Wireless Communication: an overview

Mihir Dam
Department of Electronics, Vidyasagar College for Women, University of Calcutta

I. INTRODUCTION

The concept of mobile wireless communication was first developed by the bell laboratories in
1960. Wireless communication technology has been investigated by many researcher [1-11]. This
technology is developed at a very rapid growth due to the increasing number of subscribers. This
development in wireless systems is started when the “cellular concept” came in picture [5]. In
today’s life the mobile phone is very essential electronic gadget. The mobile phone technology is
evolved from cellular concept; therefore the mobile phone is also referred to as “Cell-phone” or
simply “cell”. In earlier period, the pagers are used in place of mobile phone for transmitting
information from one place to another [5]. But this communication only contains data signals and not
a single voice signal. The wireless communication is a robust, viable voice and data transport
mechanism. It should be able to support voice as well as the higher data traffic.
In the next subsequent sections the older first generation systems to latest fourth generation
technologies are discussed.

II. FIRST GENERATION

The first generation mobile systems are based on analog technology [5]. The first technology uses
frequency modulation (FM) and frequency division duplexing (FDD), frequency division multiple
access (FDMA) [1, 5]. The common signalling channels were used in first generation wireless
systems. Due to the use of analog technology the analog speech signals are provided by the first
generation wireless systems. The data transmission between base station and mobile user was
insufficient and the low data rate necessitates the next generation wireless systems. The first
generation systems are relies on analog systems therefore, the transmission is not secure whereas the
second generation systems uses digital modulation so, provides secure transmission of data. The
standard 1G technologies are-
A. AMPS
AMPS is the first U.S. wireless telephone system called advanced mobile phone system. It system
uses 7-cell reuse pattern with provisions for sectoring and cell splitting to increase capacity when
needed. AMPS uses frequency modulation (FM) and frequency division duplex (FDD) for radio
transmission. In the United States transmissions from mobile to base stations (reverse link) use
frequency between 824-849MHz, while base station transmits to mobile (Forward link) using
frequencies between 869-894 MHz. It uses FDMA multiple access, Channel bandwidth is 30 KHz.

B. ETACS
European Total Access Communication systems (ETACS) was developed in mid-1980’s and is
virtually identical to AMPS except its channel bandwidth is 25 KHz. Another difference between
AMPS and ETAC is how the telephone number of each subscriber (called the mobile identification
number or MIN) is formatted for different section of Europe.

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Typical First generation system:

A. Cordless Telephony:
Cordless telephone systems are full duplex communication systems that use radio to connect a
portable handset to a dedicated base station, which is then connected to a dedicated telephone line
with a specific telephone number on the public switched telephone network (PSTN). In first
generation cordless telephone systems (manufactured in the 1980s), the portable unit communicates
only to the dedicated base unit and only over distances of a few tens of meters. Early cordless
telephones operate solely as extension telephones to a transceiver connected to a subscriber line on
the PSTN and are primarily for in-home use. Second generation cordless telephones have recently
been introduced which allow subscribers to use their handsets at many outdoor locations within
urban centers such as London or Hong Kong. Modem cordless telephones are sometimes combined
with paging receivers so that a subscriber may first be paged and then respond to the page using the
cordless telephone. Cordless telephone systems provide the user with limited range and mobility, as
it is usually not possible to maintain a call if the user travels outside the range of the base station.
Typical second generation base stations provide coverage ranges up to a few hundred meters. Figure
1. illustrates a cordless telephone system.

Fig. 1. Cordless system

B. PAGING SYSTEM :
Paging systems are communication systems that send brief messages to a subscriber. Depending
on the type of service, the message may be either a numeric message, an alphanumeric message, or a
voice message. Paging systems are typically used to noti& a subscriber of the need to call a
particular telephone.
number or travel to a known location to receive further instructions. In modern paging systems,
news headlines, stock quotations, and faxes may be sent. A message is sent to a paging subscriber via
the paging system access number (usually a toll-free telephone number) with a telephone keypad or
modem. The issued message is called a page. The paging system then transmits the page throughout
the service area using base stations which broadcast the page on a radio carrier. Paging systems vary
widely in their complexity and coverage area. While simple paging systems may cover a limited
range of 2 km to 5 km, or may even be confined to within individual buildings, wide area paging
systems can provide worldwide coverage. Though paging receivers are simple and inexpensive, the
transmission system required is quite sophisticated. Wide area paging systems consist of a network
of telephone lines, many base station transmitters, and large radio towers that simultaneously
broadcast a page from each base station (this is called simulcasting). Simulcast transmitters may be
located within the same service area or in different cities or countries. Paging systems are designed
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to provide reliable communication to subscribers wherever they are; whether inside a building,
driving on a highway, or flying in an airplane. This necessitates large transmitter powers (on the
order of kilowatts) and low data rates (a couple of thousand bits per second) for maximum coverage
from each base station. Figure 2 shows a diagram of a wide area
paging system.

Fig. 2. Paging system

III. SECOND GENERATION

The analog technology in first generation is replaced by digital technology in 2G wireless

systems. Instead of analog frequency modulation (FM) technique the digital modulation techniques
are used in second generation. The access techniques used in second generation are TDMA (time
division multiple access) and CDMA (code division multiple access) along with the frequency
division duplexing (FDD) technique [1, 2, 5]. By using the second generation technologies the
system capacity is three times greater than the first generation system.
The standards in 2G technology are categorised by following types:

1) GSM (global system for mobile) –

It is very popular and widely used 2G technologies by most of the subscribers. The popular features
of GSM is short messaging service(SMS). SMS allows the users to send a data in alphanumerical
format to the other user by simply dialling the users mobile phone number. The uplink
frequency(from base station to mobile station) is 890-915 MHz and downlink frequency (from
mobile station to base station) is 935-960 MHz. The carrier separation for GSM is 200KHz and
bandwidth of GSM is 25MHz. It uses time division multiple access technique along with the
frequency division duplexing. In GSM the 0.3 gaussian minimum shift key (GMSK) modulation is
used at the data rate of 270.833kbps. The voice channels per carrier is 8 and the frame period is
4.615ms.

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GSM includes various types of Teleservices and data services. The teleservices includes emergency
calling, facsimile, videotext, teletext. One of the most popular feature of GSM is subscriber identity
module (SIM) which gives a unique identity to each subscribers.
The GSM network can be broadly divided into:
The Mobile Station (MS)
a. The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
b. The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
c. The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and messaging systems’
functions:
o Home Location Register (HLR)
o Visitor Location Register (VLR)
o Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
o Authentication Center (AuC)
o SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
o Gateway MSC (GMSC)
o Chargeback Center (CBC)
o Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

Fig. 3. GSM system architecture

The following diagram shows the GSM netwrok along with the added elements:
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air interface or
the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching (NSS) center across the
A interface.
GSM Network Areas
In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:
Cell: Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global Identity
(CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
Location Area: A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is paged when a
subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI). Each LA is
served by one or more BSCs.
MSC/VLR Service Area: The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service area.
PLMN: The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile Network
(PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.
GSM Addressing and Identifiers
GSM treats the users and the equipment in different ways. Phone numbers, subscribers, and

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equipment identifiers are some of the known ones. There are many other identifiers that have been
well-defined, which are required for the subscriber’s mobility management and for addressing the
remaining network elements. Vital addresses and identifiers that are used in GSM are addressed
below.
International Mobile Station Equipment Identity
The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) looks more like a serial number which
distinctively identifies a mobile station internationally. This is allocated by the equipment
manufacturer and registered by the network operator, who stores it in the Entrepreneurs-inResidence
(EIR). By means of IMEI, one recognizes obsolete, stolen, or non-functional equipment.
Following are the parts of IMEI:
 Type Approval Code (TAC): 6 decimal places, centrally assigned.
 Final Assembly Code (FAC): 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
 Serial Number (SNR): 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
 Spare (SP): 1 decimal place.
Thus, IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile station and gives clues
about the manufacturer and the date of manufacturing.
International Mobile Subscriber Identity
Every registered user has an original International Mobile Subscribter Identity (IMSI) with a valid
IMEI stored in their Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
IMSI comprises of the following parts:
 Mobile Country Code (MCC): 3 decimal places, internationally standardized.
 Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places, for unique identification of a mobile
network within the country.
 Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN): Maximum 10 decimal places,
identification
 number of the subscriber in the home mobile network.
Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number
The authentic telephone number of a mobile station is the Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number
(MSISDN). Based on the SIM, a mobile station can have many MSISDNs, as each subscriber is
assigned with a separate MSISDN to their SIM respectively.
Listed below is the structure followed by MSISDN categories, as they are defined based on
international ISDN number plan:
 Country Code (CC) : Up to 3 decimal places.
 National Destination Code (NDC): Typically 2–3 decimal places.
 Subscriber Number (SN): Maximum 10 decimal places.
Mobile Station Roaming Number
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an interim location dependent ISDN number, assigned
to a mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor Location Register (VLA). Using MSRN, the
incoming calls are channeled to the MS.
The MSRN has the same structure as the MSISDN.
 Country Code (CC) : of the visited network.
 National Destination Code (NDC): of the visited network.
 Subscriber Number (SN): in the current mobile network.
Location Area Identity
Within a PLMN, a Location Area identifies its own authentic Location Area Identity (LAI). The LAI
hierarchy is based on international standard and structured in a unique format as mentioned
below:
a. Country Code (CC): 3 decimal places.
b. Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places.

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 c. Location Area Code (LAC): maximum 5 decimal places or maximum twice 8 bits coded in
hexadecimal (LAC < FFFF).
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) can be assigned by the VLR, which is responsible for
the current location of a subscriber. The TMSI needs to have only local significance in the area
handled by the VLR. This is stored on the network side only in the VLR and is not passed to the
Home Location Register (HLR).
Together with the current location area, the TMSI identifies a subscriber uniquely. It can contain up
to 4 × 8 bits.
Local Mobile Subscriber Identity
Each mobile station can be assigned with a Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI), which is an
original key, by the VLR. This key can be used as the auxiliary searching key for each mobile station
within its region. It can also help accelerate the database access. An LMSI is assigned if the mobile
station is registered with the VLR and sent to the HLR. LMSI comprises of four octets (4x8 bits).
Cell Identifier
Using a Cell Identifier (CI) (maximum 2 × 8) bits, the individual cells that are within an LA can be
recognized. When the Global Cell Identity (LAI + CI) calls are combined, then it is uniquely defined.

GSM Operations:
Once a Mobile Station initiates a call, a series of events takes place. Analyzing these events can give
an insight into the operation of the GSM system.
Mobile Phone to Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) :
When a mobile subscriber makes a call to a PSTN telephone subscriber, the following sequence of
events takes place:
1. The MSC/VLR receives the message of a call request.
2. The MSC/VLR checks if the mobile station is authorized to access the network. If so, the mobile
station is activated. If the mobile station is not authorized, then the service will be denied.
3. MSC/VLR analyzes the number and initiates a call setup with the PSTN.
4. MSC/VLR asks the corresponding BSC to allocate a traffic channel (a radio channel and a
timeslot).
5. The BSC allocates the traffic channel and passes the information to the mobile station.
6. The called party answers the call and the conversation takes place.
7. The mobile station keeps on taking measurements of the radio channels in the present cell and the
neighbouring cells and passes the information to the BSC. The BSC decides if a handover is
required. If so, a new traffic channel is allocated to the mobile station and the handover takes place.
If handover is not required, the mobile station continues to transmit in the same frequency.

PSTN to Mobile Phone:

When a PSTN subscriber calls a mobile station, the following sequence of events takes place:
1. The Gateway MSC receives the call and queries the HLR for the information needed to route the
call to the serving MSC/VLR.
2. The GMSC routes the call to the MSC/VLR.
3. The MSC checks the VLR for the location area of the MS.
4. The MSC contacts the MS via the BSC through a broadcast message, that is, through a paging
request.
5. The MS responds to the page request.

2) Interim standard 136(IS-136)-

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This standard also known as North American digital cellular (NADC). The IS-136 supports 3 times
slotted users for each 30KHz. This technique also uses time division multiple acess (TDMA) with
frequency division duplexing(FDD). The forward channel frequency is 1850-1910 MHz and reverse
channel frequency is 1930-1990 MHz. the channel bandwidth is 60MHz. The 45 DQPSK(differential
quadrature phase shift keying) type modulation technique is used. The channel data rate is 46.6kbps.
3) Pacific digital cellular(PDC)-
The standard is similar to that of IS-136. Therefore, the forward and reverse link frequencies are
similar to that of IS-136. Multiple access technique is time division multiple access (TDMA) with
frequency division duplexing (FDD). The channel data rate is somewhat different compared to IS-
136 and is 42 kbps and carrier separation is 25 KHz.

4) Interim standard 95(IS-95)-

This 2G standard is very popular and also known as CDMA. This standard uses code division
multiple access(CDMA) with frequency division duplexing. It supports 64 voice channels per carrier
that are orthogonally coded. The forward channel frequency for IS-95 is 824-849 MHz. And the
reverse channel frequency is 869-894 MHz. The carriers are separated by 1.25MHz frequency. The
signal is modulated by binary phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation with quadrature spreading at
the data rate of 1.2288 Mchips /sec.
Although, the 2G standard mobile technologies provides efficient voice data transmission but the
internet browsing applications are at very lower speeds. Thus, it is also insufficient for rapid
electronic mail (e-mail) services. So, for providing higher data rate transmission for internet
browsing applications, e-mail services the 2G standards are modified and a new standard called 2.5
G standard is developed with backward compatibility with 2G standard. The 2.5G technology is
evolved from the standards (GSM, nPDC, IS-95and IS-136) in 2G technology. The high speed
circuit switched data (HSCSD) is evolved from GSM standard which allows individual user to use
consecutive time slots to obtain the higher speed data access on the GSM networks. It uses 200KHz
channel bandwith and provides transmission rate upto 57.6 kbps. The general packet radio service
(GPRS) includes features of both GSM, IS-136 and PDC. It provides a packet data access which is
suited for non- real time internet usage, facsimile, e-mail, web browsing.

IV. THIRD GENERATION

The third generation (3G) wireless systems provide backward compatibility for 2G and 2.5G. The 3G
technology is originally designed for higher speed internet access and various types of web browsing
applications [1, 2, 5]. The 3G standard provides various attractive services one of it is video
conferencing which enables multiple called parties that can communicate face to face though they
are at a long distance. This service is very useful in case of business industries where various
conferences are performed by video conferencing. The 3G also provides multimedia services, video
calling, gaming services and internet access at a very high data rate.
The 3G standard is categorised in two types which are as follows:
A. 3GPP (3G partnership project for wideband CDMA standard) -
This standard is based on backward compatibility with GSM and IS-136/ PDC. The 3 GPP standard
involves wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA), time division synchronous code
division multiple access (TD-SCDMA) and enhanced data for GSM evolution (EDGE) . The W-
CDMA is also called as universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS). The W-CDMA uses
both frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time division duplexing (TDD). This technique is
compatible with GSM and forward channel bandwidth is 5 GHz. The data rate is up to 2 Mbps. Its
spectral efficiency is six times greater than GSM system. The TD-SCDMA is a popular GSM
compatible standard. It has 1.6 MHz bandwidth and uses TDD duplexing technique. The channel bit
rate is up to 2.227 Mbps.

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B. 3 GPP-2(3G partnership project for CDMA-2000 standard) –

This 3G technology is backward compatible to 2G CDMA technique i.e. IS-95 and 2.5G technique
i.e.IS-95 B. The CDMA -2000 standard uses both FDD and TDD duplexing methods.The 3G –
CDMA 2000 implies a single 1.25 MHz radio channel. The data rate is up to 2 Mbps.

V. FOURTH GENERATION:

The fourth generation mobile communication system is developed after the third generation (3G)
mobile phone standards. A fourth generation system (4G) provides various features which are not
involved in Third generation standards or any other generation before 3G (i.e. first generation and
second generation) [3, 4, 6-11]. The features included in 4G are Video conferencing, gaming
services, IP telephony, high definition (HD) mobile TV. It also provides Internet access facility at a
very rapid speed which is known as mobile ultra-broadband internet access. Some of the key
technologies required for 4G are briefly described below:

ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OFDMA):

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) not only provides clear advantages for
physical layer performance, but also a framework for improving layer 2 performance by proposing
an additional degree of free- dom. Using OFDM, it is possible to exploit the time domain, the space
domain, the frequency domain and even the code domain to optimize radio channel usage. It ensures
very robust transmission in multi-path environments with reduced receiver complexity. OFDM also
provides a frequency diversity gain, improving the physical layer performance .It is also compatible
with other enhancement Technologies, such as smart antennas and MIMO (multiple-input and
multiple-output)radar antenna .OFDM modulation can also be employed as a multiple access
technology (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access). In this case, each OFDM symbol can
transmit information to/from several users using a different set of sub carriers (sub channels). This
not only provides additional flexibility for resource allocation (increasing the capacity), but also
enables cross-layer optimization of radio link usage.

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SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIO:
Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from today's high processing power to develop multi-band,
multi-standard base stations and terminals. Although in future the terminals will adapt the air
interface to the available radio access technology, at present this is done by the infrastructure.
Several infrastructure gains are expected from SDR. For example, to increase network capacity at a
specific time (e.g. during a sports event), an operator will reconfigure its network adding several
modems at a given Base Transceiver Station (BTS). SDR makes this reconfiguration easy. In the
context of 4G systems, SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation of multi-standard pico/micro
cells. For a manufacturer, this can be a 7 powerful aid to providing multi-standard, multi-band
equipment with reduced development effort and costs through simultaneous multi-channel
processing.

MULTIPLE-INPUT MULTIPLE –OUTPUT:

MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple transmitting antennas (space multiplex) and time
or frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to process independent time symbols as
soon as the OFDM waveform is correctly designed for the channel. This aspect of OFDM greatly
simplifies processing. The signal transmitted by m antennas is received by n antennas. Processing of
the received signals may deliver several performance improvements range, quality of received signal
and spectrum efficiency. In principle, MIMO is more efficient when many multiple path signals are
received. The performance in cellular deployments is still subject to research and simulations.
However, it is generally admitted that the gain in spectrum efficiency is directly related to the
minimum number of antennas in the link. HANDOVER AND MOBILITY Handover technologies
based on mobile IP technology have been considered for data and voice. Mobile IP techniques are
slow but can be accelerated with classical methods (hierarchical, fast mobile IP). These methods are
applicable to data and probably also voice. In single-frequency networks, it is necessary to reconsider
the handover methods. Several techniques can be used when the carrier to interference ratio is
negative (e.g. Variable Spreading Factor Orthogonal Frequency and code Division Multiplexing
(VSFOFDM), bit repetition), but the drawback of these techniques is capacity. In OFDM, the same
alternative exists as in CDMA, which is to use macro-diversity. In the case of OFDM, MIMO allows
macro-diversity processing with performance gains. However, the implementation of macro-
diversity implies that MIMO processing is centralized and transmissions are synchronous. This is not
as complex as in CDMA, but such a technique should only be used in situations where spectrum is
very scarce.
The fourth generation mobile systems uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM),
Multiple input multiple output (MIMO), software defined radio (SDR) technologies. The OFDM
technology is similar technology as FDM (Frequency division multiplexing) technology but a
technological difference is that in OFDM the subcarriers are orthogonally spaced to each other to
reduce the interference. It also reduces the Frequency selective fading and the cross-talk between sub
channels. One advantages of OFDM is that inter-carriers guard bands are not necessary. OFDM also
improves the spectral efficiency.
The second technology used in fourth generation standard is Multiple input multiple output
(MIMO). In this system the number of multiple antennas is used at transmitter and the number of
multiple antennas is used at receiver to improve the bit error rate (BER) and data rate so as to
maintain the system capacity. This technology provides a reliable communication.
To reduce the problems of global roaming the software defined radio (SDR) is developed. The
software defined radio technology implements the radio functionality as a software module running
on a generic hardware platform. This technology is advantageous because of its flexibility,
interoperability, connectivity and re-configurability.

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 The fourth generation standards mobile system provides data rates greater than 200 Mbps
[11]. While, third generation mobile systems provide the data rates up to 2 Mbps. Due to the higher
data rate a speedy communication is possible. By implementing the fourth generation technology the
high date speed networks connects simultaneously which offers the faultless handoffs around all over
the geographical regions.
This article mainly introduces the development of mobile communication systems. In the first
section, we briefly review the history of wireless communication and cellular concept. In the
subsequent sections section we focus on the wireless mobile communication and divide the
development course of mobile communication into four generations1G to 4G. The 1G mobile
systems gives a start up to the cellular concept while, 2G systems provides various features to the
users. The 3G mobile systems provide various attractive multimedia services. 4G system increases
the data rates to a great extent. It also has high spectrum utilization and uninterrupted cellular service.

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