EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS

B.ED (1.5-YEARS)

Course Code: (8614) Units: 1–9

Faculty of Education
Early Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher
Education Department
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
(Copyright © 2017 AIOU Islamabad)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying
recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under AIOU copyright ACT.

1st Edition ......................................... 2017

Quantity ........................................... 20000

Composed by ................................... Zahid Javed Bajwa

Printer ..............................................

Publisher .......................................... Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad.

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 COURSE TEAM

Chairman: Prof Dr Nasir Mahmood

Chairman
Early Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher
Education Department

Course Development:

Coordinator: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Professor
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

Memebers: 1. Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Professor
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
2. Aftab Ahmad Khan
Government High School Aamgah Haripur
3. Miss Sumbal Asghar
Beacon House Education System
4. Salman Khalil Chaudhary
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

Reviewers: 1. Dr. Rizwan Akram Rana-University of Punjab

2. Dr. Raana Malik-University of Punjab

Editor: 1. Fazal Karim

Layout & Design: Malik Mateen Ishfaq

Word Processor Operator, PPU
Allama Iqbal Open University

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Statistics is of vital importance in educational research. It enters in the process

right from the beginning of the research when whole plan for the research,
selection of design, population, sample, analysis tools and techniques etc., is
prepared. Planning and carrying out research project and trying to analyze data
without using statistical techniques will carry away from the objectives of the
study. In this book, efforts have been made to provide updated knowledge and
relevant skills to prospective Teachers.

This book reflects the efforts of many people. The Department of Early
Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher Education is grateful to all the
members of the course team for writing units and giving comments and feedback
to improve the materials.

It is worth mentioning that course coordinator has very skillfully mediated over
the whole process of course development, kept the course team engaged and
adhered to timeline. The composing and formatting of the scripts was very
laborious work requiring extend hours of sitting. Mr. Zahid Javed Bajwa has very
efficiently completed the task in short time.

Thanks to our Vice-Chancellor Prof. Dr. Shahid Siddiqui for his vision, support,
guidance and motivating work environment for all of us to focus on academic
excellence at university.

Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Chairman/Dean
Faculty of Education

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 INTRODUCTION
Statistics is of vital importance in vast variety of fields. Particularly it is
invaluable for the field of research. In research and particularly in educational
research following questions cannot be answered without the use of proper
statistical techniques.

 What kind and how much data we need to collect?

 How should we organize and summarize the data?
 How can we analyze the data and draw conclusion from it?
 How can we assess the strength of the conclusion and evaluate their
uncertainty?

Owing to the importance, this course is included for prospective B Ed. graduates.
The very first unit of the course introduces, its characteristics, functions, its
importance and limitations and its application in educational research. Basic
overview of descriptive and inferential statistics, variables and its types, scientific
method and notation used in the subject is also given in this unit. Unit 2 explains
some basic concepts like variable, data, population sample. Unit 3 elaborate
graphical representation or exploratory data analysis techniques. Unit 4 highlights
some basic techniques of measures of dispersion like range, mean deviation,
variance and standard deviation, and measures of shape like skewness and
kurtosis. Measures of central tendency like mean, median and mode are described
in unit 5. Unit 6 deals with inferential statistics, its logic and importance in
educational research. Hypothesis testing, its logic, errors in hypothesis testing and
t-test and its types are also discussed in this unit. Correlation along with Pearson
and Spearman correlation method and regression and its types are discussed in
unit 7. Unit 8 deals with ANOVA, logic behind using ANOVA, F-distribution,
one-way ANOVA and multiple comparison procedures. Chi-square (χ2)
distribution, its uses and types are discussed in unit 9.

Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Course Development Coordinator/Program Coordinator

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 CONTENTS
Unit–1: Introduction to Statistics ................................................................. 1
1.1 Functions of Statistics ............................................................... 3
1.2 Characteristics of Statistics ....................................................... 4
1.3 Importance and Scope of Statistics ........................................... 5
1.4 Limitations of Statistics ............................................................ 6
1.5 Application of Statistics in Educational Research .................... 6
1.6 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics ........................................ 7
1.7 Variable .................................................................................... 8
1.8 Level of Measurement .............................................................. 9
1.9 The Scientific Method............................................................... 10
1.10 Statistical Notations .................................................................. 12
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 13
1.12 Activities…… ........................................................................... 13
1.13 Bibliography…. ........................................................................ 14

Unit–2: Basics Statistics Concepts ................................................................ 15

2.1 Variable and Data ..................................................................... 16
2.1.1 Types of Variable .......................................................... 16
2.1.2 Less Common Types of Variables Data ....................... 18
2.1.3 Types of Data ................................................................ 20
2.1.4 Key Difference between Primary and Secondary Data.. 21
2.2 Population and Sample ............................................................. 22
2.2.1 Types of Population and Sample .................................. 22
2.2.2 Types of Sample ........................................................... 23
2.3 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 26
2.4 Activities…… ........................................................................... 27
2.5 Bibliography… ......................................................................... 28

Unit–3: Statistical Graphics / Exploratory Data Analysis ......................... 29

3.1 Bar chart .................................................................................... 30
3.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bar Charts .............. 32
3.2 Pictograms................................................................................. 32
3.2.1 Advantages and Drawbacks of Pictograms................... 33
3.3 Histograms ................................................................................ 34
3.3.1 Shapes of Histograms ................................................... 35
3.4 Frequency Polygon ................................................................... 38
3.5 Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive................................. 38
3.6 Scatter Plot….. .......................................................................... 39
3.6.1 When to use Scatter Plot? ............................................. 39

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 3.7 Box Plot .................................................................................... 42
3.7.1 Types of Box Plot ......................................................... 42
3.8 Pie Chart.................................................................................... 42
3.8.1 How to Read a Pie Chart? ............................................. 43
3.8.2 When to Use the Pie Chart? .......................................... 43
3.8.3 DrawBacks of Pie-Charts .............................................. 43
3.9 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 45
3.10 Activities ................................................................................... 45
3.11 Bibliography ............................................................................. 46

Unit–4: Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Dispersion.............................. 47

4.1 Introduction to Measures of Dispersion .................................... 48
4.1.1 Range ............................................................................ 49
4.1.2 Quartiles ........................................................................ 49
4.1.3 Quartile Deviation (QD) ............................................... 49
4.1.4 Mean Deviation or Average Deviation ......................... 50
4.1.5 Standard Deviation........................................................ 50
4.1.6 Variance ........................................................................ 50
4.2 Normal Curve............................................................................ 50
4.2.1 Numerical Measures of Shape ...................................... 51
4.3 Co-efficient of Variation ........................................................... 53
4.4 Self Assessment Questions ....................................................... 53
4.5 Activities ................................................................................... 53
4.6 Bibliography ............................................................................. 54

Unit–5: Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency ................. 55

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 56
5.2 Mean ......................................................................................... 57
5.2.1 Merits of Mean .............................................................. 57
5.2.2 Demerits of Mean ......................................................... 57
5.3 Median ...................................................................................... 57
5.3.1 Procedure for Determining Median .............................. 58
5.3.2 Merits of Median........................................................... 58
5.3.3 Demerits of Median ...................................................... 58
5.4 Mode ......................................................................................... 58
5.4.1 Merits of Mode ............................................................. 59
5.4.2 Demerits of Mode ......................................................... 59
5.5 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 59
5.6 Activities ................................................................................... 59
5.7 Bibliography ............................................................................. 60

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Unit–6: Inferential Statistics ......................................................................... 61
6.1 Introduction to Inferential Statistics.......................................... 62
6.1.1 Areas of Inferential Statistics ........................................ 63
6.2.2 Logic of Inferential Statistics ........................................ 63
6.2 Importance of Inferential Statistics in Research ....................... 64
6.3 Hypothesis Testing.................................................................... 65
6.3.1 Logic of Hypothesis Testing ......................................... 65
6.3.2 Four-Step Process for Hypothesis Testing .................... 66
6.3.3 Uncertainty and Error in Hypothesis Testing ............... 67
6.4 T-Test.. ...................................................................................... 68
6.4.1 Types of T-Test ............................................................. 68
6.5 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 69
6.6 Activities ................................................................................... 69
6.7 Bibliography ............................................................................. 70

Unit–7: Inferential Statistics: Correlation and Regression........................ 71

7.1 Correlation ................................................................................ 72
7.1.1 Characteristics of Relationship that Correlation Measures 72
7.2 The Pearson Correlation ........................................................... 73
7.2.1 Using and Interpreting Pearson Correlation ................. 74
7.3 The Spearman Correlation ........................................................ 76
7.4 Regression……. ........................................................................ 76
7.4.1 Objectives of Regression Analysis ............................... 77
7.4.2 Why Do We Use Regression Analysis?........................ 77
7.4.3 Types of Regression ...................................................... 77
7.5 P-Value ..................................................................................... 78
7.6 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 79
7.7 Activities ................................................................................... 79
7.8 Bibliography ............................................................................. 80

Unit–8: Inferential Statistics: ANOVA ........................................................ 81

8.1 Introduction to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) ...................... 82
8.1.1 Logic of ANOVA ......................................................... 83
8.2 The F-Distribution .................................................................... 85
8.2.1 Interpretation of the F-Statistic ..................................... 85
8.3 One Way ANOVA (Logic and Procedure) ............................... 86
8.3.1 Assumptions Underlying the One Way ANOVA ......... 86
8.3.2 Logic Behind One Way ANOVA ................................. 87
8.3.3 Procedure for Using ANOVA ....................................... 87
8.4 Multiple Comparison Procedure ............................................... 88
8.5 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 89

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 8.6 Activities .................................................................................. 89
8.7 Bibliography ............................................................................ 90

Unit–9: Inferential Statistics: Chi Square (X2)............................................ 91

9.1 The Chi-Square Distribution ..................................................... 92
9.1.1 Uses of Chi-Square (X2) Distribution ........................... 92
9.1.2 What is a chi-Square Statistic? ..................................... 93
9.2 Chi-Square (X2) Goodness-of-Fit test ....................................... 93
9.2.1 Procedure for Chi-Square (X2) Goodness of Fit Test ... 93
9.2.2 When to Use The Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test? ... 94
9.2.3 Basic Framework of Goodness of Fit Tests .................. 94
9.3 Chi-Square Independence Test ................................................. 95
9.4 Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................... 96
9.5 Activities ................................................................................... 96
9.6 Bibliography ............................................................................ 97

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 OBJECTIVES

After completion of this course the students will be able to:

 demonstrate basic understanding of statistics.

 explain the application of statistics in educational research.

 distinguish and between descriptive and inferential statistics.

 distinguish between the levels of measurement.

 explain variable and data and their types.

 explain population sample and their types.

 demonstrate the basic understanding of graphical representation of data.

 tell the basic purpose of measure of central tendency, measures of

dispersion, and numerical measures of shape.

 explain and use inferential techniques like t-test and ANOVA.

 explain correlation, regression and their types.

 explain chi-square (χ2) distribution, its uses and types.