Figure 46: OTL Command

The OTL instruction in Figure 46 functions much the same as the OTE, with the exception
that once a bit is set with an OTL, it islatchedon. Once an OTL bit has been set on (1 in the
memory), it remains on, even if the rung condition goes false. The bit must be reset with an
OTU instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses power
and there is battery backup, the last true OTL instruction continues to control the bit in
memory. The latched output device is energized, even though the rung conditions that
control the instruction may have gone false.
The OTL instruction is retentive. When the processor loses power, is switched to program
mode or test mode, or detects a major fault causing outputs to go off. However, the states of
retentive outputs are retained in memory. When the processor resumes operation in run
mode, retentive outputs immediately return to their previous states. Non-retentive outputs,
such as OTE outputs, are reset.
Talk Page

Output Unlatched OTU

Figure 47: OTU Command

Figure 47 displays an OTU command, which is a retentive output instruction that only turns
off a bit (it cannot turn on a bit). This instruction usually is paired with OTL instruction, with
both instructions addressing the same bit. The OTU instruction turns off the bit that was
turned on (latched) by the OTL instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses power
and there is battery backup, the bit is retained in the state set by the last rung of the
latch/unlatch pair that was true.
The OTU instruction tells the processor to turn off the addressed bit based on the rung
condition. Thereafter, the bit remains off, regardless of the rung condition, until it is turned
on, typically by an OTL instruction in another rung.
Talk Page

Timers
Talk Page

Timer On Delay TON

 Figure 48: TON Command
The TON instruction shown in Figure 48 is used to turn an output on or off after the timer
has been on for a preset time interval. This instruction begins timing, at either 1 second or 1-
hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung is true and continues until one of the
following happens:

 The accumulated value equals the pre-set value.

 The rung goes false.

The processor resets the accumulated value when the rung conditions are false, regardless of
whether or not the timer has timed out. When the rung conditions go True, the timer is on
and the Enable (EN) bit is set. When the timer reaches its preset count and times out, the
Done (DN) bit is set to true.
Talk Page

Timer Off Delay TOF

Figure 49: TOF Command

The output instruction in Figure 49 begins timing, at either 1 second or 1-hundredth of a
second intervals, when its rung goesfalseand continues timing until one of the following
conditions occur:

 The accumulated value equals the pre-set value.

 The rung goes true.

The processor resets the accumulated value when the rung conditions are true, regardless of
whether or not the timer has timed out.
Talk Page

Retentive Timer On RTO

 Figure 50: RTO command
The RTO instruction shown in Figure 50 is used to turn an output on or off after its timer
has been on for a preset time interval. The RTO instruction lets the timer stop and start
without resetting the accumulated value.
The RTO instruction begins timing when its rung goes true. As long as the rung remains true,
the timer updates the accumulated value each program scan, until it reaches the pre-set value.
The RTO instruction retains its accumulated value even if one of the following occurs:

 The rung goes false.

 There is a change to program mode.
 The processor faults or loses power.

When the processor resumes operation or the rung goes true, timing continues from the
retained accumulated value. By retaining its accumulated value, retentive timers measure the
cumulative period during which its rung is true. The RTO command is reset using the RES
command.
Talk Page

Counters
Talk Page

Count Up Counter CTU

Figure 51: CTU Command

The CTU instruction shown in Figure 51 counts upward over a range of -32,768 to+32,767.
Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTU instruction increases the
accumulated value by one count. When the accumulated value equals or exceeds the pre-set
value, the CTU sets a DN bit the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as
controlling a storage bit or an output device. CTU instructions are retentive and require an
RES instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter decreases below the pre-set value.
Talk Page

Count Up Counter CTD

Figure 52: CTD Command

Figure 52 shows CTD instruction, which counts downward over a range of+32,767 to
-32,768. Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTD instruction decreases the
accumulated value by one count. The DN is set as long as the accumulated value is greater
than or equal to the pre-set value. When the accumulated value is less than the pre-set value,
the CTD resets a DN bit, which the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as
controlling a storage bit or an output device. CTD instructions are retentive and require RES
instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter increases above the pre-set value.
Talk Page

Reset Command RES

Figure 53: RES Command

The RES instruction shown in Figure 53 is an output instruction that resets a timer or
counter. The RES executes when its rung is true. Reset commands normally are used for
counters and retentive timers, but also may be used for TONs to reset the timers while their
rungs are still true.
Talk Page

Data Transfer Instructions

 Figure 54: Data Transfer Instructions
The Move (MOV) command shown in Figure 54 is an output instruction that copies a value
from a source address to a destination. As long as the rung remains true, the instruction
moves the data during each scan. This command makes a copy of the original and places the
duplicate in a new location (Dest). The original value remains intact and unchanged in its
source location.
Talk Page

Arithmetic Commands

Figure 55: ADD Command

PLCs have a wide variety of available mathematical commands. These commands simply
perform the indicated math function on any valid instruction address data or any number.
In the example shown in Figure 55, the user is adding the contents of N7:21 to the contents
of N7:22. The result is stored in file N7:19. Notice that the actual contents of the register
being used is shown below the register. In this case, N7:21, containing the number 20 is
added to N7:22, containing the number 5. The result is stored in N7:19 as the number 25
(20+5).
All math commands work in a similar manner.
Talk Page

Data Manipulation Instructions

Talk Page

Master Control Reset

 Figure 56: MCR Command
Figure 56 shows output instruction, which is also known as zone control used to set up areas
or zones of the ladder program where all non-retentive outputs may be simultaneously
disabled for the same length of time. It is used in pairs: one MCR to define the start of the
effected ladder area and one MCR to define the end of the area.
An input instruction is programmed on the rung of the first MCR to control rung logic
continuity. When the rung is false, all non-retentive outputs within the controlled zone are
disabled. When the rung is true, all rungs are scanned according to their normal rung
conditions, disregarding the zone control instruction.
CAUTION: MCR-controlled areas must contain only two MCR instructions: one to define
the start and one to define the end. Any additional MCR orgo-to" type instructions could
produce unexpected program damage or machine operation results. DO NOT OVERLAP
MCR ZONES! The MCR instruction is not a substitute for a hardwired master control relay
that provides emergency stop capability. You still should install a hardwired master control
relay to provide emergency I/O power shutdown.
Talk Page

Program Control Instructions

Talk Page

Subroutines

Subroutines are an important part of a PLC program. By using them, the programmer can
make a program much more logical and faster to execute.
Basically, a subroutine is a ladder that is only executed when it is called from the main
 program. File number 2 is always the first ladder in a program and, as such, is the main
ladder. When the processor scans its ladder programs, it only scans ladder number 2 unless
ladder number 2 commands it to go to another subroutine. If no other ladders are called by
a JSR, then the ONLY ladder executed is file 2. When a JSR is encountered, the program
jumps out of that ladder (in this case ladder 2), and goes to the ladder called for in the
subroutine jump command. When the end of the file is reached, the program jumps back to
the file that has the JSR, in this case file 2, and continues executing. It also returns if a
Return (RET) command is encountered in the ladder.
In order to call a subroutine, a command, such as the one shown in Figure 57, is used. It is
called a JSR (Jump To Subroutine) command. Notice that in this case, the subroutine being
called is ladder file number U: 3. The "U" indicates the file is for a user. All ladder files are
for users.

   
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER SERVICES PRIVACY POLICY TERMS OF USE ODESIE LICENSE HELP SITEMAP

WELCOME TO
THE INDUSTRIAL WIKI
RESEARCH CONTENT IN GREATER DETAIL
 Enter th

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
 W
X
Y
Z
WIKI Talk Page
MEN
U PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
WIKI (PLC)
HOM
E Talk Page
RAND Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) have become an integral part of the industrial
OM environment. As a technician involved with the processes controlled by PLCs, it is important
PAGE to understand their basic functionalities and capabilities.
MY Menu
SAVE
1 PLC Overview
D
ARTI 1.1 What is a Programmable Logic Controller?
CLES 1.2 History of the PLC
1.2.1 Advantages of PLCs
SITE 1.2.2 Components of a PLC
MEN 1.2.2.1 Input/Output Modules
U 1.2.2.2 Power Supply
STOR 1.2.2.3 Central Processing Unit CPU
E 1.2.2.4 Co-processor Modules
VIDE 1.2.2.5 Software
O 1.2.2.6 Peripheral Device
ARC 1.3 Basic Operation of a PLC
HIVE
1.3.1 Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System
EVEN
T 1.3.2 Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit
CENT 2 PLC Operations
ER 2.1 Basic Operation
FORU 2.1.1 Operational Sequence
M 2.1.2 The Scan Cycle
2.2 Logic Scan
3 PLC Hardware
3.1 PLC Components
3.2 Power Supply
3.3 Input/Output Modules
3.3.1 Input Modules
3.3.2 Input Module Wiring
3.3.3 Input Indicators
3.4 Output Module
3.4.1 Output Module Wiring
3.5 Discrete Modules
3.5.1 Discrete Module Wiring
3.6 Numerical Data Modules
3.7 AC/DC Input Modules
3.7.1 AC Input Modules
3.7.2 DC Input Discrete Modules
3.7.3 DC Input Analog Modules
3.8 AC/DC Output Modules
3.8.1 AC Output Modules
3.8.2 DC Output Modules Discrete
3.8.3 DC Output Modules Analog
3.8.4 Proportional Integral and Derivative PID Processor Module
3.9 Controls and Indicators
3.10 Scanning
3.11 User Program
4 Addressing and Number Systems
4.1 Number Systems
4.2 Types of Number Systems
4.2.1 Binary
4.3 Octal
4.3.1 Decimal to Octal/Octal to Decimal Conversion
4.3.2 Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion
4.4 Hexadecimal
4.4.1 Binary Coded Decimal
4.5 Addressing
4.5.1 Addressing Terminology
4.5.1.1 Chassis
4.5.1.2 Group
4.5.1.3 Rack
4.5.1.4 Slot
4.5.1.5 Elements
4.5.1.6 Words
4.5.1.7 Bit
4.5.1.8 Bytes
4.5.2 Rack Addressing Rules
4.5.3 Addressing Examples
5 PLC Communications
5.1 PLC Communication Description
5.2 PLC Communication Protocols
5.3 PLC Networking
5.3.1 Device Net
5.3.2 Control Net
5.3.3 Ethernet
5.3.4 Data Highway Plus DH+
5.3.5 PLC Terms
5.3.5.1 ASCII
5.3.5.2 ASCII Module
5.3.5.3 Bus Topology
5.3.5.4 CPU
5.3.5.5 Daisy Chain
5.3.5.6 Distributed Control
5.3.5.7 Host Computer
5.3.5.8 Intelligent Device
5.3.5.9 I/O
5.3.5.10 Kbps
5.3.5.11 Mbps
5.3.5.12 Node
5.3.5.13 Protocol
5.3.5.14 Ring Topology
5.3.5.15 RS232
5.3.5.16 Serial
5.3.5.17 Serial Port
5.3.5.18 Star Topology
5.3.5.19 Topology
5.3.5.20 Transparent
5.4 Remote I/O Configurations
5.5 Peer-to-Peer Configurations
5.6 Host Computer
6 PLC Software
6.1 Software vs. Firmware
6.2 HMI Human Machine Interface
6.3 Ladder Logic Diagrams
6.4 Logic Instructions
6.5 Relays
6.5.1 Examine If Closed XIC
6.5.2 Examine If Open XIO
6.5.3 Output Energized OTE
6.5.4 Output Latched OTL
6.5.5 Output Unlatched OTU
6.6 Timers
6.6.1 Timer On Delay TON
6.6.2 Timer Off Delay TOF
6.6.3 Retentive Timer On RTO
6.7 Counters
6.7.1 Count Up Counter CTU
6.7.2 Count Up Counter CTD
6.8 Reset Command RES
6.9 Data Transfer Instructions
6.10 Arithmetic Commands
6.11 Data Manipulation Instructions
6.11.1 Master Control Reset
6.12 Program Control Instructions
6.12.1 Subroutines
Talk Page

PLC Overview
Talk Page

What is a Programmable Logic Controller?

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for automation of
electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines,
amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines.
Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-
backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output
results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise
unintended operation will result. Figure 1 shows a graphical depiction of typical PLCs.
Figure 1: Typical PLCs
 Figure 2: Examples of Hardware PLCs Control
Talk Page

History of the PLC

PLC invention was in response to the needs of the American automotive manufacturing
industry where software revision replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired relay based control
panels when production models changed.
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing
automobiles relied on hundreds or, in some instances, thousands of relays, cam timers, and
drum sequencers and dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such
facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as
electricians needed to individually and manually rewire each and every relay.
In 1968 GM Hydramatic issued a request for proposal for an electronic replacement for hard-
wired relay systems. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford,
Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associateseighty-
fourth project, was the result. Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to
developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: MODICON, which stood
for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that project was Dick
Morley, the "father" of the PLC.
In other industries, PLCs replaced relay systems used in manufacturing applications. This
eliminated the high cost of maintaining these inflexible systems. In 1970, with the innovation
of the microprocessor, the machine that was originally used as a relay replacement device
only, evolved into the advanced PLC of today.
Talk Page

Advantages of PLCs
There are six major advantages of using PLCs over relay systems as follows:

 Flexibility
 Ease of troubleshooting
 Space efficiency
 Low cost
 Testing
 Visual operation

Flexibility: One single PLC can easily run many machines.

Ease of Troubleshooting: Back before PLCs, wired relay-type panels required time for
rewiring of panels and devices. With PLC control any change in circuit design or sequence is
as simple as retyping the logic. Correcting errors in PLC is both fast and cost effective.
Space Efficient: Fewer components are required in a PLC system than in a conventional
hardware system. The PLC performs the functions of timers, counters, sequencers, and
control relays, so these hardware devices are not required. The only field devices that are
required are those that directly interface with the system such as switches and motor starters.
Low Cost: Prices of PLCs vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is minimal
compared to the prices of the contact, coils, and timers that companies pay to match the same
things. Using PLCs also saves on installation cost and shipping.
Testing: A PLC program can be tested, evaluated, and validated in a lab prior to
implementation in the field.
Visual observation: When running a PLC program a visual operation displays on a screen or
module mounted status lamps assist in making troubleshooting a circuit quick, easy, and
relatively simple.
Talk Page

Components of a PLC
All PLCs have the same basic components. These components work together to bring
information into the PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send information
back out to various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to
function properly.
The basic components include a power supply, central processing unit (CPU or processor),
co-processor modules, input and output modules (I/O), and a peripheral device.
 Figure 3: PLC Components
Talk Page

Input/Output Modules
The type of input modules used by a PLC depends on the type of input device. For example,
some respond to digital inputs, which are eitheronoroffwhile others respond to analog
signals. In this case, analog signals represent machine or process conditions as a range of
voltage or current values. The PLC input circuitry converts signals into logic signals that the
CPU can use. The CPU evaluates the status of inputs, outputs, and other variables as it
executes a stored program. The CPU then sends signals to update the status of outputs.
Output modules convert control signals from the CPU into digital or analog values that can
be used to control various output devices. The programming device is used to enter or
change the PLCs program or to monitor or change stored values. Once entered, the program
and associated variables are stored in the CPU. In addition to these basic elements, a PLC
system may also incorporate an operator interface device to simplify monitoring of the
machine or process.
Talk Page

Power Supply
The function of the power supply is to provide the DC power to operate the PLC. It is
supplied by single-phase 120 or 240 VAC line power that powers the PLC system. See
Figure x.
 Figure 4:PLC Power Supply
The Power Supply is a module located in the PLC system module rack. The DC power
(voltage and current) it provides power the other modules in the rack, such as the CPU, Co-
processor Modules, and I/O Modules.
The line power provided to the PLC system also powers the I/O Field Devices. The PLC
system is protected against PLC module or field device malfunctions. The Fuse in Figure 4
provides this protection.
Talk Page

Central Processing Unit CPU

The function of the CPU is to store and run the PLC software programs. It also interfaces
with the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules, the peripheral device, and runs
diagnostics. It is essentially the "brains" of the PLC.
The CPU, shown in Figure X, contains a microprocessor, memory, and interface adapters.
 Figure 5: CPU
The items shown inside the CPU and their basic functions are as follows:

 The microprocessor codes, decodes, and computes data.

 The memory (ROM, PROM/EEPROM/UVPROM, and RAM) stores both the
control program and the data from the field devices.
 The I/O Interface adapter connects the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules and
the Peripheral Device to the CPU.

Talk Page

Co-processor Modules
Co-Processor Modules are programmable general-purpose microcomputers that expand the
capability and functionality of a PLC system. A Co-Processor Module is controlled by the
CPU, and interfaces with the CPU as shown above.
Co-Processor Modules monitor and control peripheral systems such as the following:

 Alphanumeric Displays
 Video Graphics Displays
 Communication Networks

Talk Page

Software
The function of Software is to provide instructions to the CPU and Co-Processor Modules.
Physically, software is a large group of logic ones and zeros stored in the memory of the
CPU.
Talk Page

Peripheral Device
The function of the peripheral device is to input data and monitor the equipment operation. It
may be a personal computer, handheld programmer, or an operator touch screen.
Talk Page

Basic Operation of a PLC

The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes decisions based on a "ladder
logic" program written by the user. In order to use the program properly, the PLC must
communicate with the various field devices it monitors and controls. It then compares the
actual conditions of the field devices with what the program instructs them to do, and
updates the output devices accordingly.

1. Input switch is pressed

2. Input module places a "1" in the input data table
3. The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into the output data
table
4. The output data table causes the output module to energize associated point
5. The output device energizes
 Figure 6: PLC Operation
Talk Page

Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System

Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a graphical diagram
based on the circuit diagrams of relay-based logic hardware. It is primarily used to develop
software PLCs used in industrial control applications. The name is based on the observation
that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a series of
horizontal rungs between them.
Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs, where sequential control of a process or
manufacturing operation is required. Ladder logic is useful for simple but critical control
systems, or for reworking old hardwired relay circuits. As PLCs became more sophisticated,
it has also been used in very complex automation systems. Often the ladder logic program is
used in conjunction with a HMI program operating on a computer workstation.
Manufacturers of programmable logic controllers generally also provide associated ladder
logic programming systems. Typically, the ladder logic languages from two manufacturers
will not be completely compatible; ladder logic is better thought of as a set of closely related
programming languages rather than one language (the IEC 61131-3 standard has helped to
reduce unnecessary differences, but translating programs between systems still requires
significant work). Even different models of PLCs within the same family may have different
ladder notation such that programs cannot be seamlessly interchanged between models.
Ladder logic is a rule-based language rather than a procedural language. A "rung" in the
ladder represents a rule. When implemented with relays and other electromechanical devices,
the various rules "execute" simultaneously and immediately. When implemented in PLC, the
rules execute sequentially by software in a continuous loop (scan). By executing the loop fast
enough, the effect of simultaneous and immediate execution is achieved to within the
tolerance of the time required to execute every rung in the "loop" (the "scan time").
Talk Page

Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit

The language itself is a set of connections between logical checkers (contacts) and actuators
(coils). If a path traced between the left side of the rung and the output, through asserted
(true or closed) contacts, the rung is true and the output coil storage bit is asserted 1. If no
path is traced, then the output is false (0) and the coil by analogy to electromechanical relays
is considered de-energized.
Ladder logic has contacts that make or break circuits to control coils. Each coil or contact
corresponds to the status of a single bit in the PLCs memory. Unlike electromechanical
relays, a ladder program can refer any number of times to the status of a single bit,
equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely large number of contacts.
Contacts may refer to physical or hard inputs to the PLC from devices such as pushbuttons
and limit switches via an integrated or external input module, or may represent the status of
internal storage bits, which may be generated elsewhere in the program.
Each rung of ladder language typically has one coil at the far right. Some manufacturers may
allow more than one output coil on a rung.

 ( ) - Regular coil. It is energized whenever its rung is closed.

 (\\) - "Not" coil. It is energized whenever its rung is open.
 [ ] - Regular contact. It is closed whenever its corresponding coil or an input which
controls it is energized.
 [\\] - "Not" contact. It is open whenever its corresponding coil or an input which
controls it is energized.

The coil or output of a rung, may represent a physical output, which operates some device
connected to the PLC, or may represent an internal storage bit for use elsewhere in the
program.
 Figure 7: Simple Ladder Diagram
Ladder logic is typically read left to right and top to bottom. As each of the lines or rungs are
evaluated, the output coil of a rung may feed into the next stage of the ladder as an input. In a
complex system there will be many rungs on a ladder, which are numbered in order of
evaluation.
Talk Page

PLC Operations
Talk Page

Basic Operation
The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes decisions based on a ladder
logic program written by the user (see Topic I). In order to use the program properly, the
PLC must communicate with the various field devices it is tasked with monitoring and
controlling. It then compares the actual conditions of the field devices with what the program
instructs them to do, and updates the output devices accordingly.
Talk Page

Operational Sequence
The operational sequence shown in Figure 6 is as follows:

1. Input switch is pressed

2. Input module places a "1" in the input data table
3. The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into the output data
 table
4. The output data table causes the output module to energize associated point
5. The output device energizes

Figure 8: PLC Operational Sequence

Talk Page

The Scan Cycle

PLCs operate by continually scanning programs and repeat this process many times per
second. When a PLC starts, it runs checks on the hardware and software for faults, also
called a self-test. If there are no problems, then the PLC will start the scan cycle. The scan
cycle consists of three steps: input scan, executing program(s), and output scan. Figure 7
shows the three steps.
Input Scan: A simple way of looking at this is the PLC takes a snapshot of the inputs and
solves the logic. The PLC looks at each input card to determine if it isonoroffand saves this
information in a data table for use in the next step. This makes the process faster and avoids
cases where an input changes from the start to the end of the program.
Execute Program (or Logic Execution): The PLC executes a program one instruction at a
time using only the memory copy of the inputs the ladder logic program. For example, the
program has the first input ason, since the PLC knows which inputs are on/off from the
previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on.
Output Scan: When the ladder scan completes, the outputs are updated using the temporary
values in memory. The PLC updates the status of the outputs based on which inputs were on
during the first step and the results of executing a program during the second step. The PLC
now restarts the process by starting a self-check for faults.

Figure 9: PLC Scan Cycle

Talk Page

Logic Scan
Ladder logic programs are modeled after relay logic. In relay logic, each element in the
ladder will switch as quickly as possible. Program elements can only be examined one at a
time in a fixed sequence. The ladder logic graphic in Figure 8 is interpreted left-to-right, top-
to-bottom. The ladder logic scan begins at the top rung. At the end of the rung, it interprets
the top output first, then the output branched below it. On the second rung, it solves
branches, before moving along the ladder logic rung.

Figure 10: PLC Logic Scan

Talk Page

PLC Hardware
Talk Page
PLC Components
PLCs have grown throughout industrial control applications because of the ease they bring to
creating a controller: ease of programming, ease of wiring, ease of installation, and ease of
changing. All PLCs have the same basic components. These components work together to
bring information into the PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send
information back out to various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will
fail to function properly. PLCs span a wide range of sizes, but all contain six basic
components as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10:

1. Power supply
2. Input module
3. Output module
4. Processor (CPU)
5. Rack or mounting assembly
6. Programming unit (software)

Figure 11: PLC Rack

 Figure 12: PLC Components
Talk Page

Power Supply
The power supply, as shown in Figure 13, provides power for the PLC system. The power
supply provides internal DC current to operate the processor logic circuitry and input/output
assemblies. Common power levels used are 24V DC or 120 VAC.

Figure 13: Power Supply

Talk Page
Input/Output Modules
Many types of inputs and outputs can be connected to a PLC, and they can all be divided into
two large groups analog (discrete) and digital. Digital inputs and outputs are those that
operate due to a discrete or binary change - on/off, yes/no. Analog inputs and outputs change
continuously over a variable range - pressure, temperature, potentiometer. AC modules are
always discrete. DC modules can be either discrete or analog.
The standard PLC module types and their descriptions are as follows:

 AC Input - Uses AC voltage for input field device status.

 DC Input (Discrete) - Uses DC voltage for input field device status.
 DC Input (Analog) - The input is a variable DC signal level.
 AC Output - Controls the ON/OFF state of AC output field devices such as relays,
coils, and solenoids.
 DC Output (Discrete) - Discrete DC output modules control the ON/OFF states of
DC output field devices.
 DC Output (Analog) - Provides a variable DC level.

I/O modules are available with various numbers of field device points, such as 4, 8, 16 and
32 point. Optocouplers in the modules are used to electrically isolate the module from the
CPU.
Talk Page

Input Modules
Input modules provide the electrical connection between field devices (pushbuttons, limit
switches, photoeyes) and internal process of the PLC. They differ in voltages and types of
signals produced such ason,offor a variable voltage. Figure 14 shows an example of a
generic input module.
 Figure 14: PLC Input Module
Talk Page

Input Module Wiring

During normal PLC operation, different methods of connecting the field device wires to the
I/O Modules offer no significant advantages over each other. Field devices can be wired
differently to provide safety and protection in the event of failures in field devices, or faults
in their electrical circuits.
"Backups" are field devices required to operate properly to provide safety in the event of a
failure of another device or fault in a circuit. If the circuit for a backup is not affected, the
backup should operate properly and continue to provide safety.
The safety of sequentially controlled systems, industrial facilities, and even personnel
frequently depends on field devices (especially the backups) operating properly.
Sink and Source connections at a DC Input Module are defined by whether or not the field
device DC power comes from a power supply external to the PLC (see Figure 14). Neither
connection has any fault protection advantage
Talk Page

Input Indicators
Indicator lights are located on the digital input modules. These lights indicate the status of
the input point on the module. The active light indicates whether or not the module is active
and communicating with the processor.
The indicator lights are numbered in two rows, 00-7 and 10-17 (I/O addressing will be
discussed later). These numbers represent each of the input points on the module. If an input
point has power applied to it, the associated light illuminates. The lights are very useful in
verifying that field devices, such as switches and photoeyes, are properly operating.
Figure 15 shows the common layout for indicator lights on an input module. Note that these
lights ONLY show the user that power is getting to this point on the module. They do NOT
indicate whether or not the processor is actually receiving that indication.

Figure 15: Input Indicators

Talk Page

Output Module
Outputs are the devices that the PLC uses to send changes out to the world. These are the
actuator the PLC can change to adjust or control the process - motors, lights, relays, pumps,
etc. Figure 16 shows an example of an output module.

Figure 16: PLC Output Module

Talk Page

Output Module Wiring

DC Modules use "Sink" and "Source" connections. The connections are determined by the
configuration of the module being used. DC Modules are configured differently because of
the DC polarity differences required of the two connections.
Talk Page

Discrete Modules
The term refers to an Off switching output. One type of PLC module that produces discrete
signals is a relay module. It has physical relay that opens (Figure 17) or closes (Figure 18)
to make or break a circuit connected to its terminals. Relay modules have several pairs; each
of which are connected to internal relay contacts.

Figure 17: Relay Module Open Contact

 Figure 18: Relay Module Closed Contact
Another type of discrete module is the sinking output module so named because
conventional current flows into its terminal when a specific output is turned on.
Conventional current flows from a positive to negative potential.

Figure 19: Sinking Output Module

Figure 20 and Figure 21 show the sequence sinking output module activated and not
activated.
Figure 20: Output Module Activated
 Figure 21: Output Module NOt Activated
Figure 22 shows a graphical depiction of events when the output is activated:

1. An NPN transistor turns on

2. The output terminal goes to LOW
3. Conventional current flows from the positive of the power supply through the field
device into the sinking terminal of the output module through the transistor to the
negative of the power supply.
 Figure 22: Output Activated
Talk Page

Discrete Module Wiring

The DC Output (Discrete) Module field device DC power always comes from a power
supply external to the PLC (see Figure X). For certain fault conditions, the source output
connection offers additional safety and protection.
Talk Page

Numerical Data Modules

With the integration of the microprocessor into PLC architecture in the early 1970s arrived
new capabilities for arithmetic operation and data manipulation. This expanded processing
capability led to a new class of I/O interfaces known as numerical data I/O. Numerical input
interfaces allowed measured quantities to be input from instruments and other devices that
provided numerical data, while numerical output interfaces allowed control of devices that
required numerical data.
In general, numerical data I/O interfaces can be categorized into two groups: those that
provide interface-to-multi-bit digital devices and those that provide interface-to-analog
devices. The multi-bit interfaces are like the discrete I/O in that the processed signals are
discrete. The difference, however, is that with the discrete I/O, only a single bit is required to
read an input or control an output. Multi-bit interfaces allow a group of bits to be input or
output as a unit to accommodate devices that require the bits to be handled in parallel form
or in serial form. The numerical data I/O allows monitoring and control of analog voltages
and currents, which are compatible with many sensors, motors drives, and process
instruments. With the use of multi-bit or analog I/O, most process variables can be measured
or controlled with appropriate interfacing.
Talk Page

AC/DC Input Modules

Talk Page

AC Input Modules
AC input modules detect the presence or absence of AC voltage, and convert that voltage to
a low level for input to the CPU. The AC voltage indicates the field device status. The
voltage level is commonly 24, 115 or 220 VAC. Modules are available for up to 1,000 VAC.
An AC Input module schematic diagram is shown in Figure X. When the field device
completes the input circuit, a path for AC exists. An LED on the front of the module,
indicates the input is present.
 Figure 23: AC Input Module Schematic
A rectifier converts the AC to DC. The optocoupler isolates the input module from the CPU
and effectively drops the DC voltage level to a level safe for CPU operations.
Most AC input modules use an external AC power supply for "interrogation" of the field
devices. On-board AC power supplies increase the size of the module and require additional
heat dissipation considerations.
AC inputs may use a common neutral connection for several points or there may be an
"isolated" neutral for each point for additional fault protection. The input module shown in
Figure 7 uses neutral C1 for points 00-07 and neutral C2 for points 10-17. Analog AC input
modules are not commonly used because there are no standardized analog AC voltage or
current signals.
Talk Page

DC Input Discrete Modules

Discrete DC input modules detect the presence or absence of DC voltage, and convert that
voltage to a low level for input to the CPU. The DC voltage is used to indicate the field
device status. Figure X shows a DC Input module schematic diagram.

Figure 24: DC Input Module (Discrete)

The DC voltage may be supplied by the input module (sink input) or it may be supplied by
an external power supply (source input). Detailed explanations of "sinked" and "sourced"
connections are given in this module later under "Field Device Wiring Connections."
As with AC input modules, the input is optocoupled to the CPU for isolation and CPU
protection. An LED provides indication when the input is present (true).
Talk Page

DC Input Analog Modules

Analog DC input modules detect a DC voltage or current level, convert that variable into a
proportional digital signal and transmit that data to the CPU for processing. The modules can
be configured to operate on standard instrumentation signal ranges such as 4-20 mA, 10-50
mA, 15V, 0-1 0V.
A schematic diagram of an analog DC input module is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 25: DC Input Module (Analog)

After the module converts the analog value to digital, the PLC can turn control functions on
and off at preset analog values. For example, when the input analog value reaches 70
percent, an alarm sounds.
In special applications, an analog input can be combined with an analog output module.
Through programming, the PLC can then perform like a conventional single loop controller.
Talk Page
AC/DC Output Modules
Talk Page

AC Output Modules
AC output modules control the ON/OFF states of AC output field devices such as relays,
coils, and solenoids. They do not normally supply power to the field devices. Figure X is a
schematic diagram of the module.

Figure 26: AC Output Module

The CPU uses a low-voltage DC signal to activate an opto-coupler in the output module. The
opto-coupler gates a TRIAC or SCR that in turn completes the current path for the external
power supply and field device. As with most PLC modules, the voltage rating and the
number of points are selectable and the outputs may have common or isolated neutrals.
Talk Page

DC Output Modules Discrete

Discrete DC output modules control the on/off states of DC output field devices. Power is
supplied by an external power supply. A schematic diagram of the module is shown in
Figure 27.

Figure 27: DC Output Module (Discrete)

The CPU sends a low-level DC signal to an opto-coupler that completes the external DC
current path that energizes the output field device. Field device connections may either be
"sinked" or "sourced".
Talk Page

DC Output Modules Analog

Analog DC output modules convert digital data from the CPU to analog data for field device
use. A Digital to Analog (D/A) converter in the module performs the conversion. See Figure
28 for a schematic diagram of the module.
 Figure 28: DC Output Module (Analog)
Analog outputs conform to standard instrumentation signals (4-20 mA, 10-50 mA, 1-5V, 0-1
0V). An external DC power supply is used to power the output field device and the
optocoupler in the module.
Analog outputs and inputs require more computing time than discrete modules. The
additional time is needed to perform A/D and D/A conversions and to "block transfer" the
additional information to and from the CPU.
For this reason, most PLC applications use on/off control with only a small amount of analog
I/O. If a large amount of analog data requires processing, other systems (loop controllers,
Digital Control Systems) are usually used.
Talk Page

Proportional Integral and Derivative PID Processor Module

A PID module combines analog input, analog output, and a control program of a typical
single loop controller. A PID module is a smart module. This means that it has an on-board
microprocessor and program.
The module carries out loop control without the use of the CPU in the PLC. These modules
do communicate with the CPU for non-routine functions such as alarm reporting and
programming changes.
Talk Page
Controls and Indicators
Most processor modules have front panel lights or indications to provide the user with status
indications of PLC operation. These lights are very useful in troubleshooting. Also provided
on most processor modules is a switch used to change the module mode of operation from
RUN to PROGRAM. Additional connections are also usually provided to allow the
connection of a terminal for programming the PLC and a port for connections to external
I/O.
Talk Page

Scanning
The processor module controls the PLC by executing the software program. During program
execution, the processor reads all the inputs and uses the values, in accordance with the
control logic, to energize or de-energize the outputs, thus solving the ladder network. Once
all the logic is solved, the processor updates all outputs. The process of reading the inputs,
executing the program, and updating the outputs is known as a scan. The time required to
make a single scan varies from 1 msec to 100 msec.
The scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of reading the status of inputs,
evaluating the control logic, and updating outputs. The common scan method of monitoring
the inputs at the end of each scan is inadequate for reading certain rapid inputs. Some PLCs
provide software instructions that will allow the interruption of the continuous program scan
to immediately receive an input or update an output. These immediate instructions are very
useful when the PLC must instantaneously react to a critical input or output.
Talk Page

User Program
The user program memory is an area reserved in the application memory for the storage of
the control logic. All the PLC instructions that control the machine or process are stored
here. The addresses of inputs and outputs, whether real or internal, are specified in this
section of memory.
When the processor is in the run mode and the program is executed, the processor interprets
the user program memory locations and controls the bits of the data table that correspond to
real or internal outputs. The interpretation of the user program is accomplished by the
processors execution of the executive program.
The maximum amount of available user program memory is normally a function of the
processor size (i.e., I/O capacity). In medium and large controllers, the user program area is
normally flexible by altering the size of the data table so that it meets the minimum data
storage requirements. In small processors, however, the user program area is normally fixed.
Talk Page

Addressing and Number Systems

Talk Page
Number Systems
The earliest number or counting system known to man was developed to help determine a
quantity for a collection of possessions. As daily activities became more complex, numbers
became more important in trade, time, distance, and all other aspects of human life.
Numbers are extremely important in everyday life. As such, a more complex system was
required than counting everything on ones fingers and toes.
Ever since the necessity to count objects was discovered, man has been looking for easier
ways to count them. The abacus, developed by the Chinese, is one of the earliest known
methods for counting. The simple system of beads and wires arranged within a frame
provided an early means for calculation. The apparatus proved helpful and is still used in
some parts of the world today.
As time, technology, and need progressed, so did the means and methods required for
accurate calculation. The first adding machine was invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642.
Twenty years later, an Englishman, Sir Samuel Morland, developed a more compact device
that could multiply, add, and subtract. Then, Wilhelm Liebnitz perfected a machine in 1671
that could perform all the basic operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, as well as the extraction of the square root. The principles pioneered by
Liebnitz are still used today by modern electronic digital computers.
Computers are used wherever repeated calculations or the processing of large amounts of
data is necessary. Some of the greatest applications are found in the military, scientific, and
commercial fields. These fields have applications ranging from manufacturing processes to
engineering design, to the identification and destruction of enemy targets. The advantages of
digital computers include speed, accuracy, and labor savings. Often, computers are used to
manage routine jobs, allowing personnel to perform other tasks, which may require a human
touch.
People and computers normally do not speak the same language. However, methods of
translating information into forms that are understood and used by both are necessary.
Humans generally speak in words and numbers expressed in the decimal number system,
while computers only understand coded electronic pulses that represent digital information.
In this section, you will learn about number systems, in general, and specifically learn about
binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems. The methods for converting numbers in the
binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems to equivalent numbers in the decimal system, and
vice versa, will also be discussed. This training module will discuss the different types of
number systems that can be converted easily to the electronic pulses necessary for digital
equipment and industrial communications.
Talk Page

Types of Number Systems

The decimal system is the most commonly used number system. The Roman numeral
system, though seldom used, is another well-known number system. Other number systems
include binary, octal, and hexadecimal. All number systems have a base and a number value.
Talk Page

Binary
The simplest possible number system is the binary, or base 2, system. Since the binary
number system is a base 2 system, only two symbols, 0 and 1, are used.
The binary system is also a positional notation system. While the decimal system uses
powers of 10 to determine the value of a position, the binary system uses powers of 2 to
determine the value of a position. A bar graph showing the positions and the powers of the
base is shown below:

Table 1 provides a comparison of decimal and binary numbers. Notice each time the total
number of binary symbol positions increases, the binary number indicates the next higher
power of 2. The table also shows that more symbol positions are necessary in the binary
system to represent equivalent values in the decimal system.
Talk Page

Octal
The octal, or base 8, number system is a common system used with computers. Because of
its relationship with the binary system, it is useful in programming some types of computers.
As with the other systems, the base, or radix, is the number of symbols used in the system.
The octal system uses eight symbols, 0 through 7. The base is indicated by the subscript 8.
Table 2 compares the binary, octal, and decimal number systems and shows that one octal
digit is the equivalent value of three binary digits.

Similar to the decimal and binary systems, the octal system is a positional notation system.
The octal system uses powers of 8. The following bar graph shows the positions and the
power of the base:

Here the power, orexponent, indicates the number of times the base is multiplied by itself.
The value of thismultiplicationis expressed in base 10 as shown below:

Talk Page

Decimal to Octal/Octal to Decimal Conversion

In decimal systems, each decimal place is a base of 10. For example:

In octal, numerals each place is a power with base 8. For example:

By performing the calculation above in the familiar decimal system we see why 112 in octal
is equal to 64 + 8 + 2 = 74 in decimal.
Talk Page

Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion

The following example further illustrates this comparison and shows the conversion of octal
2258to binary and back to octal:

Talk Page

Hexadecimal
The hexadecimal, or hex, number system is a more complex system in use with computers.
The name is derived from the fact that the system uses 16 symbols. It is beneficial in
computer programming because of its relationship to the binary system. Since 16 in the
decimal system is the 2 to the fourth power (or 24), one hex digit has a value equal to four
binary digits. Table 2 compares the binary and hexadecimal number systems.
As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands for a single object. A number in the
hex system is the symbol used to represent a unit or quantity. The Arabic numerals 0 through
9 are used with the first six letters of the alphabet. Letters are sometimes used in math
problems to represent unknown quantities but in the hex system, A, B, C, D, E, and F each
have a definite value as shown below:
The base, or radix, of the hex system is 16, which represents the number of symbols used in
the system. A quantity expressed in hex is annotated by the subscript 16, as shown below:

Like the binary, octal, and decimal systems, the hex system is a positional notation system.
Powers of 16 are used for the positional values of a number. The following bar graph shows
the positions:

Multiplying the base times itself the number of times indicated by the exponent will show
the equivalent decimal value:

As seen by the positional values, usually fewer symbol positions are required to express a
number in hex than in decimal. The following example shows this comparison:

Talk Page

Binary Coded Decimal

Computers and microprocessors both operate on a series of electrical pulses called words. A
word can be represented by a binary number such as 101100112. The word length is
described by the number of digits or BITS in the series. A series of four digits would be
called a 4-bit word and so forth. The most common are 4-, 8-, and 16-bit words. Quite often,
these words must use binary-coded decimal inputs.
Binary-coded decimal, or BCD, is a method of using binary digits to represent the decimal
digits 0 through 9. A decimal digit is represented by four binary digits, as shown below:
You should note in the table above that the BCD coding is the binary equivalent of the
decimal digit.
Since many devices use BCD, knowing how to handle this system is important. You must
realize that BCD and binary are not the same. For example, 4910in binary is 1100012, but
4910in BCD is 01001001BCD. Each decimal digit is converted to its binary equivalent.
Talk Page

Addressing
Addressing is the most important concept to understand when learning PLCs. Addressing is
how we make a correlation between the field devices controlled by the PLC, and the data
that is stored in the PLCs memory. If you cannot address a point or group of points in the
PLCs memory, then you cannnot control the field device associated with that point.
The easiest way to approach understanding the addressing used in the Allen Bradley PLC-5
is to view all addresses from the processors point of view. By this, we mean that in order for
a real device in the field, such as a relay, to be operated by the PLC, the PLC must first have
a record of that point in its memory. That point can then be accessed by the PLC. The Allen
Bradley PLC-5 stores the information regarding all of the points it can address in areas
called Data Tables as shown in figure 29. The data tables are divided up by function.
 Figure 29: Data Table Files
Talk Page

Addressing Terminology
There are seven terms one must know in order to understand addressing as defined below.
Talk Page

Chassis
Hardware assembly (physical rack) that houses devices such as I/O modules, adapter
modules, processor modules, and power supplies. Chassis are available in six sizes: 4-, 8-,
12-, and 16-slot.
Talk Page

Group
An I/O addressing unit consisting of one input and one output word (16 bits each) of the data
table. Depending on the density of the I/O module and the addressing mode used, some of
the bits in a group may be unused. The group number is included in I/O addresses in the
position represented with agin the format: I:rrg/xx.
Talk Page

Rack
An I/O addressing unit that corresponds to eight input image table words and eight output
image table words (8 groups). A rack is a logical entity not to be confused with the physical
chassis. 8 groups = 1 full rack, 6 groups = rack, 4 groups = rack, 2 groups = rack. The rack
number is included in I/O addresses in the position represented with an "rr" in the format:
I:rrg/xx.
Talk Page

Slot
A location in a chassis for installing a module. The number of physical slots per group
determines the addressing mode.
Talk Page

Elements
Data files are made up of individual data blocks called "Elements" or "Structures". Each
element is composed of "words", and each word is composed of "bits". Elements are
comprised of from 1 to 56 words, depending on the instruction. Most instructions you will
encounter will have from one to three words to an element.
An example of an element level address is T4:0
T4:0 indicates the first timer (0) in the default timer file (T4). Each timer is comprised of
three (3) 16 bit words. When you say T4:0, you are referring to all three of these words as a
group.
 Figure 30: Elements
Another example, illustrated on the right, is the address N7:15. This identifies element 15 in
the integer file N7. Since integer files have one word elements, the element number and
word number will match in this case as shown in Figure X and Figure Y.
 Figure 31: Element Address
Talk Page

Words
Words are the next level of identification down from elements. Each "word" in the PLC is
comprised of 16 bits as shown in Figure 32.
When an instruction is addressed to the word level, it is looking at all 16 bits of a particular
word in an element. When an element is comprised of more than one word, the 0 word
contains status data in bit form, and the other words contain data which must be stored in
more than one bit.
A good example is a timer file. Timers elements are comprised of three words. The 0 word
contains status information which can be stored in individual bits. For example, the 17 bit in
the 0 word is the done bit, indicating that the timer has timed out.
The one and two words contain information which require a full word to contain. In the
timer, the one word contains the value of the preset (PRE) of the timer, and the two word
contains the information about the Accumulator (ACC). These words are addressed by their
symbols, PRE and ACC. When accessing an element to the word level, the period (.) is used
to delimit instead of the slash (/).
 Figure 32: Word Address
Talk Page

Bit
The smallest unit of data in a PLC is the bit. Bits make up words, which in turn make up
elements. Many instructions must be specified down to the bit level. For example, if you
want to know the status of the Done bit on a timer, you must specify the address down to the
bit level. The address would be:
T4:0/DN
T4:0 is the element we are addressing. Since we are addressing a single bit, we put the "/"
sign as a bit delimiter, and then specify the bit. In this case the Done bit. Figure 33 shows the
element B3:63 and the bit 15. Note that in this case, the individual bits are identified by
numbers, not names (as in the done bit in the timer). This is true of bits in all files except
those having more than one word in an element.

Figure 33: Bit Address

Talk Page

Bytes
A group of bits forming a piece of data. Usually a subset of a word consisting of eight bits.
Talk Page

Rack Addressing Rules

Addressing to a rack is just assigning a physical slot in the chassis to a logical word in the
processor. Rack addressing involves only data tables 0 and 1, the output and input data
tables. The type of addressing shown in figure x is called single slot addressing, and is the
most common type of addressing used in Allen Bradley PLCs. To review the rules for rack
addressing, use the following while referring to the previous figure on PLC 5 Racks.:

 A rack is a logical term that defines 8 words in the processor input data table and 8
words in the processor output data table.
 These words are numbered 0-7.
 Each logical rack can store 128 bits of information in its input rack and 128 bits in
its output rack. (8 words per rack x 16 bits per word=128 bits of data storage)
 In single slot addressing, each physical slot is addressed to one input word and also
to one output word. This makes it possible to put either an input module or an output
module in any slot.
 The number of logical racks determines how many points a particular model of PLC
can address. This number is fixed for any particular processor and cannot be
changed.
 Rack addressing is always in the format shown in Figure 34 below.

Figure 34: Rack Addressing Format

Talk Page

Addressing Examples
Each type of device has its own table in which to store data. In order to specify exactly
which piece of data is to be accessed, an addressing format is used which makes use of this
data structure.
In Figure 35, addresses for input and output addresses are shown. Reading from the left to
the right, the addresses tell the following:

 Which data table a point exist in

 Which rack of data the point is in
 Which group the point is in
 The exact point

Note that a colon separates the file identifier from the rest of the address. This is constant
for ALL addresses.

Figure 35: Rack Addressing Format

Talk Page

PLC Communications
Talk Page

PLC Communication Description

PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the Data Highway+and also communicate
with their own remote racks via the remote I/O communications channel. Some guidelines
for PLC communications are as follows:

 The DH+provides communications between processors on the DH+

 Each processor on the DH+MUST have its own unique address
 A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link.
 If a processor has enough communications channels (like the 5/40), it can
communicate on more than one DH+peer link at a time.
 DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another. It DOES
NOT allow one PLC to control another PLC. It just lets you talk from PLC to PLC.
It also makes it possible to plug a terminal into ANY PLC on the peer link and talk
to any other PLC on the peer link with the terminal.
 Each chassis MUST have either an Adapter module or a Processor module installed
in the left most slot.
 In order for a processor to have remote chassis, one channel MUST be set up as a
 scanner channel.

Talk Page

PLC Communication Protocols

Today, most manufacturers of PLC systems have developed their own proprietary
communication protocol, making it difficult to combine PLC components from different
manufacturers. Communication protocols set the standards for data representation, signaling,
authentication, and error detection required to send information over a communications
channel. MODBUS is currently the most common protocol used by PLC manufacturers.
Talk Page

PLC Networking
Talk Page

Device Net
Device Net is one of the most widely supported networks. It is an open standard, so
components from a variety of manufacturers can be used together in the same control
system. It is supported and promoted by the Open Device Net Vendors Association (ODVA).
This group includes members from all of the major controls manufacturers. The network is
noise-resistant and robust. One major change for the control engineer is that the PLC chassis
can be eliminated and the network can be directly connected to the sensors and actuators.
This reduces the total amount of system wiring by moving I/O points closer to the
application point. Two-way communication inputs and outputs allow diagnosis of network
problems from the main controller.
Device Net covers all seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standard. The
protocol has a limited number of network addresses with very small data packets. This helps
limit network traffic and ensures responsiveness. The length of the network cables limits the
maximum speed of the network. The basic features include:

 A single bus cable that delivers data and power

 Up to 64 nodes on the network
 A data packet size of 0-8 bytes
 Cable lengths of 500m/250m/100m for speeds of 125kbps/250kbps/500kbps,
respectively
 Devices can be added or removed while power is on
 Based on the CANbus (Controller Area Network) protocol for OSI levels 1 and 2
 Addressing includes peer-to-peer, multicast, master/slave, polling, or change of state

Talk Page

Control Net
Control Net is complimentary to Device Net. The standard is designed for communication
among controllers and it permits more complex messages than Device Net. It is not suitable
for communication with individual sensors and actuators, or with devices off the factory
floor. Control Net is a more complicated protocol method than Device Net. Control Net
features include:

 Multiple controllers and I/O on one network

 Deterministic
 Data rates up to 5Mbps
 Multiple topologies (bus, star, tree)
 Multiple media (coax, fiber, etc.)
 Up to 99 nodes with addresses; up to 48 without a repeater
 Data packets up to 510 bytes
 Unlimited I/O points
 Maximum length examples:
o 1000m with coax at 5Mbps - 2 nodes
o 250m with coax at 5Mbps - 48 nodes
o 5000m with coax at 5Mbps with repeaters
o 3000m with fiber at 5Mbps
o 30Km with fiber at 5Mbps and repeaters
o Five repeaters in series, 48 parallel segments
 Devices individually powered (no network power)
 Devices can be removed while network is active

The network is unique because it supports a real-time messaging scheme called Concurrent
Time Domain Multiple Access (CTDMA). The network has scheduled, high priority and
unscheduled, low priority updates. When collisions are detected, the system waits at least
2ms for unscheduled messages. However, scheduled messages will be passed sooner, during
a special time window.
Talk Page

Ethernet
Ethernet is the predominate networking format. The first version was released in 1980 by a
consortium of companies, and various versions of Ethernet frames were released in the
subsequent years. These include Version II and Novell Networking (IEEE 802.3). Most
modern Ethernet cards support different types of frames.
The Ethernet frame is shown in Figure 36. The first six bytes make up the destination
address for the message. If all of the bits in the bytes are set, then any computer that receives
the message will read it. The first three bytes of the address are specific to the card
manufacturer, and the remaining bytes specify the remote address. The address is common
for all versions of Ethernet. The source address specifies the message sender. The Ethernet
type identifies the frame as a Version II Ethernet packet if the value is greater than 05DChex.
Other Ethernet types use these two bytes to indicate the data length. The data can be from 46
to 1,500 bytes in length. The frame concludes with a checksum that is used to verify data is
correctly transmitted. When the end of the transmission is detected, the last four bytes are
used to verify the frame is correctly received.
Talk Page

Data Highway Plus DH+

Allen-Bradley PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the DH+protocol and also
communicate with their own remote chassis via the remote I/O communications channel.
Some guidelines for DH+communications include:

 The DH+provides communication among DH+processors.

 Each processor on the DH+must have its own unique address.
 A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link.
 If a processor has enough communication channels (like the 5/40), it can
communicate on more than one DH+peer link at a time.
 DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another. It does not
allow one PLC to control another PLC; it just lets you talk from PLC to PLC. It also
makes it possible to plug a terminal into any PLC on the peer link and talk to any
other PLC on the peer link with the terminal.
 Each chassis must either have an adapter module or a processor module installed in
the leftmost slot.
 In order for a processor to have a remote chassis, one channel must be set up as a
scanner channel.

Talk Page

PLC Terms
Talk Page

ASCII
Stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." For example, when the
letter "A" is transmitted it is automatically coded as "65" by the sending equipment. The
receiving equipment translates the "65" back to the letter "A." Thus, different devices can
communicate with each other as long as both use ASCII code.
Talk Page

ASCII Module
This intelligent PLC module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of
communicating using ASCII code as a vehicle.
Talk Page

Bus Topology
This is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement in which individual nodes are tapped
into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast messages. These messages
travel in both directions on the bus from the point of connection until terminators at each end
of the bus dissipate them.

Figure 36: Bus Network Topology

Talk Page

CPU
Stands for "central processing unit," which is that part of a computer, PLC, or other
intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are
decoded and executed.
Talk Page

Daisy Chain
This is a description of the connection of individual devices in a PLC network, where each
device is connected to the next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in
a sequential fashion.
Talk Page

Distributed Control
This is an automation concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by
separate controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control
(control is decentralized and spread out over the system).
Talk Page

Host Computer
A computer used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in a PLC/computer network.
Talk Page

Intelligent Device
Any device equipped with its own CPU.

I/O
Abbreviation for Inputs and Outputs, which are modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs)
or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an external device.
Talk Page

Kbps
This stands for "kilobits (thousand) bits per second," a rate of measure for electronic data
transfer.
Talk Page

Mbps
Abbreviation for "million bits per second."
Talk Page

Node
This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node
incorporates a device that can communicate with all other devices on the network.
Talk Page
Protocol
Manner in which data is arranged and coded for transmission on a network.
Talk Page

Ring Topology
This is a LAN arrangement in which each node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in
a continuous, closed, circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction
(Figure X). Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them to
continue functioning even if the main cable is severed.

Figure 37: Ring Topology

Talk Page

RS232
An IEEE standard for serial communications that describes specific wiring connections,
voltage levels, and other operating parameters for electronic data communications. There
also are several other RS standards defined.
Talk Page

Serial
Electronic data transfer scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time.
Talk Page

Serial Port
Communication access point, shown in Figure 38, on a device that is set up for serial
communications.

Figure 38: Serial Communications Port

Talk Page

Star Topology
A LAN arrangement in which nodes are connected to one another through a central hub,
which can be active or passive (Figure 39). An active hub performs network duties such as
message routing and maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to
all the nodes connected to it.
 Figure 39: Star Topology
Talk Page

Topology
This relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN in relation to one another. See
Figure 40 for the most commonly used types topologies.

Figure 40: Topology

Talk Page
Transparent
This term describes automatic events or processes built into a system that require no special
programming or prompting from an operator.
Talk Page

Remote I/O Configurations

It is common in the industry to centralize PLCs in relation to the process being controlled.
This cuts down on the number and length of cabling used to transmit information to and from
the PLC. In some cases, this is not feasible or ideal because an industrial environment can be
quite harsh on the sensitive electronics used in PLCs. For this reason, remote I/O modules
have come into existence. There are many advantages to using remote I/O modules,
including:

 Remote I/Os eliminate expensive point-to-point wires by networking just a few, or

thousands of, process signals onto one digital communication link.
 For data acquisition, remote I/O modules send signals from field-mounted sensors,
transmitters, transducers, and alarms directly to DCS, PLC, and PC-based systems.
 Ability to send control signals long distances to remote valves, pumps, and motors
with remote?I/O.
 Unburdening of an overworked computer system by distributing signal conditioning
and intelligence.
 Can be used as expansion I/O to add points to a PLC system.
 Convert weak sensor signals to immune digital signals to avoid damage during long-
distance transmission through a noisy industrial environment.
 Remote I/O allows signals to be transmitted any distance and over any terrain with
twisted-pair wires, fiber optics, radio link, or modems.

Talk Page

Peer-to-Peer Configurations
Peer-to-peer networks, as shown in Figure 40, enhance reliability by decentralizing the
control functions without sacrificing coordinated control. In this type of network, numerous
PLCs are connected to one another in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common memory table is
duplicated in the memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory
area, the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network. They then
can use this information in their own operating programs.
With peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own control site
and only needs to be programmed for its own area of responsibility. This aspect of the
network significantly reduces programming and debugging complexity; because all
communications occur transparently to the user, communications programming is reduced to
simple read-and-write statements.
In a peer-to-peer system, theres no master PLC. However, its possible to designate one of the
PLCs as a master for use as a type of group controller. This PLC then can be used to accept
input information from an operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary
parameters to other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events.
Talk Page

Host Computer
PLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs,
from the small to the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi-
drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and
controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as
the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator interface.
In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all communications are initiated by the
host computer, which is connected to all the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer
individually addresses each of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information. The
addressed PLC then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis.
This cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.
Host computers also can aid in programming PLCs; powerful programming and
documentation software is available for program development. Programs then can be written
on the computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you can
create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer terminal.
In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other devices, such as operator
interface terminals for large security and building management systems. Although many
intelligent devices can communicate directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and
serial ASCII code, some do not have the software ability to interface with individual PLC
models. Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It is the PLC
programmers responsibility to provide the necessary software interface.
The easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is to use an
ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small computer that plugs
into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and programmed in BASIC, the module
easily can handle ASCII communications with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions,
programming sequences, "number crunching," report and display generation, and other
requirements.
Talk Page

PLC Software
Talk Page

Software vs. Firmware

The terms software and firmware both refer to digitally stored programs and data structures
that are read and written by computers. In the PLC world, software is usually reserved for
computer applications that allow the logical creation, monitoring, and troubleshooting of a
PLC program. One example of PLC software is the RSLogix program developed by Allen-
Bradley for use with their controllers. Firmware can be referred to as the actual program a
PLC uses to execute logical instruction. Firmware is often stored in internal memory or on an
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM). EEPROMs can be
used to store program backups if there is a program fault or a sustained power loss to the
PLC.
Talk Page

HMI Human Machine Interface

The basic purpose of an HMI is to allow convenient and intuitive graphical interface with a
process and for control systems to be more interactive and user-friendly. HMIs provide a
simple display that helps an operator determine machine conditions and make simple
settings. The following are the most common uses of HMIs:

 Display of machine and process faults and status

 Simple operational commands such as stop/start
 Monitor of production/process counts and values

Talk Page

Ladder Logic Diagrams

The ladder logic used in PLCs today was once referred to as relay logic due to the
implementation of physical relay coils used to control processes. Relay logic is now known
as ladder logic because when the logic circuit schematic is laid out with electrical notation, it
resembles a ladder with separate rungs, perpendicular between rails, containing symbols
used to represent Boolean logic expressions such as AND, OR, and NOT.

Figure 41: Ladder Logic

The example in Figure 41 shows two rungs containing a series of relays denoted as X, Y,
and Z. These are inputs while the symbol for S is an output.
The logical expression for this circuit is S=X AND (Y OR Z). If normally open contacts X
and Y are closed, there is an output at S. Likewise, because of the OR function of Y and Z,
there also is an output at S if X and Z are closed, but Y remains open. Any combination of
Boolean expressions can be used in ladder logic, including but not limited to AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR. Figure 32 shows a ladder logic circuit with two normally
closed contacts, X and Y, connected in an OR configuration with the output S. Their
equivalent Boolean logic gate symbols are also shown. Table 5 is a logic chart showing the
combination of inputs that create a logic high or low output from this circuit.
Figure 42: NAND Circuit
The two NOT gates leading into the OR gate in Figure 42(b) represent the normally closed
contacts in Figure 42(a). The NOT gate function reverses the logic of any incoming signal,
turning a HI into a LO and vice versa. When multiple rungs are connected to a single output
on a ladder logic diagram, an OR function exists, as represented by the OR gate in Figure
42(b). The combination of these three logic gates can be shown as a single NAND gate, as
in Figure 32(c). The NAND gate functions just like an AND gate, creating a logic HIGH
output in the presence of logic HI inputs X and Y. The only difference is the addition of the
NOT function, reversing the output from a logic HI to a logic LO so that two HI inputs equal
a LO output. Understanding the logic of this circuit, you can see that to turn the lamp off, X
and Y must be HI. It is common when examining logic circuits to refer to logic levels as true
or false, with true representing logic HI and false representing logic LO.
Talk Page

Logic Instructions
In order to use the PLC and make simple edits, it is necessary to understand some basic
commands. The commands are all entered in ladder logic format, and many of them are
based on nomenclature used in relay logic. There are timers, counters, coils, and contacts,
among other commands.
Talk Page

Relays
Talk Page
Examine If Closed XIC
This command functions as the input or storage bit (Figure 43). The command is addressed
to the bit level. If the corresponding memory bit is 1 (true), the instruction allows rung
continuity and outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction does not allow rung continuity (it
assumes its normally open state) and outputs on the rung are de-energized (other factors can
influence rung continuity).

Figure 43: XIC Command

A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point of view. The processor
is looking for power on that input point to make this statement a true statement. If a switch in
the field is closed, the processor sees power on the point and makes the XIC true. This
causes the rung to be true and enables any output that is present.
This command is similar to a normally open contact on a real world relay. If power is not on
the relay, the contact is open and continuity through the rung is not allowed. If power is not
on the PLC point, this command is false and does not allow continuity through the rung, just
like the relay contact.
If power is applied to the relay, the contact is closed and allows continuity through the rung.
In the case of the XIC, as shown in Figure 43, if power is applied to the field point, the
instruction becomes true and allows continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page

Examine If Open XIO

Figure 44: XIO Command

This command is similar to the XIC, except it works in reverse, as shown in Figure 34. If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction allows rung continuity and outputs are
energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the corresponding memory bit is 1
(true), this instruction does not allow rung continuity and outputs on the rung are de-
energized (other factors can influence rung continuity).
A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point of view. The processor
is looking for no power on that input point to make this statement a true statement. If a
switch in the field is opened, the processor sees no power on the point, and makes the XIO
true. This causes the rung to be true, and enables any output that is present.
This command is similar to a normally closed contact on a real world relay. If power is not
on the relay, the contact is closed and continuity through the rung is allowed. If power is not
on the PLC point, this command is true, and allows continuity through the rung, just like the
relay contact.
If power is applied to the relay, the contact is open, and does not allow continuity through
the rung. In the case of the XIC, if power is applied to the field point, the instruction is false,
and does not allow continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page

Output Energized OTE

Figure 45: OTE Command

The OTE instruction, which is shown in Figure 45, is used to control a bit in memory. If the
bit corresponds to an output module terminal, the device wired to the terminal is energized
when the instruction is enabled and de-energized when the instruction is disabled. If the
input conditions that precede the OTE instruction are true, the processor enables that
instruction. If the input conditions are false, the processor disables that instruction. When
rung conditions are false, the corresponding device de-energizes.
An OTE instruction is similar to a relay coil. The OTE instruction is controlled by preceding
input instructions and the relay coil is controlled by contacts in its hardwired rung.
Talk Page

Output Latched OTL

Figure 46: OTL Command

The OTL instruction in Figure 46 functions much the same as the OTE, with the exception
that once a bit is set with an OTL, it islatchedon. Once an OTL bit has been set on (1 in the
memory), it remains on, even if the rung condition goes false. The bit must be reset with an
OTU instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses power
and there is battery backup, the last true OTL instruction continues to control the bit in
memory. The latched output device is energized, even though the rung conditions that
control the instruction may have gone false.
The OTL instruction is retentive. When the processor loses power, is switched to program
mode or test mode, or detects a major fault causing outputs to go off. However, the states of
retentive outputs are retained in memory. When the processor resumes operation in run
mode, retentive outputs immediately return to their previous states. Non-retentive outputs,
such as OTE outputs, are reset.
Talk Page

Output Unlatched OTU

Figure 47: OTU Command

Figure 47 displays an OTU command, which is a retentive output instruction that only turns
off a bit (it cannot turn on a bit). This instruction usually is paired with OTL instruction, with
both instructions addressing the same bit. The OTU instruction turns off the bit that was
turned on (latched) by the OTL instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses power
and there is battery backup, the bit is retained in the state set by the last rung of the
latch/unlatch pair that was true.
The OTU instruction tells the processor to turn off the addressed bit based on the rung
condition. Thereafter, the bit remains off, regardless of the rung condition, until it is turned
on, typically by an OTL instruction in another rung.
Talk Page

Timers
Talk Page

Timer On Delay TON

 Figure 48: TON Command
The TON instruction shown in Figure 48 is used to turn an output on or off after the timer
has been on for a preset time interval. This instruction begins timing, at either 1 second or 1-
hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung is true and continues until one of the
following happens:

 The accumulated value equals the pre-set value.

 The rung goes false.

The processor resets the accumulated value when the rung conditions are false, regardless of
whether or not the timer has timed out. When the rung conditions go True, the timer is on
and the Enable (EN) bit is set. When the timer reaches its preset count and times out, the
Done (DN) bit is set to true.
Talk Page

Timer Off Delay TOF

Figure 49: TOF Command

The output instruction in Figure 49 begins timing, at either 1 second or 1-hundredth of a
second intervals, when its rung goesfalseand continues timing until one of the following
conditions occur:

 The accumulated value equals the pre-set value.

 The rung goes true.

The processor resets the accumulated value when the rung conditions are true, regardless of
whether or not the timer has timed out.
Talk Page

Retentive Timer On RTO

 Figure 50: RTO command
The RTO instruction shown in Figure 50 is used to turn an output on or off after its timer
has been on for a preset time interval. The RTO instruction lets the timer stop and start
without resetting the accumulated value.
The RTO instruction begins timing when its rung goes true. As long as the rung remains true,
the timer updates the accumulated value each program scan, until it reaches the pre-set value.
The RTO instruction retains its accumulated value even if one of the following occurs:

 The rung goes false.

 There is a change to program mode.
 The processor faults or loses power.

When the processor resumes operation or the rung goes true, timing continues from the
retained accumulated value. By retaining its accumulated value, retentive timers measure the
cumulative period during which its rung is true. The RTO command is reset using the RES
command.
Talk Page

Counters
Talk Page

Count Up Counter CTU

Figure 51: CTU Command

The CTU instruction shown in Figure 51 counts upward over a range of -32,768 to+32,767.
Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTU instruction increases the
accumulated value by one count. When the accumulated value equals or exceeds the pre-set
value, the CTU sets a DN bit the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as
controlling a storage bit or an output device. CTU instructions are retentive and require an
RES instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter decreases below the pre-set value.
Talk Page

Count Up Counter CTD

Figure 52: CTD Command

Figure 52 shows CTD instruction, which counts downward over a range of+32,767 to
-32,768. Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTD instruction decreases the
accumulated value by one count. The DN is set as long as the accumulated value is greater
than or equal to the pre-set value. When the accumulated value is less than the pre-set value,
the CTD resets a DN bit, which the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as
controlling a storage bit or an output device. CTD instructions are retentive and require RES
instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter increases above the pre-set value.
Talk Page

Reset Command RES

Figure 53: RES Command

The RES instruction shown in Figure 53 is an output instruction that resets a timer or
counter. The RES executes when its rung is true. Reset commands normally are used for
counters and retentive timers, but also may be used for TONs to reset the timers while their
rungs are still true.
Talk Page

Data Transfer Instructions

 Figure 54: Data Transfer Instructions
The Move (MOV) command shown in Figure 54 is an output instruction that copies a value
from a source address to a destination. As long as the rung remains true, the instruction
moves the data during each scan. This command makes a copy of the original and places the
duplicate in a new location (Dest). The original value remains intact and unchanged in its
source location.
Talk Page

Arithmetic Commands

Figure 55: ADD Command

PLCs have a wide variety of available mathematical commands. These commands simply
perform the indicated math function on any valid instruction address data or any number.
In the example shown in Figure 55, the user is adding the contents of N7:21 to the contents
of N7:22. The result is stored in file N7:19. Notice that the actual contents of the register
being used is shown below the register. In this case, N7:21, containing the number 20 is
added to N7:22, containing the number 5. The result is stored in N7:19 as the number 25
(20+5).
All math commands work in a similar manner.
Talk Page

Data Manipulation Instructions

Talk Page

Master Control Reset

 Figure 56: MCR Command
Figure 56 shows output instruction, which is also known as zone control used to set up areas
or zones of the ladder program where all non-retentive outputs may be simultaneously
disabled for the same length of time. It is used in pairs: one MCR to define the start of the
effected ladder area and one MCR to define the end of the area.
An input instruction is programmed on the rung of the first MCR to control rung logic
continuity. When the rung is false, all non-retentive outputs within the controlled zone are
disabled. When the rung is true, all rungs are scanned according to their normal rung
conditions, disregarding the zone control instruction.
CAUTION: MCR-controlled areas must contain only two MCR instructions: one to define
the start and one to define the end. Any additional MCR orgo-to" type instructions could
produce unexpected program damage or machine operation results. DO NOT OVERLAP
MCR ZONES! The MCR instruction is not a substitute for a hardwired master control relay
that provides emergency stop capability. You still should install a hardwired master control
relay to provide emergency I/O power shutdown.
Talk Page

Program Control Instructions

Talk Page

Subroutines

Subroutines are an important part of a PLC program. By using them, the programmer can
make a program much more logical and faster to execute.
Basically, a subroutine is a ladder that is only executed when it is called from the main
 program. File number 2 is always the first ladder in a program and, as such, is the main
ladder. When the processor scans its ladder programs, it only scans ladder number 2 unless
ladder number 2 commands it to go to another subroutine. If no other ladders are called by
a JSR, then the ONLY ladder executed is file 2. When a JSR is encountered, the program
jumps out of that ladder (in this case ladder 2), and goes to the ladder called for in the
subroutine jump command. When the end of the file is reached, the program jumps back to
the file that has the JSR, in this case file 2, and continues executing. It also returns if a
Return (RET) command is encountered in the ladder.
In order to call a subroutine, a command, such as the one shown in Figure 57, is used. It is
called a JSR (Jump To Subroutine) command. Notice that in this case, the subroutine being
called is ladder file number U: 3. The "U" indicates the file is for a user. All ladder files are
for users.

   
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER SERVICES PRIVACY POLICY TERMS OF USE ODESIE LICENSE HELP SITEMAP

ShareThis Copy and Paste

0 WELCOME TO THE INDUSTRIAL WIKI RESEARCH CONTENT IN
GREATER DETAIL ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ WIKI MENU WIKI
HOME RANDOM PAGE MY SAVED ARTICLES SITE MENU STORE VIDEO
ARCHIVE EVENT CENTER FORUM Talk Page PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER (PLC) Talk Page Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
have become an integral part of the industrial environment. As a technician
involved with the processes controlled by PLCs, it is important to understand
their basic functionalities and capabilities. Menu 1 PLC Overview 1.1 What is
a Programmable Logic Controller? 1.2 History of the PLC 1.2.1 Advantages of
PLCs 1.2.2 Components of a PLC 1.2.2.1 Input/Output Modules 1.2.2.2
Power Supply 1.2.2.3 Central Processing Unit CPU 1.2.2.4 Co-processor
Modules 1.2.2.5 Software 1.2.2.6 Peripheral Device 1.3 Basic Operation of a
PLC 1.3.1 Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System 1.3.2 Simple Ladder Diagram
of a Hardwired Circuit 2 PLC Operations 2.1 Basic Operation 2.1.1
Operational Sequence 2.1.2 The Scan Cycle 2.2 Logic Scan 3 PLC Hardware
3.1 PLC Components 3.2 Power Supply 3.3 Input/Output Modules 3.3.1 Input
Modules 3.3.2 Input Module Wiring 3.3.3 Input Indicators 3.4 Output Module
3.4.1 Output Module Wiring 3.5 Discrete Modules 3.5.1 Discrete Module
Wiring 3.6 Numerical Data Modules 3.7 AC/DC Input Modules 3.7.1 AC Input
Modules 3.7.2 DC Input Discrete Modules 3.7.3 DC Input Analog Modules 3.8
AC/DC Output Modules 3.8.1 AC Output Modules 3.8.2 DC Output Modules
Discrete 3.8.3 DC Output Modules Analog 3.8.4 Proportional Integral and
Derivative PID Processor Module 3.9 Controls and Indicators 3.10 Scanning
3.11 User Program 4 Addressing and Number Systems 4.1 Number Systems
4.2 Types of Number Systems 4.2.1 Binary 4.3 Octal 4.3.1 Decimal to
Octal/Octal to Decimal Conversion 4.3.2 Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary
Conversion 4.4 Hexadecimal 4.4.1 Binary Coded Decimal 4.5 Addressing
4.5.1 Addressing Terminology 4.5.1.1 Chassis 4.5.1.2 Group 4.5.1.3 Rack
4.5.1.4 Slot 4.5.1.5 Elements 4.5.1.6 Words 4.5.1.7 Bit 4.5.1.8 Bytes 4.5.2
Rack Addressing Rules 4.5.3 Addressing Examples 5 PLC Communications
5.1 PLC Communication Description 5.2 PLC Communication Protocols 5.3
PLC Networking 5.3.1 Device Net 5.3.2 Control Net 5.3.3 Ethernet 5.3.4 Data
Highway Plus DH+ 5.3.5 PLC Terms 5.3.5.1 ASCII 5.3.5.2 ASCII Module
5.3.5.3 Bus Topology 5.3.5.4 CPU 5.3.5.5 Daisy Chain 5.3.5.6 Distributed
Control 5.3.5.7 Host Computer 5.3.5.8 Intelligent Device 5.3.5.9 I/O 5.3.5.10
Kbps 5.3.5.11 Mbps 5.3.5.12 Node 5.3.5.13 Protocol 5.3.5.14 Ring Topology
5.3.5.15 RS232 5.3.5.16 Serial 5.3.5.17 Serial Port 5.3.5.18 Star Topology
5.3.5.19 Topology 5.3.5.20 Transparent 5.4 Remote I/O Configurations 5.5
Peer-to-Peer Configurations 5.6 Host Computer 6 PLC Software 6.1 Software
vs. Firmware 6.2 HMI Human Machine Interface 6.3 Ladder Logic Diagrams
6.4 Logic Instructions 6.5 Relays 6.5.1 Examine If Closed XIC 6.5.2 Examine
If Open XIO 6.5.3 Output Energized OTE 6.5.4 Output Latched OTL 6.5.5
Output Unlatched OTU 6.6 Timers 6.6.1 Timer On Delay TON 6.6.2 Timer Off
Delay TOF 6.6.3 Retentive Timer On RTO 6.7 Counters 6.7.1 Count Up
Counter CTU 6.7.2 Count Up Counter CTD 6.8 Reset Command RES 6.9
Data Transfer Instructions 6.10 Arithmetic Commands 6.11 Data Manipulation
Instructions 6.11.1 Master Control Reset 6.12 Program Control Instructions
6.12.1 Subroutines Talk Page PLC Overview Talk Page What is a
Programmable Logic Controller? A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a
digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as
control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting
fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-
purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are
typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an
example of a real time system since output results must be produced in
response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended
operation will result. Figure 1 shows a graphical depiction of typical PLCs.
Figure 1: Typical PLCs Figure 2: Examples of Hardware PLCs Control Talk
Page History of the PLC PLC invention was in response to the needs of the
American automotive manufacturing industry where software revision
replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired relay based control panels when
production models changed. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety
interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles relied on hundreds or, in some
instances, thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers and
dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such facilities for
the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as
electricians needed to individually and manually rewire each and every relay.
In 1968 GM Hydramatic issued a request for proposal for an electronic
replacement for hard-wired relay systems. The winning proposal came from
Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the
084 because it was Bedford Associateseighty-fourth project, was the result.
Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to developing,
manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: MODICON, which
stood for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that
project was Dick Morley, the "father" of the PLC. In other industries, PLCs
replaced relay systems used in manufacturing applications. This eliminated
the high cost of maintaining these inflexible systems. In 1970, with the
innovation of the microprocessor, the machine that was originally used as a
relay replacement device only, evolved into the advanced PLC of today. Talk
Page Advantages of PLCs There are six major advantages of using PLCs
over relay systems as follows: Flexibility Ease of troubleshooting Space
efficiency Low cost Testing Visual operation Flexibility: One single PLC can
easily run many machines. Ease of Troubleshooting: Back before PLCs, wired
relay-type panels required time for rewiring of panels and devices. With PLC
control any change in circuit design or sequence is as simple as retyping the
logic. Correcting errors in PLC is both fast and cost effective. Space Efficient:
Fewer components are required in a PLC system than in a conventional
hardware system. The PLC performs the functions of timers, counters,
sequencers, and control relays, so these hardware devices are not required.
The only field devices that are required are those that directly interface with
the system such as switches and motor starters. Low Cost: Prices of PLCs
vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is minimal compared to the
prices of the contact, coils, and timers that companies pay to match the same
things. Using PLCs also saves on installation cost and shipping. Testing: A
PLC program can be tested, evaluated, and validated in a lab prior to
implementation in the field. Visual observation: When running a PLC program
a visual operation displays on a screen or module mounted status lamps
assist in making troubleshooting a circuit quick, easy, and relatively simple.
Talk Page Components of a PLC All PLCs have the same basic components.
These components work together to bring information into the PLC from the
field, evaluate that information, and send information back out to various field.
Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to function properly.
The basic components include a power supply, central processing unit (CPU
or processor), co-processor modules, input and output modules (I/O), and a
peripheral device. Figure 3: PLC Components Talk Page Input/Output
Modules The type of input modules used by a PLC depends on the type of
input device. For example, some respond to digital inputs, which are
eitheronoroffwhile others respond to analog signals. In this case, analog
signals represent machine or process conditions as a range of voltage or
current values. The PLC input circuitry converts signals into logic signals that
the CPU can use. The CPU evaluates the status of inputs, outputs, and other
variables as it executes a stored program. The CPU then sends signals to
update the status of outputs. Output modules convert control signals from the
CPU into digital or analog values that can be used to control various output
devices. The programming device is used to enter or change the PLCs
program or to monitor or change stored values. Once entered, the program
and associated variables are stored in the CPU. In addition to these basic
elements, a PLC system may also incorporate an operator interface device to
simplify monitoring of the machine or process. Talk Page Power Supply The
function of the power supply is to provide the DC power to operate the PLC. It
is supplied by single-phase 120 or 240 VAC line power that powers the PLC
system. See Figure x. Figure 4:PLC Power Supply The Power Supply is a
module located in the PLC system module rack. The DC power (voltage and
current) it provides power the other modules in the rack, such as the CPU,
Co-processor Modules, and I/O Modules. The line power provided to the PLC
system also powers the I/O Field Devices. The PLC system is protected
against PLC module or field device malfunctions. The Fuse in Figure 4
provides this protection. Talk Page Central Processing Unit CPU The function
of the CPU is to store and run the PLC software programs. It also interfaces
with the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules, the peripheral device, and
runs diagnostics. It is essentially the "brains" of the PLC. The CPU, shown in
Figure X, contains a microprocessor, memory, and interface adapters. Figure
5: CPU The items shown inside the CPU and their basic functions are as
follows: The microprocessor codes, decodes, and computes data. The
memory (ROM, PROM/EEPROM/UVPROM, and RAM) stores both the control
program and the data from the field devices. The I/O Interface adapter
connects the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules and the Peripheral
Device to the CPU. Talk Page Co-processor Modules Co-Processor Modules
are programmable general-purpose microcomputers that expand the
capability and functionality of a PLC system. A Co-Processor Module is
controlled by the CPU, and interfaces with the CPU as shown above. Co-
Processor Modules monitor and control peripheral systems such as the
following: Alphanumeric Displays Video Graphics Displays Communication
Networks Talk Page Software The function of Software is to provide
instructions to the CPU and Co-Processor Modules. Physically, software is a
large group of logic ones and zeros stored in the memory of the CPU. Talk
Page Peripheral Device The function of the peripheral device is to input data
and monitor the equipment operation. It may be a personal computer,
handheld programmer, or an operator touch screen. Talk Page Basic
Operation of a PLC The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor
makes decisions based on a "ladder logic" program written by the user. In
order to use the program properly, the PLC must communicate with the
various field devices it monitors and controls. It then compares the actual
conditions of the field devices with what the program instructs them to do, and
updates the output devices accordingly. Input switch is pressed Input module
places a "1" in the input data table The ladder logic program sees the "1" and
caused a "1" to be put into the output data table The output data table causes
the output module to energize associated point The output device energizes
Figure 6: PLC Operation Talk Page Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System
Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a
graphical diagram based on the circuit diagrams of relay-based logic
hardware. It is primarily used to develop software PLCs used in industrial
control applications. The name is based on the observation that programs in
this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a series of
horizontal rungs between them. Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs,
where sequential control of a process or manufacturing operation is required.
Ladder logic is useful for simple but critical control systems, or for reworking
old hardwired relay circuits. As PLCs became more sophisticated, it has also
been used in very complex automation systems. Often the ladder logic
program is used in conjunction with a HMI program operating on a computer
workstation. Manufacturers of programmable logic controllers generally also
provide associated ladder logic programming systems. Typically, the ladder
logic languages from two manufacturers will not be completely compatible;
ladder logic is better thought of as a set of closely related programming
languages rather than one language (the IEC 61131-3 standard has helped to
reduce unnecessary differences, but translating programs between systems
still requires significant work). Even different models of PLCs within the same
family may have different ladder notation such that programs cannot be
seamlessly interchanged between models. Ladder logic is a rule-based
language rather than a procedural language. A "rung" in the ladder represents
a rule. When implemented with relays and other electromechanical devices,
the various rules "execute" simultaneously and immediately. When
implemented in PLC, the rules execute sequentially by software in a
continuous loop (scan). By executing the loop fast enough, the effect of
simultaneous and immediate execution is achieved to within the tolerance of
the time required to execute every rung in the "loop" (the "scan time"). Talk
Page Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit The language itself is a
set of connections between logical checkers (contacts) and actuators (coils). If
a path traced between the left side of the rung and the output, through
asserted (true or closed) contacts, the rung is true and the output coil storage
bit is asserted 1. If no path is traced, then the output is false (0) and the coil by
analogy to electromechanical relays is considered de-energized. Ladder logic
has contacts that make or break circuits to control coils. Each coil or contact
corresponds to the status of a single bit in the PLCs memory. Unlike
electromechanical relays, a ladder program can refer any number of times to
the status of a single bit, equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely large number
of contacts. Contacts may refer to physical or hard inputs to the PLC from
devices such as pushbuttons and limit switches via an integrated or external
input module, or may represent the status of internal storage bits, which may
be generated elsewhere in the program. Each rung of ladder language
typically has one coil at the far right. Some manufacturers may allow more
than one output coil on a rung. ( ) - Regular coil. It is energized whenever its
rung is closed. (\\) - "Not" coil. It is energized whenever its rung is open. [ ] -
Regular contact. It is closed whenever its corresponding coil or an input which
controls it is energized. [\\] - "Not" contact. It is open whenever its
corresponding coil or an input which controls it is energized. The coil or output
of a rung, may represent a physical output, which operates some device
connected to the PLC, or may represent an internal storage bit for use
elsewhere in the program. Figure 7: Simple Ladder Diagram Ladder logic is
typically read left to right and top to bottom. As each of the lines or rungs are
evaluated, the output coil of a rung may feed into the next stage of the ladder
as an input. In a complex system there will be many rungs on a ladder, which
are numbered in order of evaluation. Talk Page PLC Operations Talk Page
Basic Operation The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes
decisions based on a ladder logic program written by the user (see Topic I). In
order to use the program properly, the PLC must communicate with the
various field devices it is tasked with monitoring and controlling. It then
compares the actual conditions of the field devices with what the program
instructs them to do, and updates the output devices accordingly. Talk Page
Operational Sequence The operational sequence shown in Figure 6 is as
follows: Input switch is pressed Input module places a "1" in the input data
table The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into
the output data table The output data table causes the output module to
energize associated point The output device energizes Figure 8: PLC
Operational Sequence Talk Page The Scan Cycle PLCs operate by
continually scanning programs and repeat this process many times per
second. When a PLC starts, it runs checks on the hardware and software for
faults, also called a self-test. If there are no problems, then the PLC will start
the scan cycle. The scan cycle consists of three steps: input scan, executing
program(s), and output scan. Figure 7 shows the three steps. Input Scan: A
simple way of looking at this is the PLC takes a snapshot of the inputs and
solves the logic. The PLC looks at each input card to determine if it
isonoroffand saves this information in a data table for use in the next step.
This makes the process faster and avoids cases where an input changes from
the start to the end of the program. Execute Program (or Logic Execution):
The PLC executes a program one instruction at a time using only the memory
copy of the inputs the ladder logic program. For example, the program has the
first input ason, since the PLC knows which inputs are on/off from the
previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned
on. Output Scan: When the ladder scan completes, the outputs are updated
using the temporary values in memory. The PLC updates the status of the
outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of
executing a program during the second step. The PLC now restarts the
process by starting a self-check for faults. Figure 9: PLC Scan Cycle Talk
Page Logic Scan Ladder logic programs are modeled after relay logic. In relay
logic, each element in the ladder will switch as quickly as possible. Program
elements can only be examined one at a time in a fixed sequence. The ladder
logic graphic in Figure 8 is interpreted left-to-right, top-to-bottom. The ladder
logic scan begins at the top rung. At the end of the rung, it interprets the top
output first, then the output branched below it. On the second rung, it solves
branches, before moving along the ladder logic rung. Figure 10: PLC Logic
Scan Talk Page PLC Hardware Talk Page PLC Components PLCs have
grown throughout industrial control applications because of the ease they
bring to creating a controller: ease of programming, ease of wiring, ease of
installation, and ease of changing. All PLCs have the same basic
components. These components work together to bring information into the
PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send information back out to
various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to
function properly. PLCs span a wide range of sizes, but all contain six basic
components as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10: Power supply Input module
Output module Processor (CPU) Rack or mounting assembly Programming
unit (software) Figure 11: PLC Rack Figure 12: PLC Components Talk Page
Power Supply The power supply, as shown in Figure 13, provides power for
the PLC system. The power supply provides internal DC current to operate
the processor logic circuitry and input/output assemblies. Common power
levels used are 24V DC or 120 VAC. Figure 13: Power Supply Talk Page
Input/Output Modules Many types of inputs and outputs can be connected to a
PLC, and they can all be divided into two large groups analog (discrete) and
digital. Digital inputs and outputs are those that operate due to a discrete or
binary change - on/off, yes/no. Analog inputs and outputs change
continuously over a variable range - pressure, temperature, potentiometer. AC
modules are always discrete. DC modules can be either discrete or analog.
The standard PLC module types and their descriptions are as follows: AC
Input - Uses AC voltage for input field device status. DC Input (Discrete) -
Uses DC voltage for input field device status. DC Input (Analog) - The input is
a variable DC signal level. AC Output - Controls the ON/OFF state of AC
output field devices such as relays, coils, and solenoids. DC Output (Discrete)
- Discrete DC output modules control the ON/OFF states of DC output field
devices. DC Output (Analog) - Provides a variable DC level. I/O modules are
available with various numbers of field device points, such as 4, 8, 16 and 32
point. Optocouplers in the modules are used to electrically isolate the module
from the CPU. Talk Page Input Modules Input modules provide the electrical
connection between field devices (pushbuttons, limit switches, photoeyes) and
internal process of the PLC. They differ in voltages and types of signals
produced such ason,offor a variable voltage. Figure 14 shows an example of
a generic input module. Figure 14: PLC Input Module Talk Page Input Module
Wiring During normal PLC operation, different methods of connecting the field
device wires to the I/O Modules offer no significant advantages over each
other. Field devices can be wired differently to provide safety and protection in
the event of failures in field devices, or faults in their electrical circuits.
"Backups" are field devices required to operate properly to provide safety in
the event of a failure of another device or fault in a circuit. If the circuit for a
backup is not affected, the backup should operate properly and continue to
provide safety. The safety of sequentially controlled systems, industrial
facilities, and even personnel frequently depends on field devices (especially
the backups) operating properly. Sink and Source connections at a DC Input
Module are defined by whether or not the field device DC power comes from a
power supply external to the PLC (see Figure 14). Neither connection has any
fault protection advantage Talk Page Input Indicators Indicator lights are
located on the digital input modules. These lights indicate the status of the
input point on the module. The active light indicates whether or not the module
is active and communicating with the processor. The indicator lights are
numbered in two rows, 00-7 and 10-17 (I/O addressing will be discussed
later). These numbers represent each of the input points on the module. If an
input point has power applied to it, the associated light illuminates. The lights
are very useful in verifying that field devices, such as switches and photoeyes,
are properly operating. Figure 15 shows the common layout for indicator lights
on an input module. Note that these lights ONLY show the user that power is
getting to this point on the module. They do NOT indicate whether or not the
processor is actually receiving that indication. Figure 15: Input Indicators Talk
Page Output Module Outputs are the devices that the PLC uses to send
changes out to the world. These are the actuator the PLC can change to
adjust or control the process - motors, lights, relays, pumps, etc. Figure 16
shows an example of an output module. Figure 16: PLC Output Module Talk
Page Output Module Wiring DC Modules use "Sink" and "Source"
connections. The connections are determined by the configuration of the
module being used. DC Modules are configured differently because of the DC
polarity differences required of the two connections. Talk Page Discrete
Modules The term refers to an Off switching output. One type of PLC module
that produces discrete signals is a relay module. It has physical relay that
opens (Figure 17) or closes (Figure 18) to make or break a circuit connected
to its terminals. Relay modules have several pairs; each of which are
connected to internal relay contacts. Figure 17: Relay Module Open Contact
Figure 18: Relay Module Closed Contact Another type of discrete module is
the sinking output module so named because conventional current flows into
its terminal when a specific output is turned on. Conventional current flows
from a positive to negative potential. Figure 19: Sinking Output Module Figure
20 and Figure 21 show the sequence sinking output module activated and not
activated. Figure 20: Output Module Activated Figure 21: Output Module NOt
Activated Figure 22 shows a graphical depiction of events when the output is
activated: An NPN transistor turns on The output terminal goes to LOW
Conventional current flows from the positive of the power supply through the
field device into the sinking terminal of the output module through the
transistor to the negative of the power supply. Figure 22: Output Activated
Talk Page Discrete Module Wiring The DC Output (Discrete) Module field
device DC power always comes from a power supply external to the PLC (see
Figure X). For certain fault conditions, the source output connection offers
additional safety and protection. Talk Page Numerical Data Modules With the
integration of the microprocessor into PLC architecture in the early 1970s
arrived new capabilities for arithmetic operation and data manipulation. This
expanded processing capability led to a new class of I/O interfaces known as
numerical data I/O. Numerical input interfaces allowed measured quantities to
be input from instruments and other devices that provided numerical data,
while numerical output interfaces allowed control of devices that required
numerical data. In general, numerical data I/O interfaces can be categorized
into two groups: those that provide interface-to-multi-bit digital devices and
those that provide interface-to-analog devices. The multi-bit interfaces are like
the discrete I/O in that the processed signals are discrete. The difference,
however, is that with the discrete I/O, only a single bit is required to read an
input or control an output. Multi-bit interfaces allow a group of bits to be input
or output as a unit to accommodate devices that require the bits to be handled
in parallel form or in serial form. The numerical data I/O allows monitoring and
control of analog voltages and currents, which are compatible with many
sensors, motors drives, and process instruments. With the use of multi-bit or
analog I/O, most process variables can be measured or controlled with
appropriate interfacing. Talk Page AC/DC Input Modules Talk Page AC Input
Modules AC input modules detect the presence or absence of AC voltage,
and convert that voltage to a low level for input to the CPU. The AC voltage
indicates the field device status. The voltage level is commonly 24, 115 or 220
VAC. Modules are available for up to 1,000 VAC. An AC Input module
schematic diagram is shown in Figure X. When the field device completes the
input circuit, a path for AC exists. An LED on the front of the module, indicates
the input is present. Figure 23: AC Input Module Schematic A rectifier
converts the AC to DC. The optocoupler isolates the input module from the
CPU and effectively drops the DC voltage level to a level safe for CPU
operations. Most AC input modules use an external AC power supply for
"interrogation" of the field devices. On-board AC power supplies increase the
size of the module and require additional heat dissipation considerations. AC
inputs may use a common neutral connection for several points or there may
be an "isolated" neutral for each point for additional fault protection. The input
module shown in Figure 7 uses neutral C1 for points 00-07 and neutral C2 for
points 10-17. Analog AC input modules are not commonly used because there
are no standardized analog AC voltage or current signals. Talk Page DC Input
Discrete Modules Discrete DC input modules detect the presence or absence
of DC voltage, and convert that voltage to a low level for input to the CPU.
The DC voltage is used to indicate the field device status. Figure X shows a
DC Input module schematic diagram. Figure 24: DC Input Module (Discrete)
The DC voltage may be supplied by the input module (sink input) or it may be
supplied by an external power supply (source input). Detailed explanations of
"sinked" and "sourced" connections are given in this module later under "Field
Device Wiring Connections." As with AC input modules, the input is
optocoupled to the CPU for isolation and CPU protection. An LED provides
indication when the input is present (true). Talk Page DC Input Analog
Modules Analog DC input modules detect a DC voltage or current level,
convert that variable into a proportional digital signal and transmit that data to
the CPU for processing. The modules can be configured to operate on
standard instrumentation signal ranges such as 4-20 mA, 10-50 mA, 15V, 0-1
0V. A schematic diagram of an analog DC input module is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 25: DC Input Module (Analog) After the module converts the analog
value to digital, the PLC can turn control functions on and off at preset analog
values. For example, when the input analog value reaches 70 percent, an
alarm sounds. In special applications, an analog input can be combined with
an analog output module. Through programming, the PLC can then perform
like a conventional single loop controller. Talk Page AC/DC Output Modules
Talk Page AC Output Modules AC output modules control the ON/OFF states
of AC output field devices such as relays, coils, and solenoids. They do not
normally supply power to the field devices. Figure X is a schematic diagram of
the module. Figure 26: AC Output Module The CPU uses a low-voltage DC
signal to activate an opto-coupler in the output module. The opto-coupler
gates a TRIAC or SCR that in turn completes the current path for the external
power supply and field device. As with most PLC modules, the voltage rating
and the number of points are selectable and the outputs may have common or
isolated neutrals. Talk Page DC Output Modules Discrete Discrete DC output
modules control the on/off states of DC output field devices. Power is supplied
by an external power supply. A schematic diagram of the module is shown in
Figure 27. Figure 27: DC Output Module (Discrete) The CPU sends a low-
level DC signal to an opto-coupler that completes the external DC current path
that energizes the output field device. Field device connections may either be
"sinked" or "sourced". Talk Page DC Output Modules Analog Analog DC
output modules convert digital data from the CPU to analog data for field
device use. A Digital to Analog (D/A) converter in the module performs the
conversion. See Figure 28 for a schematic diagram of the module. Figure 28:
DC Output Module (Analog) Analog outputs conform to standard
instrumentation signals (4-20 mA, 10-50 mA, 1-5V, 0-1 0V). An external DC
power supply is used to power the output field device and the optocoupler in
the module. Analog outputs and inputs require more computing time than
discrete modules. The additional time is needed to perform A/D and D/A
conversions and to "block transfer" the additional information to and from the
CPU. For this reason, most PLC applications use on/off control with only a
small amount of analog I/O. If a large amount of analog data requires
processing, other systems (loop controllers, Digital Control Systems) are
usually used. Talk Page Proportional Integral and Derivative PID Processor
Module A PID module combines analog input, analog output, and a control
program of a typical single loop controller. A PID module is a smart module.
This means that it has an on-board microprocessor and program. The module
carries out loop control without the use of the CPU in the PLC. These modules
do communicate with the CPU for non-routine functions such as alarm
reporting and programming changes. Talk Page Controls and Indicators Most
processor modules have front panel lights or indications to provide the user
with status indications of PLC operation. These lights are very useful in
troubleshooting. Also provided on most processor modules is a switch used to
change the module mode of operation from RUN to PROGRAM. Additional
connections are also usually provided to allow the connection of a terminal for
programming the PLC and a port for connections to external I/O. Talk Page
Scanning The processor module controls the PLC by executing the software
program. During program execution, the processor reads all the inputs and
uses the values, in accordance with the control logic, to energize or de-
energize the outputs, thus solving the ladder network. Once all the logic is
solved, the processor updates all outputs. The process of reading the inputs,
executing the program, and updating the outputs is known as a scan. The
time required to make a single scan varies from 1 msec to 100 msec. The
scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of reading the status of
inputs, evaluating the control logic, and updating outputs. The common scan
method of monitoring the inputs at the end of each scan is inadequate for
reading certain rapid inputs. Some PLCs provide software instructions that will
allow the interruption of the continuous program scan to immediately receive
an input or update an output. These immediate instructions are very useful
when the PLC must instantaneously react to a critical input or output. Talk
Page User Program The user program memory is an area reserved in the
application memory for the storage of the control logic. All the PLC
instructions that control the machine or process are stored here. The
addresses of inputs and outputs, whether real or internal, are specified in this
section of memory. When the processor is in the run mode and the program is
executed, the processor interprets the user program memory locations and
controls the bits of the data table that correspond to real or internal outputs.
The interpretation of the user program is accomplished by the processors
execution of the executive program. The maximum amount of available user
program memory is normally a function of the processor size (i.e., I/O
capacity). In medium and large controllers, the user program area is normally
flexible by altering the size of the data table so that it meets the minimum data
storage requirements. In small processors, however, the user program area is
normally fixed. Talk Page Addressing and Number Systems Talk Page
Number Systems The earliest number or counting system known to man was
developed to help determine a quantity for a collection of possessions. As
daily activities became more complex, numbers became more important in
trade, time, distance, and all other aspects of human life. Numbers are
extremely important in everyday life. As such, a more complex system was
required than counting everything on ones fingers and toes. Ever since the
necessity to count objects was discovered, man has been looking for easier
ways to count them. The abacus, developed by the Chinese, is one of the
earliest known methods for counting. The simple system of beads and wires
arranged within a frame provided an early means for calculation. The
apparatus proved helpful and is still used in some parts of the world today. As
time, technology, and need progressed, so did the means and methods
required for accurate calculation. The first adding machine was invented by
Blaise Pascal in 1642. Twenty years later, an Englishman, Sir Samuel
Morland, developed a more compact device that could multiply, add, and
subtract. Then, Wilhelm Liebnitz perfected a machine in 1671 that could
perform all the basic operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, as well as the extraction of the square root. The principles
pioneered by Liebnitz are still used today by modern electronic digital
computers. Computers are used wherever repeated calculations or the
processing of large amounts of data is necessary. Some of the greatest
applications are found in the military, scientific, and commercial fields. These
fields have applications ranging from manufacturing processes to engineering
design, to the identification and destruction of enemy targets. The advantages
of digital computers include speed, accuracy, and labor savings. Often,
computers are used to manage routine jobs, allowing personnel to perform
other tasks, which may require a human touch. People and computers
normally do not speak the same language. However, methods of translating
information into forms that are understood and used by both are necessary.
Humans generally speak in words and numbers expressed in the decimal
number system, while computers only understand coded electronic pulses
that represent digital information. In this section, you will learn about number
systems, in general, and specifically learn about binary, octal, and
hexadecimal number systems. The methods for converting numbers in the
binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems to equivalent numbers in the decimal
system, and vice versa, will also be discussed. This training module will
discuss the different types of number systems that can be converted easily to
the electronic pulses necessary for digital equipment and industrial
communications. Talk Page Types of Number Systems The decimal system is
the most commonly used number system. The Roman numeral system,
though seldom used, is another well-known number system. Other number
systems include binary, octal, and hexadecimal. All number systems have a
base and a number value. Talk Page Binary The simplest possible number
system is the binary, or base 2, system. Since the binary number system is a
base 2 system, only two symbols, 0 and 1, are used. The binary system is
also a positional notation system. While the decimal system uses powers of
10 to determine the value of a position, the binary system uses powers of 2 to
determine the value of a position. A bar graph showing the positions and the
powers of the base is shown below: Table 1 provides a comparison of decimal
and binary numbers. Notice each time the total number of binary symbol
positions increases, the binary number indicates the next higher power of 2.
The table also shows that more symbol positions are necessary in the binary
system to represent equivalent values in the decimal system. Talk Page Octal
The octal, or base 8, number system is a common system used with
computers. Because of its relationship with the binary system, it is useful in
programming some types of computers. As with the other systems, the base,
or radix, is the number of symbols used in the system. The octal system uses
eight symbols, 0 through 7. The base is indicated by the subscript 8. Table 2
compares the binary, octal, and decimal number systems and shows that one
octal digit is the equivalent value of three binary digits. Similar to the decimal
and binary systems, the octal system is a positional notation system. The
octal system uses powers of 8. The following bar graph shows the positions
and the power of the base: Here the power, orexponent, indicates the number
of times the base is multiplied by itself. The value of thismultiplicationis
expressed in base 10 as shown below: Talk Page Decimal to Octal/Octal to
Decimal Conversion In decimal systems, each decimal place is a base of 10.
For example: In octal, numerals each place is a power with base 8. For
example: By performing the calculation above in the familiar decimal system
we see why 112 in octal is equal to 64 + 8 + 2 = 74 in decimal. Talk Page
Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion The following example further
illustrates this comparison and shows the conversion of octal 2258to binary
and back to octal: Talk Page Hexadecimal The hexadecimal, or hex, number
system is a more complex system in use with computers. The name is derived
from the fact that the system uses 16 symbols. It is beneficial in computer
programming because of its relationship to the binary system. Since 16 in the
decimal system is the 2 to the fourth power (or 24), one hex digit has a value
equal to four binary digits. Table 2 compares the binary and hexadecimal
number systems. As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands
for a single object. A number in the hex system is the symbol used to
represent a unit or quantity. The Arabic numerals 0 through 9 are used with
the first six letters of the alphabet. Letters are sometimes used in math
problems to represent unknown quantities but in the hex system, A, B, C, D,
E, and F each have a definite value as shown below: The base, or radix, of
the hex system is 16, which represents the number of symbols used in the
system. A quantity expressed in hex is annotated by the subscript 16, as
shown below: Like the binary, octal, and decimal systems, the hex system is a
positional notation system. Powers of 16 are used for the positional values of
a number. The following bar graph shows the positions: Multiplying the base
times itself the number of times indicated by the exponent will show the
equivalent decimal value: As seen by the positional values, usually fewer
symbol positions are required to express a number in hex than in decimal.
The following example shows this comparison: Talk Page Binary Coded
Decimal Computers and microprocessors both operate on a series of
electrical pulses called words. A word can be represented by a binary number
such as 101100112. The word length is described by the number of digits or
BITS in the series. A series of four digits would be called a 4-bit word and so
forth. The most common are 4-, 8-, and 16-bit words. Quite often, these words
must use binary-coded decimal inputs. Binary-coded decimal, or BCD, is a
method of using binary digits to represent the decimal digits 0 through 9. A
decimal digit is represented by four binary digits, as shown below: You should
note in the table above that the BCD coding is the binary equivalent of the
decimal digit. Since many devices use BCD, knowing how to handle this
system is important. You must realize that BCD and binary are not the same.
For example, 4910in binary is 1100012, but 4910in BCD is 01001001BCD.
Each decimal digit is converted to its binary equivalent. Talk Page Addressing
Addressing is the most important concept to understand when learning PLCs.
Addressing is how we make a correlation between the field devices controlled
by the PLC, and the data that is stored in the PLCs memory. If you cannot
address a point or group of points in the PLCs memory, then you cannnot
control the field device associated with that point. The easiest way to
approach understanding the addressing used in the Allen Bradley PLC-5 is to
view all addresses from the processors point of view. By this, we mean that in
order for a real device in the field, such as a relay, to be operated by the PLC,
the PLC must first have a record of that point in its memory. That point can
then be accessed by the PLC. The Allen Bradley PLC-5 stores the information
regarding all of the points it can address in areas called Data Tables as shown
in figure 29. The data tables are divided up by function. Figure 29: Data Table
Files Talk Page Addressing Terminology There are seven terms one must
know in order to understand addressing as defined below. Talk Page Chassis
Hardware assembly (physical rack) that houses devices such as I/O modules,
adapter modules, processor modules, and power supplies. Chassis are
available in six sizes: 4-, 8-, 12-, and 16-slot. Talk Page Group An I/O
addressing unit consisting of one input and one output word (16 bits each) of
the data table. Depending on the density of the I/O module and the
addressing mode used, some of the bits in a group may be unused. The
group number is included in I/O addresses in the position represented with
agin the format: I:rrg/xx. Talk Page Rack An I/O addressing unit that
corresponds to eight input image table words and eight output image table
words (8 groups). A rack is a logical entity not to be confused with the physical
chassis. 8 groups = 1 full rack, 6 groups = rack, 4 groups = rack, 2 groups =
rack. The rack number is included in I/O addresses in the position represented
with an "rr" in the format: I:rrg/xx. Talk Page Slot A location in a chassis for
installing a module. The number of physical slots per group determines the
addressing mode. Talk Page Elements Data files are made up of individual
data blocks called "Elements" or "Structures". Each element is composed of
"words", and each word is composed of "bits". Elements are comprised of
from 1 to 56 words, depending on the instruction. Most instructions you will
encounter will have from one to three words to an element. An example of an
element level address is T4:0 T4:0 indicates the first timer (0) in the default
timer file (T4). Each timer is comprised of three (3) 16 bit words. When you
say T4:0, you are referring to all three of these words as a group. Figure 30:
Elements Another example, illustrated on the right, is the address N7:15. This
identifies element 15 in the integer file N7. Since integer files have one word
elements, the element number and word number will match in this case as
shown in Figure X and Figure Y. Figure 31: Element Address Talk Page
Words Words are the next level of identification down from elements. Each
"word" in the PLC is comprised of 16 bits as shown in Figure 32. When an
instruction is addressed to the word level, it is looking at all 16 bits of a
particular word in an element. When an element is comprised of more than
one word, the 0 word contains status data in bit form, and the other words
contain data which must be stored in more than one bit. A good example is a
timer file. Timers elements are comprised of three words. The 0 word contains
status information which can be stored in individual bits. For example, the 17
bit in the 0 word is the done bit, indicating that the timer has timed out. The
one and two words contain information which require a full word to contain. In
the timer, the one word contains the value of the preset (PRE) of the timer,
and the two word contains the information about the Accumulator (ACC).
These words are addressed by their symbols, PRE and ACC. When
accessing an element to the word level, the period (.) is used to delimit
instead of the slash (/). Figure 32: Word Address Talk Page Bit The smallest
unit of data in a PLC is the bit. Bits make up words, which in turn make up
elements. Many instructions must be specified down to the bit level. For
example, if you want to know the status of the Done bit on a timer, you must
specify the address down to the bit level. The address would be: T4:0/DN
T4:0 is the element we are addressing. Since we are addressing a single bit,
we put the "/" sign as a bit delimiter, and then specify the bit. In this case the
Done bit. Figure 33 shows the element B3:63 and the bit 15. Note that in this
case, the individual bits are identified by numbers, not names (as in the done
bit in the timer). This is true of bits in all files except those having more than
one word in an element. Figure 33: Bit Address Talk Page Bytes A group of
bits forming a piece of data. Usually a subset of a word consisting of eight
bits. Talk Page Rack Addressing Rules Addressing to a rack is just assigning
a physical slot in the chassis to a logical word in the processor. Rack
addressing involves only data tables 0 and 1, the output and input data tables.
The type of addressing shown in figure x is called single slot addressing, and
is the most common type of addressing used in Allen Bradley PLCs. To
review the rules for rack addressing, use the following while referring to the
previous figure on PLC 5 Racks.: A rack is a logical term that defines 8 words
in the processor input data table and 8 words in the processor output data
table. These words are numbered 0-7. Each logical rack can store 128 bits of
information in its input rack and 128 bits in its output rack. (8 words per rack x
16 bits per word=128 bits of data storage) In single slot addressing, each
physical slot is addressed to one input word and also to one output word. This
makes it possible to put either an input module or an output module in any
slot. The number of logical racks determines how many points a particular
model of PLC can address. This number is fixed for any particular processor
and cannot be changed. Rack addressing is always in the format shown in
Figure 34 below. Figure 34: Rack Addressing Format Talk Page Addressing
Examples Each type of device has its own table in which to store data. In
order to specify exactly which piece of data is to be accessed, an addressing
format is used which makes use of this data structure. In Figure 35, addresses
for input and output addresses are shown. Reading from the left to the right,
the addresses tell the following: Which data table a point exist in Which rack
of data the point is in Which group the point is in The exact point Note that a
colon separates the file identifier from the rest of the address. This is constant
for ALL addresses. Figure 35: Rack Addressing Format Talk Page PLC
Communications Talk Page PLC Communication Description PLCs
communicate with other PLC stations on the Data Highway+and also
communicate with their own remote racks via the remote I/O communications
channel. Some guidelines for PLC communications are as follows: The
DH+provides communications between processors on the DH+ Each
processor on the DH+MUST have its own unique address A total of 64 (77
Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link. If a processor has enough
communications channels (like the 5/40), it can communicate on more than
one DH+peer link at a time. DH+is simply a method for communicating from
one PLC to another. It DOES NOT allow one PLC to control another PLC. It
just lets you talk from PLC to PLC. It also makes it possible to plug a terminal
into ANY PLC on the peer link and talk to any other PLC on the peer link with
the terminal. Each chassis MUST have either an Adapter module or a
Processor module installed in the left most slot. In order for a processor to
have remote chassis, one channel MUST be set up as a scanner channel.
Talk Page PLC Communication Protocols Today, most manufacturers of PLC
systems have developed their own proprietary communication protocol,
making it difficult to combine PLC components from different manufacturers.
Communication protocols set the standards for data representation, signaling,
authentication, and error detection required to send information over a
communications channel. MODBUS is currently the most common protocol
used by PLC manufacturers. Talk Page PLC Networking Talk Page Device
Net Device Net is one of the most widely supported networks. It is an open
standard, so components from a variety of manufacturers can be used
together in the same control system. It is supported and promoted by the
Open Device Net Vendors Association (ODVA). This group includes members
from all of the major controls manufacturers. The network is noise-resistant
and robust. One major change for the control engineer is that the PLC chassis
can be eliminated and the network can be directly connected to the sensors
and actuators. This reduces the total amount of system wiring by moving I/O
points closer to the application point. Two-way communication inputs and
outputs allow diagnosis of network problems from the main controller. Device
Net covers all seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
standard. The protocol has a limited number of network addresses with very
small data packets. This helps limit network traffic and ensures
responsiveness. The length of the network cables limits the maximum speed
of the network. The basic features include: A single bus cable that delivers
data and power Up to 64 nodes on the network A data packet size of 0-8
bytes Cable lengths of 500m/250m/100m for speeds of
125kbps/250kbps/500kbps, respectively Devices can be added or removed
while power is on Based on the CANbus (Controller Area Network) protocol
for OSI levels 1 and 2 Addressing includes peer-to-peer, multicast,
master/slave, polling, or change of state Talk Page Control Net Control Net is
complimentary to Device Net. The standard is designed for communication
among controllers and it permits more complex messages than Device Net. It
is not suitable for communication with individual sensors and actuators, or
with devices off the factory floor. Control Net is a more complicated protocol
method than Device Net. Control Net features include: Multiple controllers and
I/O on one network Deterministic Data rates up to 5Mbps Multiple topologies
(bus, star, tree) Multiple media (coax, fiber, etc.) Up to 99 nodes with
addresses; up to 48 without a repeater Data packets up to 510 bytes
Unlimited I/O points Maximum length examples: 1000m with coax at 5Mbps -
2 nodes 250m with coax at 5Mbps - 48 nodes 5000m with coax at 5Mbps with
repeaters 3000m with fiber at 5Mbps 30Km with fiber at 5Mbps and repeaters
Five repeaters in series, 48 parallel segments Devices individually powered
(no network power) Devices can be removed while network is active The
network is unique because it supports a real-time messaging scheme called
Concurrent Time Domain Multiple Access (CTDMA). The network has
scheduled, high priority and unscheduled, low priority updates. When
collisions are detected, the system waits at least 2ms for unscheduled
messages. However, scheduled messages will be passed sooner, during a
special time window. Talk Page Ethernet Ethernet is the predominate
networking format. The first version was released in 1980 by a consortium of
companies, and various versions of Ethernet frames were released in the
subsequent years. These include Version II and Novell Networking (IEEE
802.3). Most modern Ethernet cards support different types of frames. The
Ethernet frame is shown in Figure 36. The first six bytes make up the
destination address for the message. If all of the bits in the bytes are set, then
any computer that receives the message will read it. The first three bytes of
the address are specific to the card manufacturer, and the remaining bytes
specify the remote address. The address is common for all versions of
Ethernet. The source address specifies the message sender. The Ethernet
type identifies the frame as a Version II Ethernet packet if the value is greater
than 05DChex. Other Ethernet types use these two bytes to indicate the data
length. The data can be from 46 to 1,500 bytes in length. The frame
concludes with a checksum that is used to verify data is correctly transmitted.
When the end of the transmission is detected, the last four bytes are used to
verify the frame is correctly received. Talk Page Data Highway Plus DH+
Allen-Bradley PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the DH+protocol
and also communicate with their own remote chassis via the remote I/O
communications channel. Some guidelines for DH+communications include:
The DH+provides communication among DH+processors. Each processor on
the DH+must have its own unique address. A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations
can be set up on one peer link. If a processor has enough communication
channels (like the 5/40), it can communicate on more than one DH+peer link
at a time. DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another.
It does not allow one PLC to control another PLC; it just lets you talk from PLC
to PLC. It also makes it possible to plug a terminal into any PLC on the peer
link and talk to any other PLC on the peer link with the terminal. Each chassis
must either have an adapter module or a processor module installed in the
leftmost slot. In order for a processor to have a remote chassis, one channel
must be set up as a scanner channel. Talk Page PLC Terms Talk Page ASCII
Stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." For
example, when the letter "A" is transmitted it is automatically coded as "65" by
the sending equipment. The receiving equipment translates the "65" back to
the letter "A." Thus, different devices can communicate with each other as
long as both use ASCII code. Talk Page ASCII Module This intelligent PLC
module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of
communicating using ASCII code as a vehicle. Talk Page Bus Topology This
is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement in which individual nodes are
tapped into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast
messages. These messages travel in both directions on the bus from the point
of connection until terminators at each end of the bus dissipate them. Figure
36: Bus Network Topology Talk Page CPU Stands for "central processing
unit," which is that part of a computer, PLC, or other intelligent device where
arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are decoded
and executed. Talk Page Daisy Chain This is a description of the connection
of individual devices in a PLC network, where each device is connected to the
next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in a
sequential fashion. Talk Page Distributed Control This is an automation
concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by separate
controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control
(control is decentralized and spread out over the system). Talk Page Host
Computer A computer used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in
a PLC/computer network. Talk Page Intelligent Device Any device equipped
with its own CPU. I/O Abbreviation for Inputs and Outputs, which are modules
that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an
external device. Talk Page Kbps This stands for "kilobits (thousand) bits per
second," a rate of measure for electronic data transfer. Talk Page Mbps
Abbreviation for "million bits per second." Talk Page Node This term is applied
to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a
device that can communicate with all other devices on the network. Talk Page
Protocol Manner in which data is arranged and coded for transmission on a
network. Talk Page Ring Topology This is a LAN arrangement in which each
node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in a continuous, closed,
circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction (Figure
X). Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them
to continue functioning even if the main cable is severed. Figure 37: Ring
Topology Talk Page RS232 An IEEE standard for serial communications that
describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating
parameters for electronic data communications. There also are several other
RS standards defined. Talk Page Serial Electronic data transfer scheme in
which information is transmitted one bit at a time. Talk Page Serial Port
Communication access point, shown in Figure 38, on a device that is set up
for serial communications. Figure 38: Serial Communications Port Talk Page
Star Topology A LAN arrangement in which nodes are connected to one
another through a central hub, which can be active or passive (Figure 39). An
active hub performs network duties such as message routing and
maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to all
the nodes connected to it. Figure 39: Star Topology Talk Page Topology This
relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN in relation to one another.
See Figure 40 for the most commonly used types topologies. Figure 40:
Topology Talk Page Transparent This term describes automatic events or
processes built into a system that require no special programming or
prompting from an operator. Talk Page Remote I/O Configurations It is
common in the industry to centralize PLCs in relation to the process being
controlled. This cuts down on the number and length of cabling used to
transmit information to and from the PLC. In some cases, this is not feasible
or ideal because an industrial environment can be quite harsh on the sensitive
electronics used in PLCs. For this reason, remote I/O modules have come into
existence. There are many advantages to using remote I/O modules,
including: Remote I/Os eliminate expensive point-to-point wires by networking
just a few, or thousands of, process signals onto one digital communication
link. For data acquisition, remote I/O modules send signals from field-mounted
sensors, transmitters, transducers, and alarms directly to DCS, PLC, and PC-
based systems. Ability to send control signals long distances to remote
valves, pumps, and motors with remote?I/O. Unburdening of an overworked
computer system by distributing signal conditioning and intelligence. Can be
used as expansion I/O to add points to a PLC system. Convert weak sensor
signals to immune digital signals to avoid damage during long-distance
transmission through a noisy industrial environment. Remote I/O allows
signals to be transmitted any distance and over any terrain with twisted-pair
wires, fiber optics, radio link, or modems. Talk Page Peer-to-Peer
Configurations Peer-to-peer networks, as shown in Figure 40, enhance
reliability by decentralizing the control functions without sacrificing coordinated
control. In this type of network, numerous PLCs are connected to one another
in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common memory table is duplicated in the
memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory area,
the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network.
They then can use this information in their own operating programs. With
peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own
control site and only needs to be programmed for its own area of
responsibility. This aspect of the network significantly reduces programming
and debugging complexity; because all communications occur transparently to
the user, communications programming is reduced to simple read-and-write
statements. In a peer-to-peer system, theres no master PLC. However, its
possible to designate one of the PLCs as a master for use as a type of group
controller. This PLC then can be used to accept input information from an
operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary parameters to
other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events. Talk Page
Host Computer PLCs also can be connected with computers or other
intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs, from the small to the very large, can be
directly connected to a computer or part of a multi-drop host computer
network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and
controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data
acquisition, as well as the computer, for data processing, documentation, and
operator interface. In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all
communications are initiated by the host computer, which is connected to all
the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer individually addresses each
of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information. The addressed PLC
then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis.
This cycle occurs hundreds of times per second. Host computers also can aid
in programming PLCs; powerful programming and documentation software is
available for program development. Programs then can be written on the
computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you
can create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer
terminal. In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other
devices, such as operator interface terminals for large security and building
management systems. Although many intelligent devices can communicate
directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and serial ASCII code,
some do not have the software ability to interface with individual PLC models.
Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It is the PLC
programmers responsibility to provide the necessary software interface. The
easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is
to use an ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small
computer that plugs into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and
programmed in BASIC, the module easily can handle ASCII communications
with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions, programming sequences,
"number crunching," report and display generation, and other requirements.
Talk Page PLC Software Talk Page Software vs. Firmware The terms
software and firmware both refer to digitally stored programs and data
structures that are read and written by computers. In the PLC world, software
is usually reserved for computer applications that allow the logical creation,
monitoring, and troubleshooting of a PLC program. One example of PLC
software is the RSLogix program developed by Allen-Bradley for use with their
controllers. Firmware can be referred to as the actual program a PLC uses to
execute logical instruction. Firmware is often stored in internal memory or on
an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM).
EEPROMs can be used to store program backups if there is a program fault
or a sustained power loss to the PLC. Talk Page HMI Human Machine
Interface The basic purpose of an HMI is to allow convenient and intuitive
graphical interface with a process and for control systems to be more
interactive and user-friendly. HMIs provide a simple display that helps an
operator determine machine conditions and make simple settings. The
following are the most common uses of HMIs: Display of machine and
process faults and status Simple operational commands such as stop/start
Monitor of production/process counts and values Talk Page Ladder Logic
Diagrams The ladder logic used in PLCs today was once referred to as relay
logic due to the implementation of physical relay coils used to control
processes. Relay logic is now known as ladder logic because when the logic
circuit schematic is laid out with electrical notation, it resembles a ladder with
separate rungs, perpendicular between rails, containing symbols used to
represent Boolean logic expressions such as AND, OR, and NOT. Figure 41:
Ladder Logic The example in Figure 41 shows two rungs containing a series
of relays denoted as X, Y, and Z. These are inputs while the symbol for S is
an output. The logical expression for this circuit is S=X AND (Y OR Z). If
normally open contacts X and Y are closed, there is an output at S. Likewise,
because of the OR function of Y and Z, there also is an output at S if X and Z
are closed, but Y remains open. Any combination of Boolean expressions can
be used in ladder logic, including but not limited to AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XOR. Figure 32 shows a ladder logic circuit with two normally
closed contacts, X and Y, connected in an OR configuration with the output S.
Their equivalent Boolean logic gate symbols are also shown. Table 5 is a logic
chart showing the combination of inputs that create a logic high or low output
from this circuit. Figure 42: NAND Circuit The two NOT gates leading into the
OR gate in Figure 42(b) represent the normally closed contacts in Figure
42(a). The NOT gate function reverses the logic of any incoming signal,
turning a HI into a LO and vice versa. When multiple rungs are connected to a
single output on a ladder logic diagram, an OR function exists, as represented
by the OR gate in Figure 42(b). The combination of these three logic gates
can be shown as a single NAND gate, as in Figure 32(c). The NAND gate
functions just like an AND gate, creating a logic HIGH output in the presence
of logic HI inputs X and Y. The only difference is the addition of the NOT
function, reversing the output from a logic HI to a logic LO so that two HI
inputs equal a LO output. Understanding the logic of this circuit, you can see
that to turn the lamp off, X and Y must be HI. It is common when examining
logic circuits to refer to logic levels as true or false, with true representing logic
HI and false representing logic LO. Talk Page Logic Instructions In order to
use the PLC and make simple edits, it is necessary to understand some basic
commands. The commands are all entered in ladder logic format, and many of
them are based on nomenclature used in relay logic. There are timers,
counters, coils, and contacts, among other commands. Talk Page Relays Talk
Page Examine If Closed XIC This command functions as the input or storage
bit (Figure 43). The command is addressed to the bit level. If the
corresponding memory bit is 1 (true), the instruction allows rung continuity and
outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction does not allow rung
continuity (it assumes its normally open state) and outputs on the rung are de-
energized (other factors can influence rung continuity). Figure 43: XIC
Command A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point
of view. The processor is looking for power on that input point to make this
statement a true statement. If a switch in the field is closed, the processor
sees power on the point and makes the XIC true. This causes the rung to be
true and enables any output that is present. This command is similar to a
normally open contact on a real world relay. If power is not on the relay, the
contact is open and continuity through the rung is not allowed. If power is not
on the PLC point, this command is false and does not allow continuity through
the rung, just like the relay contact. If power is applied to the relay, the contact
is closed and allows continuity through the rung. In the case of the XIC, as
shown in Figure 43, if power is applied to the field point, the instruction
becomes true and allows continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page Examine If Open XIO Figure 44: XIO Command This command is
similar to the XIC, except it works in reverse, as shown in Figure 34. If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction allows rung continuity
and outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the
corresponding memory bit is 1 (true), this instruction does not allow rung
continuity and outputs on the rung are de-energized (other factors can
influence rung continuity). A simple way to look at this instruction is from the
processors point of view. The processor is looking for no power on that input
point to make this statement a true statement. If a switch in the field is
opened, the processor sees no power on the point, and makes the XIO true.
This causes the rung to be true, and enables any output that is present. This
command is similar to a normally closed contact on a real world relay. If power
is not on the relay, the contact is closed and continuity through the rung is
allowed. If power is not on the PLC point, this command is true, and allows
continuity through the rung, just like the relay contact. If power is applied to
the relay, the contact is open, and does not allow continuity through the rung.
In the case of the XIC, if power is applied to the field point, the instruction is
false, and does not allow continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page Output Energized OTE Figure 45: OTE Command The OTE
instruction, which is shown in Figure 45, is used to control a bit in memory. If
the bit corresponds to an output module terminal, the device wired to the
terminal is energized when the instruction is enabled and de-energized when
the instruction is disabled. If the input conditions that precede the OTE
instruction are true, the processor enables that instruction. If the input
conditions are false, the processor disables that instruction. When rung
conditions are false, the corresponding device de-energizes. An OTE
instruction is similar to a relay coil. The OTE instruction is controlled by
preceding input instructions and the relay coil is controlled by contacts in its
hardwired rung. Talk Page Output Latched OTL Figure 46: OTL Command
The OTL instruction in Figure 46 functions much the same as the OTE, with
the exception that once a bit is set with an OTL, it islatchedon. Once an OTL
bit has been set on (1 in the memory), it remains on, even if the rung condition
goes false. The bit must be reset with an OTU instruction. When the
processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses
power and there is battery backup, the last true OTL instruction continues to
control the bit in memory. The latched output device is energized, even
though the rung conditions that control the instruction may have gone false.
The OTL instruction is retentive. When the processor loses power, is switched
to program mode or test mode, or detects a major fault causing outputs to go
off. However, the states of retentive outputs are retained in memory. When
the processor resumes operation in run mode, retentive outputs immediately
return to their previous states. Non-retentive outputs, such as OTE outputs,
are reset. Talk Page Output Unlatched OTU Figure 47: OTU Command Figure
47 displays an OTU command, which is a retentive output instruction that only
turns off a bit (it cannot turn on a bit). This instruction usually is paired with
OTL instruction, with both instructions addressing the same bit. The OTU
instruction turns off the bit that was turned on (latched) by the OTL instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the
processor loses power and there is battery backup, the bit is retained in the
state set by the last rung of the latch/unlatch pair that was true. The OTU
instruction tells the processor to turn off the addressed bit based on the rung
condition. Thereafter, the bit remains off, regardless of the rung condition, until
it is turned on, typically by an OTL instruction in another rung. Talk Page
Timers Talk Page Timer On Delay TON Figure 48: TON Command The TON
instruction shown in Figure 48 is used to turn an output on or off after the
timer has been on for a preset time interval. This instruction begins timing, at
either 1 second or 1-hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung is true and
continues until one of the following happens: The accumulated value equals
the pre-set value. The rung goes false. The processor resets the accumulated
value when the rung conditions are false, regardless of whether or not the
timer has timed out. When the rung conditions go True, the timer is on and the
Enable (EN) bit is set. When the timer reaches its preset count and times out,
the Done (DN) bit is set to true. Talk Page Timer Off Delay TOF Figure 49:
TOF Command The output instruction in Figure 49 begins timing, at either 1
second or 1-hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung goesfalseand
continues timing until one of the following conditions occur: The accumulated
value equals the pre-set value. The rung goes true. The processor resets the
accumulated value when the rung conditions are true, regardless of whether
or not the timer has timed out. Talk Page Retentive Timer On RTO Figure 50:
RTO command The RTO instruction shown in Figure 50 is used to turn an
output on or off after its timer has been on for a preset time interval. The RTO
instruction lets the timer stop and start without resetting the accumulated
value. The RTO instruction begins timing when its rung goes true. As long as
the rung remains true, the timer updates the accumulated value each program
scan, until it reaches the pre-set value. The RTO instruction retains its
accumulated value even if one of the following occurs: The rung goes false.
There is a change to program mode. The processor faults or loses power.
When the processor resumes operation or the rung goes true, timing
continues from the retained accumulated value. By retaining its accumulated
value, retentive timers measure the cumulative period during which its rung is
true. The RTO command is reset using the RES command. Talk Page
Counters Talk Page Count Up Counter CTU Figure 51: CTU Command The
CTU instruction shown in Figure 51 counts upward over a range of -32,768
to+32,767. Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTU instruction
increases the accumulated value by one count. When the accumulated value
equals or exceeds the pre-set value, the CTU sets a DN bit the ladder
program can use to initiate an action, such as controlling a storage bit or an
output device. CTU instructions are retentive and require an RES instruction
to be reset. They also reset if the counter decreases below the pre-set value.
Talk Page Count Up Counter CTD Figure 52: CTD Command Figure 52
shows CTD instruction, which counts downward over a range of+32,767 to
-32,768. Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTD instruction
decreases the accumulated value by one count. The DN is set as long as the
accumulated value is greater than or equal to the pre-set value. When the
accumulated value is less than the pre-set value, the CTD resets a DN bit,
which the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as controlling a
storage bit or an output device. CTD instructions are retentive and require
RES instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter increases above the
pre-set value. Talk Page Reset Command RES Figure 53: RES Command
The RES instruction shown in Figure 53 is an output instruction that resets a
timer or counter. The RES executes when its rung is true. Reset commands
normally are used for counters and retentive timers, but also may be used for
TONs to reset the timers while their rungs are still true. Talk Page Data
Transfer Instructions Figure 54: Data Transfer Instructions The Move (MOV)
command shown in Figure 54 is an output instruction that copies a value from
a source address to a destination. As long as the rung remains true, the
instruction moves the data during each scan. This command makes a copy of
the original and places the duplicate in a new location (Dest). The original
value remains intact and unchanged in its source location. Talk Page
Arithmetic Commands Figure 55: ADD Command PLCs have a wide variety of
available mathematical commands. These commands simply perform the
indicated math function on any valid instruction address data or any number.
In the example shown in Figure 55, the user is adding the contents of N7:21 to
the contents of N7:22. The result is stored in file N7:19. Notice that the actual
contents of the register being used is shown below the register. In this case,
N7:21, containing the number 20 is added to N7:22, containing the number 5.
The result is stored in N7:19 as the number 25 (20+5). All math commands
work in a similar manner. Talk Page Data Manipulation Instructions Talk Page
Master Control Reset Figure 56: MCR Command Figure 56 shows output
instruction, which is also known as zone control used to set up areas or zones
of the ladder program where all non-retentive outputs may be simultaneously
disabled for the same length of time. It is used in pairs: one MCR to define the
start of the effected ladder area and one MCR to define the end of the area.
An input instruction is programmed on the rung of the first MCR to control
rung logic continuity. When the rung is false, all non-retentive outputs within
the controlled zone are disabled. When the rung is true, all rungs are scanned
according to their normal rung conditions, disregarding the zone control
instruction. CAUTION: MCR-controlled areas must contain only two MCR
instructions: one to define the start and one to define the end. Any additional
MCR orgo-to" type instructions could produce unexpected program damage or
machine operation results. DO NOT OVERLAP MCR ZONES! The MCR
instruction is not a substitute for a hardwired master control relay that provides
emergency stop capability. You still should install a hardwired master control
relay to provide emergency I/O power shutdown. Talk Page Program Control
Instructions Talk Page Subroutines Subroutines are an important part of a
PLC program. By using them, the programmer can make a program much
more logical and faster to execute. Basically, a subroutine is a ladder that is
only executed when it is called from the main program. File number 2 is
always the first ladder in a program and, as such, is the main ladder. When
the processor scans its ladder programs, it only scans ladder number 2 unless
ladder number 2 commands it to go to another subroutine. If no other ladders
are called by a JSR, then the ONLY ladder executed is file 2. When a JSR is
encountered, the program jumps out of that ladder (in this case ladder 2), and
goes to the ladder called for in the subroutine jump command. When the end
of the file is reached, the program jumps back to the file that has the JSR, in
this case file 2, and continues executing. It also returns if a Return (RET)
command is encountered in the ladder. In order to call a subroutine, a
command, such as the one shown in Figure 57, is used. It is called a JSR
(Jump To Subroutine) command. Notice that in this case, the subroutine being
called is ladder file number U: 3. The "U" indicates the file is for a user. All
ladder files are for users. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER SERVICES PRIVACY
POLICY TERMS OF USE ODESIE LICENSE HELP SITEMAP 0 WELCOME
TO THE INDUSTRIAL WIKI RESEARCH CONTENT IN GREATER DETAIL
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ WIKI MENU WIKI HOME RANDOM
PAGE MY SAVED ARTICLES SITE MENU STORE VIDEO ARCHIVE EVENT
CENTER FORUM Talk Page PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
(PLC) Talk Page Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) have become an
integral part of the industrial environment. As a technician involved with the
processes controlled by PLCs, it is important to understand their basic
functionalities and capabilities. Menu 1 PLC Overview 1.1 What is a
Programmable Logic Controller? 1.2 History of the PLC 1.2.1 Advantages of
PLCs 1.2.2 Components of a PLC 1.2.2.1 Input/Output Modules 1.2.2.2
Power Supply 1.2.2.3 Central Processing Unit CPU 1.2.2.4 Co-processor
Modules 1.2.2.5 Software 1.2.2.6 Peripheral Device 1.3 Basic Operation of a
PLC 1.3.1 Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System 1.3.2 Simple Ladder Diagram
of a Hardwired Circuit 2 PLC Operations 2.1 Basic Operation 2.1.1
Operational Sequence 2.1.2 The Scan Cycle 2.2 Logic Scan 3 PLC Hardware
3.1 PLC Components 3.2 Power Supply 3.3 Input/Output Modules 3.3.1 Input
Modules 3.3.2 Input Module Wiring 3.3.3 Input Indicators 3.4 Output Module
3.4.1 Output Module Wiring 3.5 Discrete Modules 3.5.1 Discrete Module
Wiring 3.6 Numerical Data Modules 3.7 AC/DC Input Modules 3.7.1 AC Input
Modules 3.7.2 DC Input Discrete Modules 3.7.3 DC Input Analog Modules 3.8
AC/DC Output Modules 3.8.1 AC Output Modules 3.8.2 DC Output Modules
Discrete 3.8.3 DC Output Modules Analog 3.8.4 Proportional Integral and
Derivative PID Processor Module 3.9 Controls and Indicators 3.10 Scanning
3.11 User Program 4 Addressing and Number Systems 4.1 Number Systems
4.2 Types of Number Systems 4.2.1 Binary 4.3 Octal 4.3.1 Decimal to
Octal/Octal to Decimal Conversion 4.3.2 Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary
Conversion 4.4 Hexadecimal 4.4.1 Binary Coded Decimal 4.5 Addressing
4.5.1 Addressing Terminology 4.5.1.1 Chassis 4.5.1.2 Group 4.5.1.3 Rack
4.5.1.4 Slot 4.5.1.5 Elements 4.5.1.6 Words 4.5.1.7 Bit 4.5.1.8 Bytes 4.5.2
Rack Addressing Rules 4.5.3 Addressing Examples 5 PLC Communications
5.1 PLC Communication Description 5.2 PLC Communication Protocols 5.3
PLC Networking 5.3.1 Device Net 5.3.2 Control Net 5.3.3 Ethernet 5.3.4 Data
Highway Plus DH+ 5.3.5 PLC Terms 5.3.5.1 ASCII 5.3.5.2 ASCII Module
5.3.5.3 Bus Topology 5.3.5.4 CPU 5.3.5.5 Daisy Chain 5.3.5.6 Distributed
Control 5.3.5.7 Host Computer 5.3.5.8 Intelligent Device 5.3.5.9 I/O 5.3.5.10
Kbps 5.3.5.11 Mbps 5.3.5.12 Node 5.3.5.13 Protocol 5.3.5.14 Ring Topology
5.3.5.15 RS232 5.3.5.16 Serial 5.3.5.17 Serial Port 5.3.5.18 Star Topology
5.3.5.19 Topology 5.3.5.20 Transparent 5.4 Remote I/O Configurations 5.5
Peer-to-Peer Configurations 5.6 Host Computer 6 PLC Software 6.1 Software
vs. Firmware 6.2 HMI Human Machine Interface 6.3 Ladder Logic Diagrams
6.4 Logic Instructions 6.5 Relays 6.5.1 Examine If Closed XIC 6.5.2 Examine
If Open XIO 6.5.3 Output Energized OTE 6.5.4 Output Latched OTL 6.5.5
Output Unlatched OTU 6.6 Timers 6.6.1 Timer On Delay TON 6.6.2 Timer Off
Delay TOF 6.6.3 Retentive Timer On RTO 6.7 Counters 6.7.1 Count Up
Counter CTU 6.7.2 Count Up Counter CTD 6.8 Reset Command RES 6.9
Data Transfer Instructions 6.10 Arithmetic Commands 6.11 Data Manipulation
Instructions 6.11.1 Master Control Reset 6.12 Program Control Instructions
6.12.1 Subroutines Talk Page PLC Overview Talk Page What is a
Programmable Logic Controller? A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a
digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as
control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting
fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-
purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are
typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an
example of a real time system since output results must be produced in
response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended
operation will result. Figure 1 shows a graphical depiction of typical PLCs.
Figure 1: Typical PLCs Figure 2: Examples of Hardware PLCs Control Talk
Page History of the PLC PLC invention was in response to the needs of the
American automotive manufacturing industry where software revision
replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired relay based control panels when
production models changed. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety
interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles relied on hundreds or, in some
instances, thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers and
dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such facilities for
the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as
electricians needed to individually and manually rewire each and every relay.
In 1968 GM Hydramatic issued a request for proposal for an electronic
replacement for hard-wired relay systems. The winning proposal came from
Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the
084 because it was Bedford Associateseighty-fourth project, was the result.
Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to developing,
manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: MODICON, which
stood for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that
project was Dick Morley, the "father" of the PLC. In other industries, PLCs
replaced relay systems used in manufacturing applications. This eliminated
the high cost of maintaining these inflexible systems. In 1970, with the
innovation of the microprocessor, the machine that was originally used as a
relay replacement device only, evolved into the advanced PLC of today. Talk
Page Advantages of PLCs There are six major advantages of using PLCs
over relay systems as follows: Flexibility Ease of troubleshooting Space
efficiency Low cost Testing Visual operation Flexibility: One single PLC can
easily run many machines. Ease of Troubleshooting: Back before PLCs, wired
relay-type panels required time for rewiring of panels and devices. With PLC
control any change in circuit design or sequence is as simple as retyping the
logic. Correcting errors in PLC is both fast and cost effective. Space Efficient:
Fewer components are required in a PLC system than in a conventional
hardware system. The PLC performs the functions of timers, counters,
sequencers, and control relays, so these hardware devices are not required.
The only field devices that are required are those that directly interface with
the system such as switches and motor starters. Low Cost: Prices of PLCs
vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is minimal compared to the
prices of the contact, coils, and timers that companies pay to match the same
things. Using PLCs also saves on installation cost and shipping. Testing: A
PLC program can be tested, evaluated, and validated in a lab prior to
implementation in the field. Visual observation: When running a PLC program
a visual operation displays on a screen or module mounted status lamps
assist in making troubleshooting a circuit quick, easy, and relatively simple.
Talk Page Components of a PLC All PLCs have the same basic components.
These components work together to bring information into the PLC from the
field, evaluate that information, and send information back out to various field.
Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to function properly.
The basic components include a power supply, central processing unit (CPU
or processor), co-processor modules, input and output modules (I/O), and a
peripheral device. Figure 3: PLC Components Talk Page Input/Output
Modules The type of input modules used by a PLC depends on the type of
input device. For example, some respond to digital inputs, which are
eitheronoroffwhile others respond to analog signals. In this case, analog
signals represent machine or process conditions as a range of voltage or
current values. The PLC input circuitry converts signals into logic signals that
the CPU can use. The CPU evaluates the status of inputs, outputs, and other
variables as it executes a stored program. The CPU then sends signals to
update the status of outputs. Output modules convert control signals from the
CPU into digital or analog values that can be used to control various output
devices. The programming device is used to enter or change the PLCs
program or to monitor or change stored values. Once entered, the program
and associated variables are stored in the CPU. In addition to these basic
elements, a PLC system may also incorporate an operator interface device to
simplify monitoring of the machine or process. Talk Page Power Supply The
function of the power supply is to provide the DC power to operate the PLC. It
is supplied by single-phase 120 or 240 VAC line power that powers the PLC
system. See Figure x. Figure 4:PLC Power Supply The Power Supply is a
module located in the PLC system module rack. The DC power (voltage and
current) it provides power the other modules in the rack, such as the CPU,
Co-processor Modules, and I/O Modules. The line power provided to the PLC
system also powers the I/O Field Devices. The PLC system is protected
against PLC module or field device malfunctions. The Fuse in Figure 4
provides this protection. Talk Page Central Processing Unit CPU The function
of the CPU is to store and run the PLC software programs. It also interfaces
with the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules, the peripheral device, and
runs diagnostics. It is essentially the "brains" of the PLC. The CPU, shown in
Figure X, contains a microprocessor, memory, and interface adapters. Figure
5: CPU The items shown inside the CPU and their basic functions are as
follows: The microprocessor codes, decodes, and computes data. The
memory (ROM, PROM/EEPROM/UVPROM, and RAM) stores both the control
program and the data from the field devices. The I/O Interface adapter
connects the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules and the Peripheral
Device to the CPU. Talk Page Co-processor Modules Co-Processor Modules
are programmable general-purpose microcomputers that expand the
capability and functionality of a PLC system. A Co-Processor Module is
controlled by the CPU, and interfaces with the CPU as shown above. Co-
Processor Modules monitor and control peripheral systems such as the
following: Alphanumeric Displays Video Graphics Displays Communication
Networks Talk Page Software The function of Software is to provide
instructions to the CPU and Co-Processor Modules. Physically, software is a
large group of logic ones and zeros stored in the memory of the CPU. Talk
Page Peripheral Device The function of the peripheral device is to input data
and monitor the equipment operation. It may be a personal computer,
handheld programmer, or an operator touch screen. Talk Page Basic
Operation of a PLC The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor
makes decisions based on a "ladder logic" program written by the user. In
order to use the program properly, the PLC must communicate with the
various field devices it monitors and controls. It then compares the actual
conditions of the field devices with what the program instructs them to do, and
updates the output devices accordingly. Input switch is pressed Input module
places a "1" in the input data table The ladder logic program sees the "1" and
caused a "1" to be put into the output data table The output data table causes
the output module to energize associated point The output device energizes
Figure 6: PLC Operation Talk Page Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System
Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a
graphical diagram based on the circuit diagrams of relay-based logic
hardware. It is primarily used to develop software PLCs used in industrial
control applications. The name is based on the observation that programs in
this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a series of
horizontal rungs between them. Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs,
where sequential control of a process or manufacturing operation is required.
Ladder logic is useful for simple but critical control systems, or for reworking
old hardwired relay circuits. As PLCs became more sophisticated, it has also
been used in very complex automation systems. Often the ladder logic
program is used in conjunction with a HMI program operating on a computer
workstation. Manufacturers of programmable logic controllers generally also
provide associated ladder logic programming systems. Typically, the ladder
logic languages from two manufacturers will not be completely compatible;
ladder logic is better thought of as a set of closely related programming
languages rather than one language (the IEC 61131-3 standard has helped to
reduce unnecessary differences, but translating programs between systems
still requires significant work). Even different models of PLCs within the same
family may have different ladder notation such that programs cannot be
seamlessly interchanged between models. Ladder logic is a rule-based
language rather than a procedural language. A "rung" in the ladder represents
a rule. When implemented with relays and other electromechanical devices,
the various rules "execute" simultaneously and immediately. When
implemented in PLC, the rules execute sequentially by software in a
continuous loop (scan). By executing the loop fast enough, the effect of
simultaneous and immediate execution is achieved to within the tolerance of
the time required to execute every rung in the "loop" (the "scan time"). Talk
Page Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit The language itself is a
set of connections between logical checkers (contacts) and actuators (coils). If
a path traced between the left side of the rung and the output, through
asserted (true or closed) contacts, the rung is true and the output coil storage
bit is asserted 1. If no path is traced, then the output is false (0) and the coil by
analogy to electromechanical relays is considered de-energized. Ladder logic
has contacts that make or break circuits to control coils. Each coil or contact
corresponds to the status of a single bit in the PLCs memory. Unlike
electromechanical relays, a ladder program can refer any number of times to
the status of a single bit, equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely large number
of contacts. Contacts may refer to physical or hard inputs to the PLC from
devices such as pushbuttons and limit switches via an integrated or external
input module, or may represent the status of internal storage bits, which may
be generated elsewhere in the program. Each rung of ladder language
typically has one coil at the far right. Some manufacturers may allow more
than one output coil on a rung. ( ) - Regular coil. It is energized whenever its
rung is closed. (\\) - "Not" coil. It is energized whenever its rung is open. [ ] -
Regular contact. It is closed whenever its corresponding coil or an input which
controls it is energized. [\\] - "Not" contact. It is open whenever its
corresponding coil or an input which controls it is energized. The coil or output
of a rung, may represent a physical output, which operates some device
connected to the PLC, or may represent an internal storage bit for use
elsewhere in the program. Figure 7: Simple Ladder Diagram Ladder logic is
typically read left to right and top to bottom. As each of the lines or rungs are
evaluated, the output coil of a rung may feed into the next stage of the ladder
as an input. In a complex system there will be many rungs on a ladder, which
are numbered in order of evaluation. Talk Page PLC Operations Talk Page
Basic Operation The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes
decisions based on a ladder logic program written by the user (see Topic I). In
order to use the program properly, the PLC must communicate with the
various field devices it is tasked with monitoring and controlling. It then
compares the actual conditions of the field devices with what the program
instructs them to do, and updates the output devices accordingly. Talk Page
Operational Sequence The operational sequence shown in Figure 6 is as
follows: Input switch is pressed Input module places a "1" in the input data
table The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into
the output data table The output data table causes the output module to
energize associated point The output device energizes Figure 8: PLC
Operational Sequence Talk Page The Scan Cycle PLCs operate by
continually scanning programs and repeat this process many times per
second. When a PLC starts, it runs checks on the hardware and software for
faults, also called a self-test. If there are no problems, then the PLC will start
the scan cycle. The scan cycle consists of three steps: input scan, executing
program(s), and output scan. Figure 7 shows the three steps. Input Scan: A
simple way of looking at this is the PLC takes a snapshot of the inputs and
solves the logic. The PLC looks at each input card to determine if it
isonoroffand saves this information in a data table for use in the next step.
This makes the process faster and avoids cases where an input changes from
the start to the end of the program. Execute Program (or Logic Execution):
The PLC executes a program one instruction at a time using only the memory
copy of the inputs the ladder logic program. For example, the program has the
first input ason, since the PLC knows which inputs are on/off from the
previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned
on. Output Scan: When the ladder scan completes, the outputs are updated
using the temporary values in memory. The PLC updates the status of the
outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of
executing a program during the second step. The PLC now restarts the
process by starting a self-check for faults. Figure 9: PLC Scan Cycle Talk
Page Logic Scan Ladder logic programs are modeled after relay logic. In relay
logic, each element in the ladder will switch as quickly as possible. Program
elements can only be examined one at a time in a fixed sequence. The ladder
logic graphic in Figure 8 is interpreted left-to-right, top-to-bottom. The ladder
logic scan begins at the top rung. At the end of the rung, it interprets the top
output first, then the output branched below it. On the second rung, it solves
branches, before moving along the ladder logic rung. Figure 10: PLC Logic
Scan Talk Page PLC Hardware Talk Page PLC Components PLCs have
grown throughout industrial control applications because of the ease they
bring to creating a controller: ease of programming, ease of wiring, ease of
installation, and ease of changing. All PLCs have the same basic
components. These components work together to bring information into the
PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send information back out to
various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to
function properly. PLCs span a wide range of sizes, but all contain six basic
components as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10: Power supply Input module
Output module Processor (CPU) Rack or mounting assembly Programming
unit (software) Figure 11: PLC Rack Figure 12: PLC Components Talk Page
Power Supply The power supply, as shown in Figure 13, provides power for
the PLC system. The power supply provides internal DC current to operate
the processor logic circuitry and input/output assemblies. Common power
levels used are 24V DC or 120 VAC. Figure 13: Power Supply Talk Page
Input/Output Modules Many types of inputs and outputs can be connected to a
PLC, and they can all be divided into two large groups analog (discrete) and
digital. Digital inputs and outputs are those that operate due to a discrete or
binary change - on/off, yes/no. Analog inputs and outputs change
continuously over a variable range - pressure, temperature, potentiometer. AC
modules are always discrete. DC modules can be either discrete or analog.
The standard PLC module types and their descriptions are as follows: AC
Input - Uses AC voltage for input field device status. DC Input (Discrete) -
Uses DC voltage for input field device status. DC Input (Analog) - The input is
a variable DC signal level. AC Output - Controls the ON/OFF state of AC
output field devices such as relays, coils, and solenoids. DC Output (Discrete)
- Discrete DC output modules control the ON/OFF states of DC output field
devices. DC Output (Analog) - Provides a variable DC level. I/O modules are
available with various numbers of field device points, such as 4, 8, 16 and 32
point. Optocouplers in the modules are used to electrically isolate the module
from the CPU. Talk Page Input Modules Input modules provide the electrical
connection between field devices (pushbuttons, limit switches, photoeyes) and
internal process of the PLC. They differ in voltages and types of signals
produced such ason,offor a variable voltage. Figure 14 shows an example of
a generic input module. Figure 14: PLC Input Module Talk Page Input Module
Wiring During normal PLC operation, different methods of connecting the field
device wires to the I/O Modules offer no significant advantages over each
other. Field devices can be wired differently to provide safety and protection in
the event of failures in field devices, or faults in their electrical circuits.
"Backups" are field devices required to operate properly to provide safety in
the event of a failure of another device or fault in a circuit. If the circuit for a
backup is not affected, the backup should operate properly and continue to
provide safety. The safety of sequentially controlled systems, industrial
facilities, and even personnel frequently depends on field devices (especially
the backups) operating properly. Sink and Source connections at a DC Input
Module are defined by whether or not the field device DC power comes from a
power supply external to the PLC (see Figure 14). Neither connection has any
fault protection advantage Talk Page Input Indicators Indicator lights are
located on the digital input modules. These lights indicate the status of the
input point on the module. The active light indicates whether or not the module
is active and communicating with the processor. The indicator lights are
numbered in two rows, 00-7 and 10-17 (I/O addressing will be discussed
later). These numbers represent each of the input points on the module. If an
input point has power applied to it, the associated light illuminates. The lights
are very useful in verifying that field devices, such as switches and photoeyes,
are properly operating. Figure 15 shows the common layout for indicator lights
on an input module. Note that these lights ONLY show the user that power is
getting to this point on the module. They do NOT indicate whether or not the
processor is actually receiving that indication. Figure 15: Input Indicators Talk
Page Output Module Outputs are the devices that the PLC uses to send
changes out to the world. These are the actuator the PLC can change to
adjust or control the process - motors, lights, relays, pumps, etc. Figure 16
shows an example of an output module. Figure 16: PLC Output Module Talk
Page Output Module Wiring DC Modules use "Sink" and "Source"
connections. The connections are determined by the configuration of the
module being used. DC Modules are configured differently because of the DC
polarity differences required of the two connections. Talk Page Discrete
Modules The term refers to an Off switching output. One type of PLC module
that produces discrete signals is a relay module. It has physical relay that
opens (Figure 17) or closes (Figure 18) to make or break a circuit connected
to its terminals. Relay modules have several pairs; each of which are
connected to internal relay contacts. Figure 17: Relay Module Open Contact
Figure 18: Relay Module Closed Contact Another type of discrete module is
the sinking output module so named because conventional current flows into
its terminal when a specific output is turned on. Conventional current flows
from a positive to negative potential. Figure 19: Sinking Output Module Figure
20 and Figure 21 show the sequence sinking output module activated and not
activated. Figure 20: Output Module Activated Figure 21: Output Module NOt
Activated Figure 22 shows a graphical depiction of events when the output is
activated: An NPN transistor turns on The output terminal goes to LOW
Conventional current flows from the positive of the power supply through the
field device into the sinking terminal of the output module through the
transistor to the negative of the power supply. Figure 22: Output Activated
Talk Page Discrete Module Wiring The DC Output (Discrete) Module field
device DC power always comes from a power supply external to the PLC (see
Figure X). For certain fault conditions, the source output connection offers
additional safety and protection. Talk Page Numerical Data Modules With the
integration of the microprocessor into PLC architecture in the early 1970s
arrived new capabilities for arithmetic operation and data manipulation. This
expanded processing capability led to a new class of I/O interfaces known as
numerical data I/O. Numerical input interfaces allowed measured quantities to
be input from instruments and other devices that provided numerical data,
while numerical output interfaces allowed control of devices that required
numerical data. In general, numerical data I/O interfaces can be categorized
into two groups: those that provide interface-to-multi-bit digital devices and
those that provide interface-to-analog devices. The multi-bit interfaces are like
the discrete I/O in that the processed signals are discrete. The difference,
however, is that with the discrete I/O, only a single bit is required to read an
input or control an output. Multi-bit interfaces allow a group of bits to be input
or output as a unit to accommodate devices that require the bits to be handled
in parallel form or in serial form. The numerical data I/O allows monitoring and
control of analog voltages and currents, which are compatible with many
sensors, motors drives, and process instruments. With the use of multi-bit or
analog I/O, most process variables can be measured or controlled with
appropriate interfacing. Talk Page AC/DC Input Modules Talk Page AC Input
Modules AC input modules detect the presence or absence of AC voltage,
and convert that voltage to a low level for input to the CPU. The AC voltage
indicates the field device status. The voltage level is commonly 24, 115 or 220
VAC. Modules are available for up to 1,000 VAC. An AC Input module
schematic diagram is shown in Figure X. When the field device completes the
input circuit, a path for AC exists. An LED on the front of the module, indicates
the input is present. Figure 23: AC Input Module Schematic A rectifier
converts the AC to DC. The optocoupler isolates the input module from the
CPU and effectively drops the DC voltage level to a level safe for CPU
operations. Most AC input modules use an external AC power supply for
"interrogation" of the field devices. On-board AC power supplies increase the
size of the module and require additional heat dissipation considerations. AC
inputs may use a common neutral connection for several points or there may
be an "isolated" neutral for each point for additional fault protection. The input
module shown in Figure 7 uses neutral C1 for points 00-07 and neutral C2 for
points 10-17. Analog AC input modules are not commonly used because there
are no standardized analog AC voltage or current signals. Talk Page DC Input
Discrete Modules Discrete DC input modules detect the presence or absence
of DC voltage, and convert that voltage to a low level for input to the CPU.
The DC voltage is used to indicate the field device status. Figure X shows a
DC Input module schematic diagram. Figure 24: DC Input Module (Discrete)
The DC voltage may be supplied by the input module (sink input) or it may be
supplied by an external power supply (source input). Detailed explanations of
"sinked" and "sourced" connections are given in this module later under "Field
Device Wiring Connections." As with AC input modules, the input is
optocoupled to the CPU for isolation and CPU protection. An LED provides
indication when the input is present (true). Talk Page DC Input Analog
Modules Analog DC input modules detect a DC voltage or current level,
convert that variable into a proportional digital signal and transmit that data to
the CPU for processing. The modules can be configured to operate on
standard instrumentation signal ranges such as 4-20 mA, 10-50 mA, 15V, 0-1
0V. A schematic diagram of an analog DC input module is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 25: DC Input Module (Analog) After the module converts the analog
value to digital, the PLC can turn control functions on and off at preset analog
values. For example, when the input analog value reaches 70 percent, an
alarm sounds. In special applications, an analog input can be combined with
an analog output module. Through programming, the PLC can then perform
like a conventional single loop controller. Talk Page AC/DC Output Modules
Talk Page AC Output Modules AC output modules control the ON/OFF states
of AC output field devices such as relays, coils, and solenoids. They do not
normally supply power to the field devices. Figure X is a schematic diagram of
the module. Figure 26: AC Output Module The CPU uses a low-voltage DC
signal to activate an opto-coupler in the output module. The opto-coupler
gates a TRIAC or SCR that in turn completes the current path for the external
power supply and field device. As with most PLC modules, the voltage rating
and the number of points are selectable and the outputs may have common or
isolated neutrals. Talk Page DC Output Modules Discrete Discrete DC output
modules control the on/off states of DC output field devices. Power is supplied
by an external power supply. A schematic diagram of the module is shown in
Figure 27. Figure 27: DC Output Module (Discrete) The CPU sends a low-
level DC signal to an opto-coupler that completes the external DC current path
that energizes the output field device. Field device connections may either be
"sinked" or "sourced". Talk Page DC Output Modules Analog Analog DC
output modules convert digital data from the CPU to analog data for field
device use. A Digital to Analog (D/A) converter in the module performs the
conversion. See Figure 28 for a schematic diagram of the module. Figure 28:
DC Output Module (Analog) Analog outputs conform to standard
instrumentation signals (4-20 mA, 10-50 mA, 1-5V, 0-1 0V). An external DC
power supply is used to power the output field device and the optocoupler in
the module. Analog outputs and inputs require more computing time than
discrete modules. The additional time is needed to perform A/D and D/A
conversions and to "block transfer" the additional information to and from the
CPU. For this reason, most PLC applications use on/off control with only a
small amount of analog I/O. If a large amount of analog data requires
processing, other systems (loop controllers, Digital Control Systems) are
usually used. Talk Page Proportional Integral and Derivative PID Processor
Module A PID module combines analog input, analog output, and a control
program of a typical single loop controller. A PID module is a smart module.
This means that it has an on-board microprocessor and program. The module
carries out loop control without the use of the CPU in the PLC. These modules
do communicate with the CPU for non-routine functions such as alarm
reporting and programming changes. Talk Page Controls and Indicators Most
processor modules have front panel lights or indications to provide the user
with status indications of PLC operation. These lights are very useful in
troubleshooting. Also provided on most processor modules is a switch used to
change the module mode of operation from RUN to PROGRAM. Additional
connections are also usually provided to allow the connection of a terminal for
programming the PLC and a port for connections to external I/O. Talk Page
Scanning The processor module controls the PLC by executing the software
program. During program execution, the processor reads all the inputs and
uses the values, in accordance with the control logic, to energize or de-
energize the outputs, thus solving the ladder network. Once all the logic is
solved, the processor updates all outputs. The process of reading the inputs,
executing the program, and updating the outputs is known as a scan. The
time required to make a single scan varies from 1 msec to 100 msec. The
scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of reading the status of
inputs, evaluating the control logic, and updating outputs. The common scan
method of monitoring the inputs at the end of each scan is inadequate for
reading certain rapid inputs. Some PLCs provide software instructions that will
allow the interruption of the continuous program scan to immediately receive
an input or update an output. These immediate instructions are very useful
when the PLC must instantaneously react to a critical input or output. Talk
Page User Program The user program memory is an area reserved in the
application memory for the storage of the control logic. All the PLC
instructions that control the machine or process are stored here. The
addresses of inputs and outputs, whether real or internal, are specified in this
section of memory. When the processor is in the run mode and the program is
executed, the processor interprets the user program memory locations and
controls the bits of the data table that correspond to real or internal outputs.
The interpretation of the user program is accomplished by the processors
execution of the executive program. The maximum amount of available user
program memory is normally a function of the processor size (i.e., I/O
capacity). In medium and large controllers, the user program area is normally
flexible by altering the size of the data table so that it meets the minimum data
storage requirements. In small processors, however, the user program area is
normally fixed. Talk Page Addressing and Number Systems Talk Page
Number Systems The earliest number or counting system known to man was
developed to help determine a quantity for a collection of possessions. As
daily activities became more complex, numbers became more important in
trade, time, distance, and all other aspects of human life. Numbers are
extremely important in everyday life. As such, a more complex system was
required than counting everything on ones fingers and toes. Ever since the
necessity to count objects was discovered, man has been looking for easier
ways to count them. The abacus, developed by the Chinese, is one of the
earliest known methods for counting. The simple system of beads and wires
arranged within a frame provided an early means for calculation. The
apparatus proved helpful and is still used in some parts of the world today. As
time, technology, and need progressed, so did the means and methods
required for accurate calculation. The first adding machine was invented by
Blaise Pascal in 1642. Twenty years later, an Englishman, Sir Samuel
Morland, developed a more compact device that could multiply, add, and
subtract. Then, Wilhelm Liebnitz perfected a machine in 1671 that could
perform all the basic operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, as well as the extraction of the square root. The principles
pioneered by Liebnitz are still used today by modern electronic digital
computers. Computers are used wherever repeated calculations or the
processing of large amounts of data is necessary. Some of the greatest
applications are found in the military, scientific, and commercial fields. These
fields have applications ranging from manufacturing processes to engineering
design, to the identification and destruction of enemy targets. The advantages
of digital computers include speed, accuracy, and labor savings. Often,
computers are used to manage routine jobs, allowing personnel to perform
other tasks, which may require a human touch. People and computers
normally do not speak the same language. However, methods of translating
information into forms that are understood and used by both are necessary.
Humans generally speak in words and numbers expressed in the decimal
number system, while computers only understand coded electronic pulses
that represent digital information. In this section, you will learn about number
systems, in general, and specifically learn about binary, octal, and
hexadecimal number systems. The methods for converting numbers in the
binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems to equivalent numbers in the decimal
system, and vice versa, will also be discussed. This training module will
discuss the different types of number systems that can be converted easily to
the electronic pulses necessary for digital equipment and industrial
communications. Talk Page Types of Number Systems The decimal system is
the most commonly used number system. The Roman numeral system,
though seldom used, is another well-known number system. Other number
systems include binary, octal, and hexadecimal. All number systems have a
base and a number value. Talk Page Binary The simplest possible number
system is the binary, or base 2, system. Since the binary number system is a
base 2 system, only two symbols, 0 and 1, are used. The binary system is
also a positional notation system. While the decimal system uses powers of
10 to determine the value of a position, the binary system uses powers of 2 to
determine the value of a position. A bar graph showing the positions and the
powers of the base is shown below: Table 1 provides a comparison of decimal
and binary numbers. Notice each time the total number of binary symbol
positions increases, the binary number indicates the next higher power of 2.
The table also shows that more symbol positions are necessary in the binary
system to represent equivalent values in the decimal system. Talk Page Octal
The octal, or base 8, number system is a common system used with
computers. Because of its relationship with the binary system, it is useful in
programming some types of computers. As with the other systems, the base,
or radix, is the number of symbols used in the system. The octal system uses
eight symbols, 0 through 7. The base is indicated by the subscript 8. Table 2
compares the binary, octal, and decimal number systems and shows that one
octal digit is the equivalent value of three binary digits. Similar to the decimal
and binary systems, the octal system is a positional notation system. The
octal system uses powers of 8. The following bar graph shows the positions
and the power of the base: Here the power, orexponent, indicates the number
of times the base is multiplied by itself. The value of thismultiplicationis
expressed in base 10 as shown below: Talk Page Decimal to Octal/Octal to
Decimal Conversion In decimal systems, each decimal place is a base of 10.
For example: In octal, numerals each place is a power with base 8. For
example: By performing the calculation above in the familiar decimal system
we see why 112 in octal is equal to 64 + 8 + 2 = 74 in decimal. Talk Page
Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion The following example further
illustrates this comparison and shows the conversion of octal 2258to binary
and back to octal: Talk Page Hexadecimal The hexadecimal, or hex, number
system is a more complex system in use with computers. The name is derived
from the fact that the system uses 16 symbols. It is beneficial in computer
programming because of its relationship to the binary system. Since 16 in the
decimal system is the 2 to the fourth power (or 24), one hex digit has a value
equal to four binary digits. Table 2 compares the binary and hexadecimal
number systems. As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands
for a single object. A number in the hex system is the symbol used to
represent a unit or quantity. The Arabic numerals 0 through 9 are used with
the first six letters of the alphabet. Letters are sometimes used in math
problems to represent unknown quantities but in the hex system, A, B, C, D,
E, and F each have a definite value as shown below: The base, or radix, of
the hex system is 16, which represents the number of symbols used in the
system. A quantity expressed in hex is annotated by the subscript 16, as
shown below: Like the binary, octal, and decimal systems, the hex system is a
positional notation system. Powers of 16 are used for the positional values of
a number. The following bar graph shows the positions: Multiplying the base
times itself the number of times indicated by the exponent will show the
equivalent decimal value: As seen by the positional values, usually fewer
symbol positions are required to express a number in hex than in decimal.
The following example shows this comparison: Talk Page Binary Coded
Decimal Computers and microprocessors both operate on a series of
electrical pulses called words. A word can be represented by a binary number
such as 101100112. The word length is described by the number of digits or
BITS in the series. A series of four digits would be called a 4-bit word and so
forth. The most common are 4-, 8-, and 16-bit words. Quite often, these words
must use binary-coded decimal inputs. Binary-coded decimal, or BCD, is a
method of using binary digits to represent the decimal digits 0 through 9. A
decimal digit is represented by four binary digits, as shown below: You should
note in the table above that the BCD coding is the binary equivalent of the
decimal digit. Since many devices use BCD, knowing how to handle this
system is important. You must realize that BCD and binary are not the same.
For example, 4910in binary is 1100012, but 4910in BCD is 01001001BCD.
Each decimal digit is converted to its binary equivalent. Talk Page Addressing
Addressing is the most important concept to understand when learning PLCs.
Addressing is how we make a correlation between the field devices controlled
by the PLC, and the data that is stored in the PLCs memory. If you cannot
address a point or group of points in the PLCs memory, then you cannnot
control the field device associated with that point. The easiest way to
approach understanding the addressing used in the Allen Bradley PLC-5 is to
view all addresses from the processors point of view. By this, we mean that in
order for a real device in the field, such as a relay, to be operated by the PLC,
the PLC must first have a record of that point in its memory. That point can
then be accessed by the PLC. The Allen Bradley PLC-5 stores the information
regarding all of the points it can address in areas called Data Tables as shown
in figure 29. The data tables are divided up by function. Figure 29: Data Table
Files Talk Page Addressing Terminology There are seven terms one must
know in order to understand addressing as defined below. Talk Page Chassis
Hardware assembly (physical rack) that houses devices such as I/O modules,
adapter modules, processor modules, and power supplies. Chassis are
available in six sizes: 4-, 8-, 12-, and 16-slot. Talk Page Group An I/O
addressing unit consisting of one input and one output word (16 bits each) of
the data table. Depending on the density of the I/O module and the
addressing mode used, some of the bits in a group may be unused. The
group number is included in I/O addresses in the position represented with
agin the format: I:rrg/xx. Talk Page Rack An I/O addressing unit that
corresponds to eight input image table words and eight output image table
words (8 groups). A rack is a logical entity not to be confused with the physical
chassis. 8 groups = 1 full rack, 6 groups = rack, 4 groups = rack, 2 groups =
rack. The rack number is included in I/O addresses in the position represented
with an "rr" in the format: I:rrg/xx. Talk Page Slot A location in a chassis for
installing a module. The number of physical slots per group determines the
addressing mode. Talk Page Elements Data files are made up of individual
data blocks called "Elements" or "Structures". Each element is composed of
"words", and each word is composed of "bits". Elements are comprised of
from 1 to 56 words, depending on the instruction. Most instructions you will
encounter will have from one to three words to an element. An example of an
element level address is T4:0 T4:0 indicates the first timer (0) in the default
timer file (T4). Each timer is comprised of three (3) 16 bit words. When you
say T4:0, you are referring to all three of these words as a group. Figure 30:
Elements Another example, illustrated on the right, is the address N7:15. This
identifies element 15 in the integer file N7. Since integer files have one word
elements, the element number and word number will match in this case as
shown in Figure X and Figure Y. Figure 31: Element Address Talk Page
Words Words are the next level of identification down from elements. Each
"word" in the PLC is comprised of 16 bits as shown in Figure 32. When an
instruction is addressed to the word level, it is looking at all 16 bits of a
particular word in an element. When an element is comprised of more than
one word, the 0 word contains status data in bit form, and the other words
contain data which must be stored in more than one bit. A good example is a
timer file. Timers elements are comprised of three words. The 0 word contains
status information which can be stored in individual bits. For example, the 17
bit in the 0 word is the done bit, indicating that the timer has timed out. The
one and two words contain information which require a full word to contain. In
the timer, the one word contains the value of the preset (PRE) of the timer,
and the two word contains the information about the Accumulator (ACC).
These words are addressed by their symbols, PRE and ACC. When
accessing an element to the word level, the period (.) is used to delimit
instead of the slash (/). Figure 32: Word Address Talk Page Bit The smallest
unit of data in a PLC is the bit. Bits make up words, which in turn make up
elements. Many instructions must be specified down to the bit level. For
example, if you want to know the status of the Done bit on a timer, you must
specify the address down to the bit level. The address would be: T4:0/DN
T4:0 is the element we are addressing. Since we are addressing a single bit,
we put the "/" sign as a bit delimiter, and then specify the bit. In this case the
Done bit. Figure 33 shows the element B3:63 and the bit 15. Note that in this
case, the individual bits are identified by numbers, not names (as in the done
bit in the timer). This is true of bits in all files except those having more than
one word in an element. Figure 33: Bit Address Talk Page Bytes A group of
bits forming a piece of data. Usually a subset of a word consisting of eight
bits. Talk Page Rack Addressing Rules Addressing to a rack is just assigning
a physical slot in the chassis to a logical word in the processor. Rack
addressing involves only data tables 0 and 1, the output and input data tables.
The type of addressing shown in figure x is called single slot addressing, and
is the most common type of addressing used in Allen Bradley PLCs. To
review the rules for rack addressing, use the following while referring to the
previous figure on PLC 5 Racks.: A rack is a logical term that defines 8 words
in the processor input data table and 8 words in the processor output data
table. These words are numbered 0-7. Each logical rack can store 128 bits of
information in its input rack and 128 bits in its output rack. (8 words per rack x
16 bits per word=128 bits of data storage) In single slot addressing, each
physical slot is addressed to one input word and also to one output word. This
makes it possible to put either an input module or an output module in any
slot. The number of logical racks determines how many points a particular
model of PLC can address. This number is fixed for any particular processor
and cannot be changed. Rack addressing is always in the format shown in
Figure 34 below. Figure 34: Rack Addressing Format Talk Page Addressing
Examples Each type of device has its own table in which to store data. In
order to specify exactly which piece of data is to be accessed, an addressing
format is used which makes use of this data structure. In Figure 35, addresses
for input and output addresses are shown. Reading from the left to the right,
the addresses tell the following: Which data table a point exist in Which rack
of data the point is in Which group the point is in The exact point Note that a
colon separates the file identifier from the rest of the address. This is constant
for ALL addresses. Figure 35: Rack Addressing Format Talk Page PLC
Communications Talk Page PLC Communication Description PLCs
communicate with other PLC stations on the Data Highway+and also
communicate with their own remote racks via the remote I/O communications
channel. Some guidelines for PLC communications are as follows: The
DH+provides communications between processors on the DH+ Each
processor on the DH+MUST have its own unique address A total of 64 (77
Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link. If a processor has enough
communications channels (like the 5/40), it can communicate on more than
one DH+peer link at a time. DH+is simply a method for communicating from
one PLC to another. It DOES NOT allow one PLC to control another PLC. It
just lets you talk from PLC to PLC. It also makes it possible to plug a terminal
into ANY PLC on the peer link and talk to any other PLC on the peer link with
the terminal. Each chassis MUST have either an Adapter module or a
Processor module installed in the left most slot. In order for a processor to
have remote chassis, one channel MUST be set up as a scanner channel.
Talk Page PLC Communication Protocols Today, most manufacturers of PLC
systems have developed their own proprietary communication protocol,
making it difficult to combine PLC components from different manufacturers.
Communication protocols set the standards for data representation, signaling,
authentication, and error detection required to send information over a
communications channel. MODBUS is currently the most common protocol
used by PLC manufacturers. Talk Page PLC Networking Talk Page Device
Net Device Net is one of the most widely supported networks. It is an open
standard, so components from a variety of manufacturers can be used
together in the same control system. It is supported and promoted by the
Open Device Net Vendors Association (ODVA). This group includes members
from all of the major controls manufacturers. The network is noise-resistant
and robust. One major change for the control engineer is that the PLC chassis
can be eliminated and the network can be directly connected to the sensors
and actuators. This reduces the total amount of system wiring by moving I/O
points closer to the application point. Two-way communication inputs and
outputs allow diagnosis of network problems from the main controller. Device
Net covers all seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
standard. The protocol has a limited number of network addresses with very
small data packets. This helps limit network traffic and ensures
responsiveness. The length of the network cables limits the maximum speed
of the network. The basic features include: A single bus cable that delivers
data and power Up to 64 nodes on the network A data packet size of 0-8
bytes Cable lengths of 500m/250m/100m for speeds of
125kbps/250kbps/500kbps, respectively Devices can be added or removed
while power is on Based on the CANbus (Controller Area Network) protocol
for OSI levels 1 and 2 Addressing includes peer-to-peer, multicast,
master/slave, polling, or change of state Talk Page Control Net Control Net is
complimentary to Device Net. The standard is designed for communication
among controllers and it permits more complex messages than Device Net. It
is not suitable for communication with individual sensors and actuators, or
with devices off the factory floor. Control Net is a more complicated protocol
method than Device Net. Control Net features include: Multiple controllers and
I/O on one network Deterministic Data rates up to 5Mbps Multiple topologies
(bus, star, tree) Multiple media (coax, fiber, etc.) Up to 99 nodes with
addresses; up to 48 without a repeater Data packets up to 510 bytes
Unlimited I/O points Maximum length examples: 1000m with coax at 5Mbps -
2 nodes 250m with coax at 5Mbps - 48 nodes 5000m with coax at 5Mbps with
repeaters 3000m with fiber at 5Mbps 30Km with fiber at 5Mbps and repeaters
Five repeaters in series, 48 parallel segments Devices individually powered
(no network power) Devices can be removed while network is active The
network is unique because it supports a real-time messaging scheme called
Concurrent Time Domain Multiple Access (CTDMA). The network has
scheduled, high priority and unscheduled, low priority updates. When
collisions are detected, the system waits at least 2ms for unscheduled
messages. However, scheduled messages will be passed sooner, during a
special time window. Talk Page Ethernet Ethernet is the predominate
networking format. The first version was released in 1980 by a consortium of
companies, and various versions of Ethernet frames were released in the
subsequent years. These include Version II and Novell Networking (IEEE
802.3). Most modern Ethernet cards support different types of frames. The
Ethernet frame is shown in Figure 36. The first six bytes make up the
destination address for the message. If all of the bits in the bytes are set, then
any computer that receives the message will read it. The first three bytes of
the address are specific to the card manufacturer, and the remaining bytes
specify the remote address. The address is common for all versions of
Ethernet. The source address specifies the message sender. The Ethernet
type identifies the frame as a Version II Ethernet packet if the value is greater
than 05DChex. Other Ethernet types use these two bytes to indicate the data
length. The data can be from 46 to 1,500 bytes in length. The frame
concludes with a checksum that is used to verify data is correctly transmitted.
When the end of the transmission is detected, the last four bytes are used to
verify the frame is correctly received. Talk Page Data Highway Plus DH+
Allen-Bradley PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the DH+protocol
and also communicate with their own remote chassis via the remote I/O
communications channel. Some guidelines for DH+communications include:
The DH+provides communication among DH+processors. Each processor on
the DH+must have its own unique address. A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations
can be set up on one peer link. If a processor has enough communication
channels (like the 5/40), it can communicate on more than one DH+peer link
at a time. DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another.
It does not allow one PLC to control another PLC; it just lets you talk from PLC
to PLC. It also makes it possible to plug a terminal into any PLC on the peer
link and talk to any other PLC on the peer link with the terminal. Each chassis
must either have an adapter module or a processor module installed in the
leftmost slot. In order for a processor to have a remote chassis, one channel
must be set up as a scanner channel. Talk Page PLC Terms Talk Page ASCII
Stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." For
example, when the letter "A" is transmitted it is automatically coded as "65" by
the sending equipment. The receiving equipment translates the "65" back to
the letter "A." Thus, different devices can communicate with each other as
long as both use ASCII code. Talk Page ASCII Module This intelligent PLC
module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of
communicating using ASCII code as a vehicle. Talk Page Bus Topology This
is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement in which individual nodes are
tapped into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast
messages. These messages travel in both directions on the bus from the point
of connection until terminators at each end of the bus dissipate them. Figure
36: Bus Network Topology Talk Page CPU Stands for "central processing
unit," which is that part of a computer, PLC, or other intelligent device where
arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are decoded
and executed. Talk Page Daisy Chain This is a description of the connection
of individual devices in a PLC network, where each device is connected to the
next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in a
sequential fashion. Talk Page Distributed Control This is an automation
concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by separate
controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control
(control is decentralized and spread out over the system). Talk Page Host
Computer A computer used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in
a PLC/computer network. Talk Page Intelligent Device Any device equipped
with its own CPU. I/O Abbreviation for Inputs and Outputs, which are modules
that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an
external device. Talk Page Kbps This stands for "kilobits (thousand) bits per
second," a rate of measure for electronic data transfer. Talk Page Mbps
Abbreviation for "million bits per second." Talk Page Node This term is applied
to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a
device that can communicate with all other devices on the network. Talk Page
Protocol Manner in which data is arranged and coded for transmission on a
network. Talk Page Ring Topology This is a LAN arrangement in which each
node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in a continuous, closed,
circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction (Figure
X). Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them
to continue functioning even if the main cable is severed. Figure 37: Ring
Topology Talk Page RS232 An IEEE standard for serial communications that
describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating
parameters for electronic data communications. There also are several other
RS standards defined. Talk Page Serial Electronic data transfer scheme in
which information is transmitted one bit at a time. Talk Page Serial Port
Communication access point, shown in Figure 38, on a device that is set up
for serial communications. Figure 38: Serial Communications Port Talk Page
Star Topology A LAN arrangement in which nodes are connected to one
another through a central hub, which can be active or passive (Figure 39). An
active hub performs network duties such as message routing and
maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to all
the nodes connected to it. Figure 39: Star Topology Talk Page Topology This
relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN in relation to one another.
See Figure 40 for the most commonly used types topologies. Figure 40:
Topology Talk Page Transparent This term describes automatic events or
processes built into a system that require no special programming or
prompting from an operator. Talk Page Remote I/O Configurations It is
common in the industry to centralize PLCs in relation to the process being
controlled. This cuts down on the number and length of cabling used to
transmit information to and from the PLC. In some cases, this is not feasible
or ideal because an industrial environment can be quite harsh on the sensitive
electronics used in PLCs. For this reason, remote I/O modules have come into
existence. There are many advantages to using remote I/O modules,
including: Remote I/Os eliminate expensive point-to-point wires by networking
just a few, or thousands of, process signals onto one digital communication
link. For data acquisition, remote I/O modules send signals from field-mounted
sensors, transmitters, transducers, and alarms directly to DCS, PLC, and PC-
based systems. Ability to send control signals long distances to remote
valves, pumps, and motors with remote?I/O. Unburdening of an overworked
computer system by distributing signal conditioning and intelligence. Can be
used as expansion I/O to add points to a PLC system. Convert weak sensor
signals to immune digital signals to avoid damage during long-distance
transmission through a noisy industrial environment. Remote I/O allows
signals to be transmitted any distance and over any terrain with twisted-pair
wires, fiber optics, radio link, or modems. Talk Page Peer-to-Peer
Configurations Peer-to-peer networks, as shown in Figure 40, enhance
reliability by decentralizing the control functions without sacrificing coordinated
control. In this type of network, numerous PLCs are connected to one another
in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common memory table is duplicated in the
memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory area,
the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network.
They then can use this information in their own operating programs. With
peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own
control site and only needs to be programmed for its own area of
responsibility. This aspect of the network significantly reduces programming
and debugging complexity; because all communications occur transparently to
the user, communications programming is reduced to simple read-and-write
statements. In a peer-to-peer system, theres no master PLC. However, its
possible to designate one of the PLCs as a master for use as a type of group
controller. This PLC then can be used to accept input information from an
operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary parameters to
other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events. Talk Page
Host Computer PLCs also can be connected with computers or other
intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs, from the small to the very large, can be
directly connected to a computer or part of a multi-drop host computer
network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and
controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data
acquisition, as well as the computer, for data processing, documentation, and
operator interface. In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all
communications are initiated by the host computer, which is connected to all
the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer individually addresses each
of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information. The addressed PLC
then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis.
This cycle occurs hundreds of times per second. Host computers also can aid
in programming PLCs; powerful programming and documentation software is
available for program development. Programs then can be written on the
computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you
can create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer
terminal. In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other
devices, such as operator interface terminals for large security and building
management systems. Although many intelligent devices can communicate
directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and serial ASCII code,
some do not have the software ability to interface with individual PLC models.
Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It is the PLC
programmers responsibility to provide the necessary software interface. The
easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is
to use an ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small
computer that plugs into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and
programmed in BASIC, the module easily can handle ASCII communications
with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions, programming sequences,
"number crunching," report and display generation, and other requirements.
Talk Page PLC Software Talk Page Software vs. Firmware The terms
software and firmware both refer to digitally stored programs and data
structures that are read and written by computers. In the PLC world, software
is usually reserved for computer applications that allow the logical creation,
monitoring, and troubleshooting of a PLC program. One example of PLC
software is the RSLogix program developed by Allen-Bradley for use with their
controllers. Firmware can be referred to as the actual program a PLC uses to
execute logical instruction. Firmware is often stored in internal memory or on
an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM).
EEPROMs can be used to store program backups if there is a program fault
or a sustained power loss to the PLC. Talk Page HMI Human Machine
Interface The basic purpose of an HMI is to allow convenient and intuitive
graphical interface with a process and for control systems to be more
interactive and user-friendly. HMIs provide a simple display that helps an
operator determine machine conditions and make simple settings. The
following are the most common uses of HMIs: Display of machine and
process faults and status Simple operational commands such as stop/start
Monitor of production/process counts and values Talk Page Ladder Logic
Diagrams The ladder logic used in PLCs today was once referred to as relay
logic due to the implementation of physical relay coils used to control
processes. Relay logic is now known as ladder logic because when the logic
circuit schematic is laid out with electrical notation, it resembles a ladder with
separate rungs, perpendicular between rails, containing symbols used to
represent Boolean logic expressions such as AND, OR, and NOT. Figure 41:
Ladder Logic The example in Figure 41 shows two rungs containing a series
of relays denoted as X, Y, and Z. These are inputs while the symbol for S is
an output. The logical expression for this circuit is S=X AND (Y OR Z). If
normally open contacts X and Y are closed, there is an output at S. Likewise,
because of the OR function of Y and Z, there also is an output at S if X and Z
are closed, but Y remains open. Any combination of Boolean expressions can
be used in ladder logic, including but not limited to AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XOR. Figure 32 shows a ladder logic circuit with two normally
closed contacts, X and Y, connected in an OR configuration with the output S.
Their equivalent Boolean logic gate symbols are also shown. Table 5 is a logic
chart showing the combination of inputs that create a logic high or low output
from this circuit. Figure 42: NAND Circuit The two NOT gates leading into the
OR gate in Figure 42(b) represent the normally closed contacts in Figure
42(a). The NOT gate function reverses the logic of any incoming signal,
turning a HI into a LO and vice versa. When multiple rungs are connected to a
single output on a ladder logic diagram, an OR function exists, as represented
by the OR gate in Figure 42(b). The combination of these three logic gates
can be shown as a single NAND gate, as in Figure 32(c). The NAND gate
functions just like an AND gate, creating a logic HIGH output in the presence
of logic HI inputs X and Y. The only difference is the addition of the NOT
function, reversing the output from a logic HI to a logic LO so that two HI
inputs equal a LO output. Understanding the logic of this circuit, you can see
that to turn the lamp off, X and Y must be HI. It is common when examining
logic circuits to refer to logic levels as true or false, with true representing logic
HI and false representing logic LO. Talk Page Logic Instructions In order to
use the PLC and make simple edits, it is necessary to understand some basic
commands. The commands are all entered in ladder logic format, and many of
them are based on nomenclature used in relay logic. There are timers,
counters, coils, and contacts, among other commands. Talk Page Relays Talk
Page Examine If Closed XIC This command functions as the input or storage
bit (Figure 43). The command is addressed to the bit level. If the
corresponding memory bit is 1 (true), the instruction allows rung continuity and
outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction does not allow rung
continuity (it assumes its normally open state) and outputs on the rung are de-
energized (other factors can influence rung continuity). Figure 43: XIC
Command A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point
of view. The processor is looking for power on that input point to make this
statement a true statement. If a switch in the field is closed, the processor
sees power on the point and makes the XIC true. This causes the rung to be
true and enables any output that is present. This command is similar to a
normally open contact on a real world relay. If power is not on the relay, the
contact is open and continuity through the rung is not allowed. If power is not
on the PLC point, this command is false and does not allow continuity through
the rung, just like the relay contact. If power is applied to the relay, the contact
is closed and allows continuity through the rung. In the case of the XIC, as
shown in Figure 43, if power is applied to the field point, the instruction
becomes true and allows continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page Examine If Open XIO Figure 44: XIO Command This command is
similar to the XIC, except it works in reverse, as shown in Figure 34. If the
corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction allows rung continuity
and outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the
corresponding memory bit is 1 (true), this instruction does not allow rung
continuity and outputs on the rung are de-energized (other factors can
influence rung continuity). A simple way to look at this instruction is from the
processors point of view. The processor is looking for no power on that input
point to make this statement a true statement. If a switch in the field is
opened, the processor sees no power on the point, and makes the XIO true.
This causes the rung to be true, and enables any output that is present. This
command is similar to a normally closed contact on a real world relay. If power
is not on the relay, the contact is closed and continuity through the rung is
allowed. If power is not on the PLC point, this command is true, and allows
continuity through the rung, just like the relay contact. If power is applied to
the relay, the contact is open, and does not allow continuity through the rung.
In the case of the XIC, if power is applied to the field point, the instruction is
false, and does not allow continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
Talk Page Output Energized OTE Figure 45: OTE Command The OTE
instruction, which is shown in Figure 45, is used to control a bit in memory. If
the bit corresponds to an output module terminal, the device wired to the
terminal is energized when the instruction is enabled and de-energized when
the instruction is disabled. If the input conditions that precede the OTE
instruction are true, the processor enables that instruction. If the input
conditions are false, the processor disables that instruction. When rung
conditions are false, the corresponding device de-energizes. An OTE
instruction is similar to a relay coil. The OTE instruction is controlled by
preceding input instructions and the relay coil is controlled by contacts in its
hardwired rung. Talk Page Output Latched OTL Figure 46: OTL Command
The OTL instruction in Figure 46 functions much the same as the OTE, with
the exception that once a bit is set with an OTL, it islatchedon. Once an OTL
bit has been set on (1 in the memory), it remains on, even if the rung condition
goes false. The bit must be reset with an OTU instruction. When the
processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses
power and there is battery backup, the last true OTL instruction continues to
control the bit in memory. The latched output device is energized, even
though the rung conditions that control the instruction may have gone false.
The OTL instruction is retentive. When the processor loses power, is switched
to program mode or test mode, or detects a major fault causing outputs to go
off. However, the states of retentive outputs are retained in memory. When
the processor resumes operation in run mode, retentive outputs immediately
return to their previous states. Non-retentive outputs, such as OTE outputs,
are reset. Talk Page Output Unlatched OTU Figure 47: OTU Command Figure
47 displays an OTU command, which is a retentive output instruction that only
turns off a bit (it cannot turn on a bit). This instruction usually is paired with
OTL instruction, with both instructions addressing the same bit. The OTU
instruction turns off the bit that was turned on (latched) by the OTL instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the
processor loses power and there is battery backup, the bit is retained in the
state set by the last rung of the latch/unlatch pair that was true. The OTU
instruction tells the processor to turn off the addressed bit based on the rung
condition. Thereafter, the bit remains off, regardless of the rung condition, until
it is turned on, typically by an OTL instruction in another rung. Talk Page
Timers Talk Page Timer On Delay TON Figure 48: TON Command The TON
instruction shown in Figure 48 is used to turn an output on or off after the
timer has been on for a preset time interval. This instruction begins timing, at
either 1 second or 1-hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung is true and
continues until one of the following happens: The accumulated value equals
the pre-set value. The rung goes false. The processor resets the accumulated
value when the rung conditions are false, regardless of whether or not the
timer has timed out. When the rung conditions go True, the timer is on and the
Enable (EN) bit is set. When the timer reaches its preset count and times out,
the Done (DN) bit is set to true. Talk Page Timer Off Delay TOF Figure 49:
TOF Command The output instruction in Figure 49 begins timing, at either 1
second or 1-hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung goesfalseand
continues timing until one of the following conditions occur: The accumulated
value equals the pre-set value. The rung goes true. The processor resets the
accumulated value when the rung conditions are true, regardless of whether
or not the timer has timed out. Talk Page Retentive Timer On RTO Figure 50:
RTO command The RTO instruction shown in Figure 50 is used to turn an
output on or off after its timer has been on for a preset time interval. The RTO
instruction lets the timer stop and start without resetting the accumulated
value. The RTO instruction begins timing when its rung goes true. As long as
the rung remains true, the timer updates the accumulated value each program
scan, until it reaches the pre-set value. The RTO instruction retains its
accumulated value even if one of the following occurs: The rung goes false.
There is a change to program mode. The processor faults or loses power.
When the processor resumes operation or the rung goes true, timing
continues from the retained accumulated value. By retaining its accumulated
value, retentive timers measure the cumulative period during which its rung is
true. The RTO command is reset using the RES command. Talk Page
Counters Talk Page Count Up Counter CTU Figure 51: CTU Command The
CTU instruction shown in Figure 51 counts upward over a range of -32,768
to+32,767. Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTU instruction
increases the accumulated value by one count. When the accumulated value
equals or exceeds the pre-set value, the CTU sets a DN bit the ladder
program can use to initiate an action, such as controlling a storage bit or an
output device. CTU instructions are retentive and require an RES instruction
to be reset. They also reset if the counter decreases below the pre-set value.
Talk Page Count Up Counter CTD Figure 52: CTD Command Figure 52
shows CTD instruction, which counts downward over a range of+32,767 to
-32,768. Each time the rung changes from false to true, the CTD instruction
decreases the accumulated value by one count. The DN is set as long as the
accumulated value is greater than or equal to the pre-set value. When the
accumulated value is less than the pre-set value, the CTD resets a DN bit,
which the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as controlling a
storage bit or an output device. CTD instructions are retentive and require
RES instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter increases above the
pre-set value. Talk Page Reset Command RES Figure 53: RES Command
The RES instruction shown in Figure 53 is an output instruction that resets a
timer or counter. The RES executes when its rung is true. Reset commands
normally are used for counters and retentive timers, but also may be used for
TONs to reset the timers while their rungs are still true. Talk Page Data
Transfer Instructions Figure 54: Data Transfer Instructions The Move (MOV)
command shown in Figure 54 is an output instruction that copies a value from
a source address to a destination. As long as the rung remains true, the
instruction moves the data during each scan. This command makes a copy of
the original and places the duplicate in a new location (Dest). The original
value remains intact and unchanged in its source location. Talk Page
Arithmetic Commands Figure 55: ADD Command PLCs have a wide variety of
available mathematical commands. These commands simply perform the
indicated math function on any valid instruction address data or any number.
In the example shown in Figure 55, the user is adding the contents of N7:21 to
the contents of N7:22. The result is stored in file N7:19. Notice that the actual
contents of the register being used is shown below the register. In this case,
N7:21, containing the number 20 is added to N7:22, containing the number 5.
The result is stored in N7:19 as the number 25 (20+5). All math commands
work in a similar manner. Talk Page Data Manipulation Instructions Talk Page
Master Control Reset Figure 56: MCR Command Figure 56 shows output
instruction, which is also known as zone control used to set up areas or zones
of the ladder program where all non-retentive outputs may be simultaneously
disabled for the same length of time. It is used in pairs: one MCR to define the
start of the effected ladder area and one MCR to define the end of the area.
An input instruction is programmed on the rung of the first MCR to control
rung logic continuity. When the rung is false, all non-retentive outputs within
the controlled zone are disabled. When the rung is true, all rungs are scanned
according to their normal rung conditions, disregarding the zone control
instruction. CAUTION: MCR-controlled areas must contain only two MCR
instructions: one to define the start and one to define the end. Any additional
MCR orgo-to" type instructions could produce unexpected program damage or
machine operation results. DO NOT OVERLAP MCR ZONES! The MCR
instruction is not a substitute for a hardwired master control relay that provides
emergency stop capability. You still should install a hardwired master control
relay to provide emergency I/O power shutdown. Talk Page Program Control
Instructions Talk Page Subroutines Subroutines are an important part of a
PLC program. By using them, the programmer can make a program much
more logical and faster to execute. Basically, a subroutine is a ladder that is
only executed when it is called from the main program. File number 2 is
always the first ladder in a program and, as such, is the main ladder. When
the processor scans its ladder programs, it only scans ladder number 2 unless
ladder number 2 commands it to go to another subroutine. If no other ladders
are called by a JSR, then the ONLY ladder executed is file 2. When a JSR is
encountered, the program jumps out of that ladder (in this case ladder 2), and
goes to the ladder called for in the subroutine jump command. When the end
of the file is reached, the program jumps back to the file that has the JSR, in
this case file 2, and continues executing. It also returns if a Return (RET)
command is encountered in the ladder. In order to call a subroutine, a
command, such as the one shown in Figure 57, is used. It is called a JSR
(Jump To Subroutine) command. Notice that in this case, the subroutine being
called is ladder file number U: 3. The "U" indicates the file is for a user. All
ladder files are for users. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER SERVICES PRIVACY
POLICY TERMS OF USE ODESIE LICENSE HELP SITEMAP ShareThis
Copy and Paste

Discrete I/O
 The most common type of PLC I/O is discrete I/O. Sometimes discrete I/O is referred to as
digital I/O. The concept is simple, discrete I/O are signals that are either on or off. Some
examples of discrete input devices would be things like light switches, push-buttons and
proximity switches.

Examples of discrete output devices are lights, relays and motor starters. From our dishwasher
example in Part 1, some of the discrete inputs would the start button, the door switch and the
water level switch. Some of the discrete outputs would be the water fill valve, the water drain
valve and the heating element.

Some specific real-world examples of discrete inputs to a PLC would be open or closed circuit
breakers, running or stopped generators, a conveyor belt position sensor, or a water tank level
sensor. Some specific applications of discrete outputs would be closing or opening circuit
breakers, starting or stopping generators, opening or closing water valves, or turning on and off
alarm lights.

Again, this concept is really simple so I won’t belabor it. Just think of discrete I/O as always
either on or off.There’s no in between. Because of this, discrete signals are simple to process
for a computer or PLC. Other ways you can describe a discrete signal are to say it is either true
or false, 1 or 0, open or closed.

NOTE: Many people have questions about sinking versus sourcing discrete I/O. Unfortunately
this topic causes a lot of confusion. However, the concept is fairly simple. Basic electrical theory
says that DC current must flow from DC+ through a load to DC-. You have to have a complete
circuit for current to flow, right? Sinking and sourcing just has to with which side of the circuit
you are completing to detect your input or activate your output. The sinking device is the device
that’s connected to the DC- and the sourcing device is the device that’s connected to the DC+
side of the circuit. In the U.S., most PLC/PAC system are designed with sinking input modules
and sourcing output modules. This seems intuitive to me; sinking in, sourcing out. If you want to
read more about this topic, check out this graphical lesson here. 

Analog I/O

The other common form of PLC I/O is analog I/O. Analog I/O refers to signals that have a range
of values much greater than just 1 or 0. For instance, an analog signal could produce a voltage
anywhere in the range of 0 – 10 VDC. The signal could be 2 V, 3 V, 8.5 V, etc. In the PLC
 world, analog input modules usually measure analog inputs in one of the following forms: -10 to
10 VDC, 0 – 10 VDC, 1 to 5 VDC, 0 to 1 mA, or 4 – 20 mA. Basically the analog input module
either measures voltage or current from the input device. There are other types of analog
signals but these are definitely the most common. Similarly, the analog output module can
supply voltage or current signals in one of the ranges I mentioned previously.

An analog signal that most of us are familiar with is the light dimmer. As you adjust the dimmer
knob or slider, the light will get either dimmer or brighter depending on the direction of the
adjustment. Similarly an analog input into the PLC can increase or decrease in very small
increments and the PLC can produce an analog output that acts the same way.

Some real-world examples of analog inputs in a industrial environment would include engine
temperature sensors (RTDs, thermocouples, etc.), oil pressure sensors and weight scales. A
temperature sensor might report a temperature range of -50 to 150 degrees C corresponding
to 4-20 mA. A weight scale might report a range of 0 to 1000 lb corresponding to 0 to 10V. And
so on and so forth. Analog outputs can be used to control the power output on a generator, the
position of a needle on an analog pressure meter, and much more. A 0-3 VDC analog output
might be used to drive a generator from 0 – 2000 kW or a 4-20 mA analog output could be used
to drive temperature gauge from -20 to 200 degrees F. As you can see there are many
possibilities for applications of analog inputs and outputs!

The term PLC inputs refers to the devices and transducers which are entrusted with taking in
information about the physical world to the PLC. Keep in mind that it also refers to the PLC
hardware that connects to those devices, sensors and transducers. The PLC uses this input
information to make decisions based upon its program whether to energize and de-energize
the outputs controlled by the PLC. It very important to know about the different input
types discussed below.

The two types of PLC inputs are commonly referred to DI and AI (Digital and Analog). Analog
inputs are those like temperature and pressure which span over a range of values. Digital inputs
are simply two states, like those of a switch position indicating as On or Off.
Analog Inputs include temperature sensors/transmitters, current sensors, voltage sensors and
others that can convert a physical quantity to a electrical signal. These electrical signals used for
PLC input are typically 4-20ma or 1-5vdc.

Digital Inputs include push-buttons, limit switches, relay contacts, proximity switches, photo
sensors (On/Off), pressure switches and more. Digital inputs devices are available in both DC as
well as AC and some are voltage independent such as a switch contact.

A less common PLC input is the High Speed Counter (HSC). It is very similar to the digital input
type, but the hardware is capable of detecting rapid ON/OFF inputs. It is common that 10KHz or
10,000 on/off transitions per second are within the abilities of these input types. A photo optic
eye counting parts on an high speed assembly line would be example of when a HSC module
would be needed.

A HSC PLC input module may also have quadrature capable inputs. This would be used with an
rotary encoder to sense speed and direction of a motor for instance.

Depending on the particular PLC, the different inputs discussed above will require a separate
hardware module for each type. However mixed I/O (input/output) modules or cards are
available and some smaller integrated PLC models have some I/O included.

PLC Digital Inputs have a LED indicator on the module itself for setup and troubleshooting.
Simply, if the LED is ON the input is ON.

If the LED is ON and it should not be, then you need to look at your wiring, the input sensor
position or adjustment, or the possibility that the input device may be defective.The same
applies if the LED is OFF and you expect to to be ON, with the addition of checking input
protecting fuses.

PLC Analog Inputs generally don't have a display on the module (I know that Automation
Direct's newest top of the line PLC does!) to aid in troubleshooting. In this case you are going to
need your multimeter or other suitable measurement tool.

The PLC input module itself would generally would be considered the last step in
troubleshooting the problem.

Now that you understand the differences and uses of Digital and Analog inputs, be aware that
the PLC input hardware is part of a system made of several different components that
comprise a PLC. These components consist of the CPU or the central processing unit, the input
and output modules, memory and power supply.

PLC Outputs are the control circuits of the PLC and also refers to the devices controlled by the
PLC. Be aware when talking about PLCs the devices like motors and lights are also referred to
as PLC Outputs. Devices called actuators convert the electrical signal of the PLC to a physical
movement for instance a valve solenoid stoke or a motor contactor. With regards to the
variable output, the I/P (current to pneumatic) actuator, is an example.

There are two types, the ON/OFF output and the variable output. Digital output (DO) are for
the ON/OFF in your control scheme. Some examples are motors that need just be ON or OFF,
Lighting, solenoid valves, door locks. Analog output (AO) are for variable level or range of
output between OFF or stopped and ON or full speed as for an electric motor for instance.
Examples of analog outputs are a VFD (Variable Frequency Drive), a valve position actuator, and
a industrial variable power supply.

Now lets touch on the types of control circuits within the PLC Output Module. PLCs have four
typical output types. Three are DO and the other is AO.

For the Digital Outputs they are transistor, relay, and the triac. Relay dry contacts are the
quick choice since they are voltage independent and they are a easy interface to a customer's
system. Relays generally have a higher current rating than transistors, but have a mechanical
life span that has to be considered.

Transistor types are for DC applications. They are smaller and thus offer higher I/O count per
unit of circuit board real estate. You may also choose them for faster switching speeds and
longevity over relays.

Triacs are the solid state choice for AC and may require additional circuity called snubbers. Also
keep in mind to check the leakage current spec of the transistor or triac to make sure it will not
have the the possibility of turning on your output when it is OFF!

The PLC Analog Output is usually configurable for loop or internally powered and externally
powered, a voltage (typically 0 to 10VDC) or current (typically 4-20ma). In this case the PLC uses
a DAC (Digital to Analog Convertor) to drive the output. Other available Analog outputs supply
these typical ranges: -5 to 5 vdc, -10 to 10 vdc, or 0-5 vdc.

You must be aware of the inductive loads that are switched by the PLC outputs. These
include, motor starters, solenoids, and relays. If these devices are too large for direct
connection a interposing relay will be be required. These inductive loads will produce a sizable
reverse voltage, known as Back EMF. This Back EMF and corresponding current can damage the
PLC outputs and therefore has to be redirected.

For protection, devices like MOVs (metal Oxide Varistors) and diodes are installed as close to
the inductive device as possible to suppress or divert these voltages. Without surge suppression
relay contacts can pit from arching, generate electrical noise and may weld closed!
Manufacturers often provide guidelines for choosing and even supplying suppression devices,
but others may already have the suppression built-in and will not need a separate component.
As I mentioned above, inductive devices produce voltage spikes and snubbers are used for
thyristor (Triac ) PLC outputs. Snubbers for this use are RC circuits that reduce the voltage rate
of change as not to falsely trigger the triac .However, most industrial applications have low
enough voltage and current ratings they can be connected directly to the PLC outputs and some
have built-in protection anyway. Most industrial solenoids are energized by 24Vdc and
consume only about two to three hundred mA.

Finally, we must talk about sinking and source outputs. A source output will connect the
voltage to the load, its return or ground is always connected. A sinking output will connect the
load to its return or ground, it is always connected to its voltage source. Okay, do you see a
potential problem?! What happens in this case if the circuit is made complete by a short to
ground?! That is right! Unintentional turning on of the output! For this reason and the fact that
I just consider connecting a circuit to power to energize more logical, I prefer sourcing outputs.

Remember that outputs come in two main flavors, DO and AO. You have to consider what you
are going to control and to choose the right combination of PLC output module and supporting
components such as interposing relays. Oh, one more tip, create a spreadsheet of all your
inputs and outputs and all their requirements before you buy anything!