Byte of Python
Byte of Python
Swaroop C H
Dedication
46 47
To Kalyan Varma and many other seniors at PESIT who introduced us to GNU/
Linux and the world of open source.
48
To the memory of Atul Chitnis , a friend and guide who shall be missed greatly.
49
To the pioneers who made the Internet happen . This book was first written in 2003.
It still remains popular, thanks to the nature of sharing knowledge on the Internet as
envisioned by the pioneers.
46
http://www.kalyanvarma.net/
47
http://www.pes.edu/
48
http://www.nextbigwhat.com/atul-chitnis-obituary-297/
49
http://www.ibiblio.org/pioneers/index.html
ii
Table of Contents
.................................................................................................................................. ix
1. Welcome ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Who reads A Byte of Python? .................................................................... 1
1.2. Academic Courses .................................................................................... 10
1.3. License ...................................................................................................... 10
1.4. Read Now ................................................................................................. 11
1.5. Buy The Book ........................................................................................... 11
1.6. Download .................................................................................................. 11
1.7. Read the book in your native language .................................................... 12
Preface .................................................................................................................... xiii
1. Who This Book Is For ................................................................................. xiii
2. Official Website ............................................................................................ xiii
3. Something To Think About .......................................................................... xiii
2. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 15
2.1. Features of Python ................................................................................... 15
2.2. Python 2 versus 3 .................................................................................... 17
2.3. What Programmers Say ........................................................................... 18
3. Installation ........................................................................................................... 19
3.1. Installation on Windows ............................................................................ 19
3.1.1. DOS Prompt ................................................................................... 19
3.1.2. Running Python prompt on Windows ............................................. 20
3.2. Installation on Mac OS X .......................................................................... 20
3.3. Installation on GNU/Linux ......................................................................... 20
3.4. Summary ................................................................................................... 21
4. First Steps ........................................................................................................... 22
4.1. Using The Interpreter Prompt ................................................................... 22
4.2. Choosing An Editor ................................................................................... 23
4.3. PyCharm ................................................................................................... 24
4.4. Vim ............................................................................................................ 33
4.5. Emacs ....................................................................................................... 33
4.6. Using A Source File ................................................................................. 33
4.7. Getting Help .............................................................................................. 36
4.8. Summary ................................................................................................... 36
5. Basics .................................................................................................................. 37
5.1. Comments ................................................................................................. 37
5.2. Literal Constants ....................................................................................... 37
iii
A Byte of Python
iv
A Byte of Python
v
A Byte of Python
vi
A Byte of Python
vii
A Byte of Python
viii
"A Byte of Python" is a free book on programming using the Python language. It serves
as a tutorial or guide to the Python language for a beginner audience. If all you know
about computers is how to save text files, then this is the book for you.
ix
Chapter 1. Welcome
1.1. Who reads A Byte of Python?
Here are what people are saying about the book:
This is the best beginner’s tutorial I’ve ever seen! Thank you for your
effort.
1
— Walt Michalik
The best thing i found was "A Byte of Python", which is simply a brilliant
book for a beginner. It’s well written, the concepts are well explained with
self evident examples.
2
— Joshua Robin
perfect beginners guide for python, will give u key to unlock magical world
of python
6
— Dilip
I should be doing my actual "work" but just found "A Byte of Python". A
great guide with great examples.
1
mailto:wmich50@theramp.net
2
mailto:joshrob@poczta.onet.pl
3
https://twitter.com/ShanRajasekaran/status/268910645842423809
4
https://twitter.com/nickaigi/status/175508815729541120
5
https://twitter.com/HerbertFeutl/status/11901471389913088
6
https://twitter.com/Dili_mathilakam/status/220033783066411008
1
Welcome
7
— Biologist John
Recently started reading a Byte of python. Awesome work. And that too
for free. Highly recommended for aspiring pythonistas.
8
— Mangesh
Thank you so much for writing A Byte Of Python. I just started learning
how to code two days ago and I’m already building some simple games.
Your guide has been a dream and I just wanted to let you know how
valuable it has been.
— Franklin
— Madhura
7
https://twitter.com/BiologistJohn/statuses/194726001803132928
8
https://twitter.com/mangeshnanoti/status/225680668867321857
9
http://apas.gr/2010/04/27/learning-python/
10
https://twitter.com/YuvrajPoudyal/status/448050415356346368
2
Welcome
— Matt
Hi, I’m from Dominican Republic. My name is Pavel, recently I read your
book A Byte of Python and I consider it excellent!! :). I learnt much from
all the examples. Your book is of great help for newbies like me…
11
— Pavel Simo
I am a student from China, Now ,I have read you book A byte of Python,
Oh it’s beautiful. The book is very simple but can help all the first
learnners. You know I am interesting in Java and cloud computing many
times, i have to coding programm for the server, so i think python is a
good choice, finish your book, i think its not only a good choice its must
use the Python. My English is not very well, the email to you, i just wanna
thank you! Best Wishes for you and your family.
— Roy Lau
I love your book! It is the greatest Python tutorial ever, and a very useful
reference. Brilliant, a true masterpiece! Keep up the good work!
— Chris-André Sommerseth
11
mailto:pavel.simo@gmail.com
12
mailto:sy137@gmail.com
13
mailto:jduarte1@cfl.rr.com
3
Welcome
First of all, I want to say thanks to you for this greate book. I think it is a
good book for those who are looking for a beginner’s tutorial for Python.
It is about two or there years ago, I think, when I first heard of this book.
At that time, I am not able to read some book in English yet, so I got a
chinese translation, which took me into the gate of Python programming.
Recently, I reread this book. This time, of course, the english version. I
couldn’t believe that I can read the whole book without my dictionary at
hand. Of course, it all dues to your effort to make this book an easy-to-
understand one.
14
— myd7349
I’m just e-mailing you to thank you for writing Byte of Python online. I
had been attempting Python for a few months prior to stumbling across
your book, and although I made limited success with pyGame, I never
completed a program.
Once again, thanks VERY much for placing such a structured and helpful
guide to basic programming on the web. It shoved me into and out of
OOP with an understanding where two text books had failed.
15
— Matt Gallivan
I would like to thank you for your book A Byte of Python which i myself find
the best way to learn python. I am a 15 year old i live in egypt my name
is Ahmed. Python was my second programming language i learn visual
basic 6 at school but didn’t enjoy it, however i really enjoyed learning
python. I made the addressbook program and i was sucessful. i will try
to start make more programs and read python programs (if you could tell
me source that would be helpful). I will also start on learning java and
if you can tell me where to find a tutorial as good as yours for java that
would help me a lot. Thanx.
14
https://github.com/swaroopch/byte_of_python/pull/13
15
mailto:m_gallivan12@hotmail.com
4
Welcome
16
— Ahmed Mohammed
17
— Drew Ames
18
— Jason Delport
19
— Surendran
20
— Justin LoveTrue
21
— Chinmay
Always been a fan of A Byte of Python - made for both new and
experienced programmers.
22
— Patrick Harrington
16
mailto:sedo_91@hotmail.com
17
http://www.linux.com/feature/126522
18
http://paxmodept.com/telesto/blogitem.htm?id=627
19
http://twitter.com/suren/status/12840485454
20
http://www.facebook.com/pythonlang/posts/406873916788
21
https://twitter.com/a_chinmay/status/258822633741762560
22
http://stackoverflow.com/a/457785/4869
5
Welcome
I started learning python few days ago from your book..thanks for such
a nice book. it is so well written, you made my life easy..so you found a
new fan of yours..thats me :) tons of thanks.
23
— Gadadhari Bheem
I have now written several python programs that actually do real things
for me as a system administrator. They are all procedural oriented but
they are small by most peoples standards.
Again, thanks for this book. Thank you for having it on the web.
— Bob
I just want to thank you for writing the first book on programming I’ve ever
really read. Python is now my first language, and I can just imagine all
the possibilities. So thank you for giving me the tools to create things I
never would have imagined I could do before.
— The Walrus
23
https://twitter.com/Pagal_e_azam/statuses/242865885256232960
24
mailto:fangbiyi@gmail.com
6
Welcome
Thank you so much for not only writing the book, but for putting it under
the creative commons license (free). Thank goodness there are unselfish
people like you out there to help & teach the rest of us.
— Chris
I wrote you back in 2011 and I was just getting into Python and wanted
to thank you for your tutorial "A Byte of Python". Without it, I would have
fallen by the wayside. Since then I have gone on to program a number
of functions in my organization with this language with yet more on the
horizon. I would not call myself an advanced programmer by any stretch
but I notice the occasional request for assistance now from others since
I started using it. I discovered, while reading "Byte" why I had ceased
studying C and C[]+ and it was because the book given to me started out
with an example containing an augmented assignment. Of course, there
was no explanation for this arrangement of operators and I fell on my head
trying to make sense of what was on the written page. As I recall it was a
most frustrating exercise which I eventually abandoned. Doesn't mean C
or C+ is impossible to learn, or even that I am stupid, but it does mean that
the documentation I worked my way through did not define the symbols
and words which is an essential part of any instruction. Just as computers
will not be able to understand a computer word or computer symbol that
is outside the syntax for the language being used, a student new to any
field will not grasp his subject if he encounters words or symbols for
which there are no definitions. You get a "blue screen" as it were in either
case. The solution is simple, though: find the word or symbol and get the
proper definition or symbol and lo and behold,the computer or student
can proceed. Your book was so well put together that I found very little in
it I couldn’t grasp. So, thank you. I encourage you to continue to include
full definitions of terms. The documentation with Python is good, once you
know, (the examples are its strength from what I see) but in many cases
it seems that you have to know in order to understand the documentation
7
Welcome
which to my mind is not what should be. Third party tutorials express
the need for clarification of the documentation and their success largely
depends on the words that are used to describe the terminology. I have
recommended your book to many others. Some in Australia, some in the
Caribbean and yet others in the US. It fills a niche no others do. I hope
you are doing well and wish you all the success in the future.
— Nick
hey, this is ankush(19). I was facing a great difficulty to start with python.
I tried a lot of books but all were bulkier and not target oriented; and then
i found this lovely one, which made me love python in no time. Thanks a
lot for this "beautiful piece of book".
— Ankush
That such a guide is freely available is a clear sign that the forces of evil
are not yet ruling the world! :)
— Luca
Since this is going to be the first language you learn, you should use A
Byte of Python. It really gives a proper introduction into programming in
Python and it is paced well enough for the average beginner. The most
important thing from then on will be actually starting to practice making
your own little programs.
25
— "{Unregistered}"
Just to say a loud and happy thank you very much for publishing "A Byte
of Python" and "A Byte of Vim". Those books were very useful to me four
or five years ago when I starting learning programming. Right now I’m
developing a project that was a dream for a long, long time and just want
25
http://www.overclock.net/t/1177951/want-to-learn-programming-where-do-i-start#post_15837176
8
Welcome
to say thank you. Keep walking. You are a source of motivation. All the
best.
— Jocimar
— Dattatray
Hi, 'A byte of python' is really a good reading for python beginners. So,
again, NICE WORK!
i read your book in 6 days, and i can read and write python code examples
now. thx for your contribution. plz keep your enthusiasm to make this
world better, this is just a little encourage from China. Your reader Lee
26
— LEE
I also saw that you do not mind that readers send you a thank note in
your book. So I really like your book and appreciate it. Thanks.
27
— Isen I-Chun Chao
28
The book is even used by NASA! It is being used in their Jet Propulsion Laboratory
with their Deep Space Network project.
26
mailto:lisen2010@gmail.com
27
mailto:chao926@gmail.com
28
http://dsnra.jpl.nasa.gov/software/Python/byte-of-python/output/byteofpython_html/
9
Welcome
29
• 'Principles of Programming Languages' course at 'Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam'
30
• 'Basic Concepts of Computing' course at 'University of California, Davis'
31
• 'Programming With Python' course at 'Harvard University'
32
• 'Introduction to Programming' course at 'University of Leeds'
33
• 'Introduction to Application Programming' course at 'Boston University'
34
• 'Information Technology Skills for Meteorology' course at 'University of Oklahoma'
35
• 'Geoprocessing' course at 'Michigan State University'
36
• 'Multi Agent Semantic Web Systems' course at the 'University of Edinburgh'
37
• 'Introduction to Computer Science and Programming' at 'MIT OpenCourseWare'
• 'Basic programming at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana,
38
Slovenia' - Aleš Žiberna says "I (and my predecessor) have been using your book
as the main literature for this course"
1.3. License
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0
39
International License .
This means:
• You are free to Share i.e. to copy, distribute and transmit this book
• You are free to Remix i.e. to make changes to this book (especially translations)
29
http://www.few.vu.nl/~nsilvis/PPL/2007/index.html
30
http://www.cs.ucdavis.edu/courses/exp_course_desc/10.html
31
http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~preshman/python_winter.html
32
http://www.comp.leeds.ac.uk/acom1900/
33
http://www.cs.bu.edu/courses/cs108/materials.html
34
http://gentry.metr.ou.edu/byteofpython/
35
http://www.msu.edu/~ashton/classes/825/index.html
36
http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/ewan/masws/
37
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-00sc-introduction-to-
computer-science-and-programming-spring-2011/references/
38
mailto:ales.ziberna@fdv.uni-lj.si
39
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
10
Welcome
Please note:
• Please do not sell electronic or printed copies of the book unless you have clearly
and prominently mentioned in the description that these copies are not from the
original author of this book.
• Attribution must be shown in the introductory description and front page of
the document by linking back to http://swaroopch.com/notes/python and clearly
indicating that the original text can be fetched from this location.
• All the code/scripts provided in this book is licensed under the 3-clause BSD
40
License unless otherwise noted.
1.6. Download
41
• PDF (for desktop reading, etc.)
42
• EPUB (for iPhone/iPad, ebook readers, etc.)
43
• Mobi (for Kindle)
44
• GitHub (for raw text, translating, etc.)
If you wish to support the continued development of this book, please consider buying
45
a hardcopy .
40
http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php
41
http://files.swaroopch.com/python/byte_of_python.pdf
42
http://files.swaroopch.com/python/byte_of_python.epub
43
http://files.swaroopch.com/python/byte_of_python.mobi
44
https://github.com/swaroopch/byte_of_python
45
http://swaroopch.com/buybook
11
Welcome
12
Preface
Python is probably one of the few programming languages which is both simple and
powerful. This is good for beginners as well as for experts, and more importantly, is
fun to program with. This book aims to help you learn this wonderful language and
show how to get things done quickly and painlessly - in effect 'The Anti-venom to your
programming problems'.
The aim is that if all you know about computers is how to save text files, then you can
learn Python from this book. If you have previous programming experience, then you
can also learn Python from this book.
2. Official Website
The official website of the book is http://swaroopch.com/notes/python where you can
read the whole book online, download the latest versions of the book, buy a printed
1
hard copy and also send me feedback.
— C. A. R. Hoare
1
http://swaroopch.com/buybook
xiii
Preface
— C. W. Wendte
xiv
Chapter 2. Introduction
Python is one of those rare languages which can claim to be both simple and powerful.
You will find yourself pleasantly surprised to see how easy it is to concentrate on the
solution to the problem rather than the syntax and structure of the language you are
programming in.
I will discuss most of these features in more detail in the next section.
15
Introduction
changes to it, and use pieces of it in new free programs. FLOSS is based on the
concept of a community which shares knowledge. This is one of the reasons why
Python is so good - it has been created and is constantly improved by a community
who just want to see a better Python.
High-level Language
When you write programs in Python, you never need to bother about the low-level
details such as managing the memory used by your program, etc.
Portable
Due to its open-source nature, Python has been ported to (i.e. changed to make
it work on) many platforms. All your Python programs can work on any of these
platforms without requiring any changes at all if you are careful enough to avoid any
system-dependent features.
You can use Python on GNU/Linux, Windows, FreeBSD, Macintosh, Solaris, OS/2,
Amiga, AROS, AS/400, BeOS, OS/390, z/OS, Palm OS, QNX, VMS, Psion, Acorn
RISC OS, VxWorks, PlayStation, Sharp Zaurus, Windows CE and PocketPC!
1
You can even use a platform like Kivy to create games for your computer and for
iPhone, iPad, and Android.
Interpreted
This requires a bit of explanation.
A program written in a compiled language like C or C[]+ is converted from the source
language i.e. C or C+ into a language that is spoken by your computer (binary code
i.e. 0s and 1s) using a compiler with various flags and options. When you run the
program, the linker/loader software copies the program from hard disk to memory
and starts running it.
Python, on the other hand, does not need compilation to binary. You just run the
program directly from the source code. Internally, Python converts the source code
into an intermediate form called bytecodes and then translates this into the native
language of your computer and then runs it. All this, actually, makes using Python
much easier since you don’t have to worry about compiling the program, making
sure that the proper libraries are linked and loaded, etc. This also makes your
Python programs much more portable, since you can just copy your Python program
onto another computer and it just works!
1
http://kivy.org
16
Introduction
Object Oriented
Python supports procedure-oriented programming as well as object-oriented
programming. In procedure-oriented languages, the program is built around
procedures or functions which are nothing but reusable pieces of programs. In
object-oriented languages, the program is built around objects which combine data
and functionality. Python has a very powerful but simplistic way of doing OOP,
especially when compared to big languages like C++ or Java.
Extensible
If you need a critical piece of code to run very fast or want to have some piece of
algorithm not to be open, you can code that part of your program in C or C\++ and
then use it from your Python program.
Embeddable
You can embed Python within your C/C\++ programs to give scripting capabilities
for your program’s users.
Extensive Libraries
The Python Standard Library is huge indeed. It can help you do various things
involving regular expressions,documentation generation, unit testing, threading,
databases, web browsers, CGI, FTP, email, XML, XML-RPC, HTML, WAV files,
cryptography, GUI (graphical user interfaces), and other system-dependent stuff.
Remember, all this is always available wherever Python is installed. This is called
the Batteries Included philosophy of Python.
Besides the standard library, there are various other high-quality libraries which you
2
can find at the Python Package Index .
Summary
Python is indeed an exciting and powerful language. It has the right combination of
performance and features that make writing programs in Python both fun and easy.
Remember that once you have properly understood and learn to use one version,
you can easily learn the differences and use the other one. The hard part is learning
2
http://pypi.python.org/pypi
17
Introduction
programming and understanding the basics of Python language itself. That is our goal
in this book, and once you have achieved that goal, you can easily use Python 2 or
Python 3 depending on your situation.
3
• The future of Python 2
4
• Python/3 page on the Ubuntu wiki
1. Eric S. Raymond is the author of "The Cathedral and the Bazaar" and is also the
person who coined the term Open Source. He says that Python has become his
5
favorite programming language . This article was the real inspiration for my first
brush with Python.
2. Bruce Eckel is the author of the famous 'Thinking in Java' and 'Thinking in C++'
books. He says that no language has made him more productive than Python. He
says that Python is perhaps the only language that focuses on making things easier
6
for the programmer. Read the complete interview for more details.
3. Peter Norvig is a well-known Lisp author and Director of Search Quality at Google
(thanks to Guido van Rossum for pointing that out). He says that writing Python is
7
like writing in pseudocode . He says that Python has always been an integral part
8
of Google. You can actually verify this statement by looking at the Google Jobs
page which lists Python knowledge as a requirement for software engineers.
3
http://lwn.net/Articles/547191/
4
https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Python/3
5
http://www.python.org/about/success/esr/
6
http://www.artima.com/intv/aboutme.html
7
https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=1803815
8
http://www.google.com/jobs/index.html
18
Chapter 3. Installation
When we refer to "Python 2" in this book, we will be referring to any version of Python
1
equal to or greater than version 2.7 .
For Windows 2000, XP, 2003 , click on Control Panel → System → Advanced →
Environment Variables. Click on the variable named PATH in the System Variables
section, then select Edit and add ;C:\Python27 (please verify that this folder exists,
it will be different for newer versions of Python) to the end of what is already there. Of
course, use the appropriate directory name.
For older versions of Windows, open the file C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT and add the line
PATH=%PATH%;C:\Python33 and restart the system. For Windows NT, use the
AUTOEXEC.NT file.
2. Click System, on the right you’ll see "View basic information about your computer"
3. On the left is a list of tasks, the last of which is Advanced system settings. Click that.
4. The Advanced tab of the System Properties dialog box is shown. Click the
Environment Variables button on the bottom right.
5. In the lower box titled System Variables scroll down to Path and click the Edit button.
1
https://www.python.org/downloads/
19
Installation
1. Right click on Computer from your desktop and select Properties or click Start
and choose Control Panel → System and Security → System. Click on Advanced
system settings on the left and then click on the Advanced tab. At the bottom click
on Environment Variables and under System variables, look for the PATH variable,
select and then press Edit.
2. Go to the end of the line under Variable value and append ;C:\Python27 (please
verify that this folder exists, it will be different for newer versions of Python) to the
end of what is already there. Of course, use the appropriate folder name.
3. If the value was %SystemRoot%\system32; It will now become %SystemRoot
%\system32;C:\Python27
4. Click OK and you are done. No restart is required, however you may have to close
and reopen the command line.
To open the terminal in Windows, click the start button and click Run. In the dialog box,
type cmd and press enter key.
To verify, open the terminal by pressing Command+Space keys (to open Spotlight
search), type Terminal and press enter key. Now, run python and ensure there are
no errors.
20
Installation
To verify, open the terminal by opening the Terminal application or by pressing Alt+F2
and entering gnome-terminal. If that doesn’t work, please refer the documentation of
your particular GNU/Linux distribution. Now, run python and ensure there are no errors.
$ python -V
Python 2.7.6
3.4. Summary
From now on, we will assume that you have Python installed on your system.
21
Chapter 4. First Steps
We will now see how to run a traditional 'Hello World' program in Python. This will teach
you how to write, save and run Python programs.
There are two ways of using Python to run your program - using the interactive
interpreter prompt or using a source file. We will now see how to use both of these
methods.
Once you have started Python, you should see >>> where you can start typing stuff.
This is called the Python interpreter prompt.
followed by the enter key. You should see the words Hello World printed to the screen.
Here is an example of what you should be seeing, when using a Mac OS X computer.
The details about the Python software will differ based on your computer, but the
part from the prompt (i.e. from >>> onwards) should be the same regardless of the
operating system.
$ python
Python 2.7.6 (default, Feb 23 2014, 16:08:15)
[GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 5.0 (clang-500.2.79)] on darwin
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> print "hello world"
hello world
>>>
Notice that Python gives you the output of the line immediately! What you just entered
is a single Python statement. We use print to (unsurprisingly) print any value that you
supply to it. Here, we are supplying the text hello world and this is promptly printed to
the screen.
22
First Steps
To create our Python source files, we need an editor software where you can type and
save. A good programmer’s editor will make your life easier in writing the source files.
Hence, the choice of an editor is crucial indeed. You have to choose an editor as you
would choose a car you would buy. A good editor will help you write Python programs
easily, making your journey more comfortable and helps you reach your destination
(achieve your goal) in a much faster and safer way.
One of the very basic requirements is syntax highlighting where all the different parts
of your Python program are colorized so that you can see your program and visualize
its running.
If you have no idea where to start, I would recommend using PyCharm Educational
1
Edition software which is available on Windows, Mac OS X and GNU/Linux. Details
in the next section.
If you are using Windows, do not use Notepad - it is a bad choice because it does not
do syntax highlighting and also importantly it does not support indentation of the text
which is very important in our case as we will see later. Good editors will automatically
do this.
2
If you are an experienced programmer, then you must be already using Vim or
3
Emacs . Needless to say, these are two of the most powerful editors and you will
1
https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm-educational/
2
http://www.vim.org
3
http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/
23
First Steps
benefit from using them to write your Python programs. I personally use both for most
4
of my programs, and have even written an entire book on Vim .
In case you are willing to take the time to learn Vim or Emacs, then I highly recommend
that you do learn to use either of them as it will be very useful for you in the long
run. However, as I mentioned before, beginners can start with PyCharm and focus the
learning on Python rather than the editor at this moment.
To reiterate, please choose a proper editor - it can make writing Python programs more
fun and easy.
4.3. PyCharm
5
PyCharm Educational Edition is a free editor which you can use for writing Python
programs.
When you open PyCharm, you’ll see this, click on Create New Project:
4
http://swaroopch.com/notes/vim
5
https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm-educational/
24
First Steps
25
First Steps
Change untitled to helloworld as the location of the project, you should see details
similar to this:
26
First Steps
Right-click on the helloworld in the sidebar and select New → Python File:
27
First Steps
28
First Steps
29
First Steps
Delete the lines that are already present, and now type the following:
Now right-click on what you typed (without selecting the text), and click on Run 'hello'.
30
First Steps
You should now see the output (what it prints) of your program:
31
First Steps
Phew! That was quite a few steps to get started, but henceforth, every time we ask you
to create a new file, remember to just right-click on helloworld on the left → New →
Python File and continue the same steps to type and run as shown above.
6
You can find more information about PyCharm in the PyCharm Quickstart page.
6
https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm-educational/quickstart/
32
First Steps
4.4. Vim
7
1. Install Vim
8
a. Mac OS X users should install macvim package via HomeBrew
b. Windows users should download the "self-installing executable" from http://
www.vim.org/download.php
c. GNU/Linux users should get Vim from their distribution’s software repositories,
9
e.g. Debian and Ubuntu users can install the vim package.
10
2. Install jedi-vim plugin for autocompletion.
4.5. Emacs
11
1. Install Emacs 24 .
Start your choice of editor, enter the following program and save it as hello.py.
7
http://www.vim.org
8
http://brew.sh/
9
http://packages.ubuntu.com/saucy/vim
10
https://github.com/davidhalter/jedi-vim
11
http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/
12
http://packages.ubuntu.com/saucy/emacs24
13
https://github.com/jorgenschaefer/elpy/wiki
14
the author of the amazing 'Beginning Perl' book
33
First Steps
If you are using PyCharm, we have already discussed how to run from a source file.
For other editors, open a new file hello.py and type this:
Where should you save the file? To any folder for which you know the location of
the folder. If you don’t understand what that means, create a new folder and use that
location to save and run all your Python programs:
• /tmp/py on Mac OS X
• /tmp/py on GNU/Linux
• C:\\py on Windows
To create the above folder (for the operating system you are using), use the mkdir
command in the terminal, for example, mkdir /tmp/py.
Always ensure that you give it the file extension of .py, for example,
foo.py.
1. Open a terminal window (see the previous Installation chapter on how to do that)
2. Change directory to where you saved the file, for example, cd /tmp/py
3. Run the program by entering the command python hello.py. The output is as shown
below.
$ python hello.py
hello world
34
First Steps
If you got the output as shown above, congratulations! - you have successfully run
your first Python program. You have successfully crossed the hardest part of learning
programming, which is, getting started with your first program!
In case you got an error, please type the above program exactly as shown above and
run the program again. Note that Python is case-sensitive i.e. print is not the same
as Print - note the lowercase p in the former and the uppercase P in the latter. Also,
ensure there are no spaces or tabs before the first character in each line - we will see
why this is important later.
35
First Steps
Similarly, you can obtain information about almost anything in Python. Use help() to
learn more about using help itself!
In case you need to get help for operators like return, then you need to put those inside
quotes such as help('return') so that Python doesn’t get confused on what we’re
trying to do.
4.8. Summary
You should now be able to write, save and run Python programs at ease.
Now that you are a Python user, let’s learn some more Python concepts.
36
Chapter 5. Basics
Just printing hello world is not enough, is it? You want to do more than that - you want
to take some input, manipulate it and get something out of it. We can achieve this in
Python using constants and variables, and we’ll learn some other concepts as well in
this chapter.
5.1. Comments
Comments are any text to the right of the # symbol and is mainly useful as notes for
the reader of the program.
For example:
or:
• explain assumptions
• explain important decisions
• explain important details
• explain problems you’re trying to solve
• explain problems you’re trying to overcome in your program, etc.
1
Code tells you how, comments should tell you why .
This is useful for readers of your program so that they can easily understand what the
program is doing. Remember, that person can be yourself after six months!
1
http://www.codinghorror.com/blog/2006/12/code-tells-you-how-comments-tell-you-why.html
37
Basics
It is called a literal because it is literal - you use its value literally. The number 2 always
represents itself and nothing else - it is a constant because its value cannot be changed.
Hence, all these are referred to as literal constants.
5.3. Numbers
Numbers are mainly of two types - integers and floats.
Examples of floating point numbers (or floats for short) are 3.23 and 52.3E-4 . The
E notation indicates powers of 10. In this case, 52.3E-4 means 52.3 * 10^-4^.
5.4. Strings
A string is a sequence of characters. Strings are basically just a bunch of words.
You will be using strings in almost every Python program that you write, so pay attention
to the following part.
All white space i.e. spaces and tabs, within the quotes, are preserved as-is.
38
Basics
age = 20
name = 'Swaroop'
print '{0} was {1} years old when he wrote this book'.format(name, age)
print 'Why is {0} playing with that python?'.format(name)
Output:
$ python str_format.py
Swaroop was 20 years old when he wrote this book
Why is Swaroop playing with that python?
How It WorksA string can use certain specifications and subsequently, the format
method can be called to substitute those specifications with corresponding arguments
to the format method.
39
Basics
Observe the first usage where we use {0} and this corresponds to the variable name
which is the first argument to the format method. Similarly, the second specification
is {1} corresponding to age which is the second argument to the format method. Note
that Python starts counting from 0 which means that first position is at index 0, second
position is at index 1, and so on.
Notice that we could have achieved the same using string concatenation:
but that is much uglier and error-prone. Second, the conversion to string would be done
automatically by the format method instead of the explicit conversion to strings needed
in this case. Third, when using the format method, we can change the message without
having to deal with the variables used and vice-versa.
Also note that the numbers are optional, so you could have also written as:
age = 20
name = 'Swaroop'
print '{} was {} years old when he wrote this book'.format(name, age)
print 'Why is {} playing with that python?'.format(name)
which will give the same exact output as the previous program.
What Python does in the format method is that it substitutes each argument value into
the place of the specification. There can be more detailed specifications such as:
Output:
0.333
___hello___
40
Basics
Since we are discussing formatting, note that print always ends with an invisible "new
line" character (\n) so that repeated calls to print will all print on a separate line each.
To prevent this newline character from being printed, you can end the statement with
a comma:
print "a",
print "b",
Output is:
a b
Another way of specifying this specific string would be "What’s your name?" i.e.
using double quotes. Similarly, you have to use an escape sequence for using a double
quote itself in a double quoted string. Also, you have to indicate the backslash itself
using the escape sequence \\ .
What if you wanted to specify a two-line string? One way is to use a triple-quoted string
as shown previously or you can use an escape sequence for the newline character -
\n to indicate the start of a new line. An example is:
Another useful escape sequence to know is the tab: \t. There are many more escape
sequences but I have mentioned only the most useful ones here.
One thing to note is that in a string, a single backslash at the end of the line indicates
that the string is continued in the next line, but no newline is added. For example:
41
Basics
is equivalent to
5.5. Variable
Using just literal constants can soon become boring - we need some way of storing
any information and manipulate them as well. This is where variables come into the
picture. Variables are exactly what the name implies - their value can vary, i.e., you can
store anything using a variable. Variables are just parts of your computer’s memory
where you store some information. Unlike literal constants, you need some method of
accessing these variables and hence you give them names.
• The first character of the identifier must be a letter of the alphabet (uppercase ASCII
or lowercase ASCII or Unicode character) or an underscore ( _ ).
• The rest of the identifier name can consist of letters (uppercase ASCII or lowercase
ASCII or Unicode character), underscores ( _ ) or digits (0-9).
42
Basics
• Identifier names are case-sensitive. For example, myname and myName are not
the same. Note the lowercase n in the former and the uppercase N in the latter.
5.8. Object
Remember, Python refers to anything used in a program as an object. This is meant in
the generic sense. Instead of saying "the something"', we say "the object".
We will now see how to use variables along with literal constants. Save the following
example and run the program.
43
Basics
4. Run the interpreter with the command python program.py to run the program.
44
Basics
# Filename : var.py
i = 5
print i
i = i + 1
print i
Output:
5
6
This is a multi-line string.
This is the second line.
How It WorksHere’s how this program works. First, we assign the literal constant value
5 to the variable i using the assignment operator ( = ). This line is called a statement
because it states that something should be done and in this case, we connect the
variable name i to the value 5. Next, we print the value of i using the print statement
which, unsurprisingly, just prints the value of the variable to the screen.
Then we add 1 to the value stored in i and store it back. We then print it and expectedly,
we get the value 6.
Similarly, we assign the literal string to the variable s and then print it.
An example of a logical line is a statement like print 'hello world' - if this was on
a line by itself (as you see it in an editor), then this also corresponds to a physical line.
45
Basics
Implicitly, Python encourages the use of a single statement per line which makes code
more readable.
If you want to specify more than one logical line on a single physical line, then you have
to explicitly specify this using a semicolon ( ; ) which indicates the end of a logical line/
statement. For example:
i = 5
print i
is effectively same as
i = 5;
print i;
i = 5; print i;
and same as
i = 5; print i
There is one kind of situation where this concept is really useful: if you have a long line
of code, you can break it into multiple physical lines by using the backslash. This is
referred to as explicit line joining:
s = 'This is a string. \
This continues the string.'
print s
Output:
46
Basics
Similarly,
print \
i
is the same as
print i
Sometimes, there is an implicit assumption where you don’t need to use a backslash.
This is the case where the logical line has a starting parentheses, starting square
brackets or a starting curly braces but not an ending one. This is called implicit line
joining. You can see this in action when we write programs using lists in later chapters.
5.14. Indentation
Whitespace is important in Python. Actually, whitespace at the beginning of the line
is important. This is called indentation. Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the
beginning of the logical line is used to determine the indentation level of the logical line,
which in turn is used to determine the grouping of statements.
This means that statements which go together must have the same indentation. Each
such set of statements is called a block. We will see examples of how blocks are
important in later chapters.
One thing you should remember is that wrong indentation can give rise to errors. For
example:
i = 5
# Error below! Notice a single space at the start of the line
print 'Value is ', i
print 'I repeat, the value is ', i
47
Basics
Notice that there is a single space at the beginning of the second line. The error
indicated by Python tells us that the syntax of the program is invalid i.e. the program
was not properly written. What this means to you is that you cannot arbitrarily start new
blocks of statements (except for the default main block which you have been using all
along, of course). Cases where you can use new blocks will be detailed in later chapters
such as the Control Flow.
How to indentUse four spaces for indentation. This is the official Python language
recommendation. Good editors will automatically do this for you. Make sure you use a
consistent number of spaces for indentation, otherwise your program will show errors.
5.15. Summary
Now that we have gone through many nitty-gritty details, we can move on to more
interesting stuff such as control flow statements. Be sure to become comfortable with
what you have read in this chapter.
48
Chapter 6. Operators and Expressions
Most statements (logical lines) that you write will contain expressions. A simple example
of an expression is 2 + 3 . An expression can be broken down into operators and
operands.
Operators are functionality that do something and can be represented by symbols such
as + or by special keywords. Operators require some data to operate on and such
data is called operands. In this case, 2 and 3 are the operands.
6.1. Operators
We will briefly take a look at the operators and their usage.
Note that you can evaluate the expressions given in the examples using the interpreter
interactively. For example, to test the expression 2 + 3 , use the interactive Python
interpreter prompt:
>>> 2 + 3
5
>>> 3 * 5
15
>>>
+ (plus)
Adds two objects
- (minus)
Gives the subtraction of one number from the other; if the first operand is absent
it is assumed to be zero.
* (multiply)
Gives the multiplication of the two numbers or returns the string repeated that many
times.
49
Operators and Expressions
** (power)
Returns x to the power of y
3 ** 4 gives 81 (i.e. 3 * 3 * 3 * 3 )
/ (divide)
Divide x by y
% (modulo)
Returns the remainder of the division
11 >> 1 gives 5 .
5 & 3 gives 1 .
| (bit-wise OR)
Bitwise OR of the numbers
5 | 3 gives 7
^ (bit-wise XOR)
Bitwise XOR of the numbers
5 ^ 3 gives 6
50
Operators and Expressions
~ (bit-wise invert)
The bit-wise inversion of x is -(x+1)
5 > 3 returns True . If both operands are numbers, they are first converted to a
common type. Otherwise, it always returns False .
x = 3; y = 6; x # y returns True .
== (equal to)
Compares if the objects are equal
x = 2; y = 2; x == y returns True .
x = 2; y = 3; x != y returns True .
51
Operators and Expressions
or (boolean OR)
If x is True , it returns True, else it returns evaluation of y
a = 2
a = a * 3
a = 2
a *= 3
The following table gives the precedence table for Python, from the lowest precedence
(least binding) to the highest precedence (most binding). This means that in a given
52
Operators and Expressions
expression, Python will first evaluate the operators and expressions lower in the table
before the ones listed higher in the table.
1
The following table, taken from the Python reference manual , is provided for the sake
of completeness. It is far better to use parentheses to group operators and operands
appropriately in order to explicitly specify the precedence. This makes the program
more readable. See Changing the Order of Evaluation below for details.
lambda
Lambda Expression
if - else
Conditional expression
or
Boolean OR
and
Boolean AND
not x
Boolean NOT
in, not in, is, is not, <, #, >, >=, !=, ==
Comparisons, including membership tests and identity tests
|
Bitwise OR
^
Bitwise XOR
&
Bitwise AND
<<, >>
Shifts
+, -
Addition and subtraction
*, /, //, %
Multiplication, Division, Floor Division and Remainder
+x, -x, ~x
Positive, Negative, bitwise NOT
1
http://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#operator-precedence
53
Operators and Expressions
**
Exponentiation
x[index], x[index:index], x(arguments…), x.attribute
Subscription, slicing, call, attribute reference
(expressions…), [expressions…], {key: value…}, {expressions…}
Binding or tuple display, list display, dictionary display, set display
The operators which we have not already come across will be explained in later
chapters.
Operators with the same precedence are listed in the same row in the above table. For
example, + and - have the same precedence.
6.5. Associativity
Operators are usually associated from left to right. This means that operators with the
same precedence are evaluated in a left to right manner. For example, 2 + 3 + 4
is evaluated as (2
3) + 4 . Some operators like assignment operators have right to left associativity i.e.
a = b = c is treated as a = (b = c) .
6.6. Expressions
Example (save as expression.py):
length = 5
breadth = 2
54
Operators and Expressions
Output:
$ python expression.py
Area is 10
Perimeter is 14
How It WorksThe length and breadth of the rectangle are stored in variables by the
same name. We use these to calculate the area and perimeter of the rectangle with the
help of expressions. We store the result of the expression length * breadth in the
variable area and then print it using the print function. In the second case, we directly
use the value of the expression 2 * (length + breadth) in the print statement.
Also, notice how Python pretty-prints the output. Even though we have not specified
a space between 'Area is' and the variable area , Python puts it for us so that
we get a clean nice output and the program is much more readable this way (since we
don’t need to worry about spacing in the strings we use for output). This is an example
of how Python makes life easy for the programmer.
6.7. Summary
We have seen how to use operators, operands and expressions - these are the basic
building blocks of any program. Next, we will see how to make use of these in our
programs using statements.
55
Chapter 7. Control Flow
In the programs we have seen till now, there has always been a series of statements
faithfully executed by Python in exact top-down order. What if you wanted to change the
flow of how it works? For example, you want the program to take some decisions and
do different things depending on different situations, such as printing 'Good Morning'
or 'Good Evening' depending on the time of the day?
As you might have guessed, this is achieved using control flow statements. There are
three control flow statements in Python - if, for and while.
number = 23
guess = int(raw_input('Enter an integer : '))
if guess == number:
# New block starts here
print 'Congratulations, you guessed it.'
print '(but you do not win any prizes!)'
# New block ends here
elif guess < number:
# Another block
print 'No, it is a little higher than that'
# You can do whatever you want in a block ...
else:
print 'No, it is a little lower than that'
# you must have guessed > number to reach here
print 'Done'
# This last statement is always executed,
# after the if statement is executed.
Output:
$ python if.py
56
Control Flow
Enter an integer : 50
No, it is a little lower than that
Done
$ python if.py
Enter an integer : 22
No, it is a little higher than that
Done
$ python if.py
Enter an integer : 23
Congratulations, you guessed it.
(but you do not win any prizes!)
Done
How It WorksIn this program, we take guesses from the user and check if it is the
number that we have. We set the variable number to any integer we want, say 23 .
Then, we take the user’s guess using the raw_input() function. Functions are just
reusable pieces of programs. We’ll read more about them in the next chapter.
We supply a string to the built-in raw_input function which prints it to the screen
and waits for input from the user. Once we enter something and press enter key, the
raw_input() function returns what we entered, as a string. We then convert this
string to an integer using int and then store it in the variable guess . Actually, the
int is a class but all you need to know right now is that you can use it to convert a
string to an integer (assuming the string contains a valid integer in the text).
Next, we compare the guess of the user with the number we have chosen. If they
are equal, we print a success message. Notice that we use indentation levels to tell
Python which statements belong to which block. This is why indentation is so important
in Python. I hope you are sticking to the "consistent indentation" rule. Are you?
Notice how the if statement contains a colon at the end - we are indicating to Python
that a block of statements follows.
Then, we check if the guess is less than the number, and if so, we inform the user
that they must guess a little higher than that. What we have used here is the elif
clause which actually combines two related if else-if else statements into one
combined if-elif-else statement. This makes the program easier and reduces
the amount of indentation required.
The elif and else statements must also have a colon at the end of the logical line
followed by their corresponding block of statements (with proper indentation, of course)
57
Control Flow
You can have another if statement inside the if-block of an if statement and so on
- this is called a nested if statement.
Remember that the elif and else parts are optional. A minimal valid if statement
is:
if True:
print 'Yes, it is true'
After Python has finished executing the complete if statement along with the
associated elif and else clauses, it moves on to the next statement in the block
containing the if statement. In this case, it is the main block (where execution of the
program starts), and the next statement is the print 'Done' statement. After this,
Python sees the ends of the program and simply finishes up.
Even though this is a very simple program, I have been pointing out a lot of things that
you should notice. All these are pretty straightforward (and surprisingly simple for those
of you from C/C++ backgrounds). You will need to become aware of all these things
initially, but after some practice you will become comfortable with them, and it will all
feel 'natural' to you.
number = 23
running = True
while running:
guess = int(raw_input('Enter an integer : '))
if guess == number:
print 'Congratulations, you guessed it.'
58
Control Flow
print 'Done'
Output:
$ python while.py
Enter an integer : 50
No, it is a little lower than that.
Enter an integer : 22
No, it is a little higher than that.
Enter an integer : 23
Congratulations, you guessed it.
The while loop is over.
Done
How It WorksIn this program, we are still playing the guessing game, but the advantage
is that the user is allowed to keep guessing until he guesses correctly - there is no need
to repeatedly run the program for each guess, as we have done in the previous section.
This aptly demonstrates the use of the while statement.
We move the raw_input and if statements to inside the while loop and set
the variable running to True before the while loop. First, we check if the variable
running is True and then proceed to execute the corresponding while-block.
After this block is executed, the condition is again checked which in this case is the
running variable. If it is true, we execute the while-block again, else we continue to
execute the optional else-block and then continue to the next statement.
The else block is executed when the while loop condition becomes False - this
may even be the first time that the condition is checked. If there is an else clause for
a while loop, it is always executed unless you break out of the loop with a break
statement.
The True and False are called Boolean types and you can consider them to be
equivalent to the value 1 and 0 respectively.
59
Control Flow
Output:
$ python for.py
1
2
3
4
The for loop is over
Note that range() generates a sequence of numbers all at once, so this is safe to
use only for small ranges. If you want a long range but generated only one number at
a time, then use xrange() . Lists are explained in the data structures chapter.
60
Control Flow
The for loop then iterates over this range - for i in range(1,5) is equivalent
to for i in [1, 2, 3, 4] which is like assigning each number (or object) in the
sequence to i, one at a time, and then executing the block of statements for each value
of i . In this case, we just print the value in the block of statements.
Remember that the else part is optional. When included, it is always executed once
after the for loop is over unless a break statement is encountered.
Remember that the for..in loop works for any sequence. Here, we have a list of
numbers generated by the built-in range function, but in general we can use any kind
of sequence of any kind of objects! We will explore this idea in detail in later chapters.
An important note is that if you break out of a for or while loop, any corresponding
loop else block is not executed.
while True:
s = raw_input('Enter something : ')
if s == 'quit':
break
print 'Length of the string is', len(s)
print 'Done'
Output:
61
Control Flow
$ python break.py
Enter something : Programming is fun
Length of the string is 18
Enter something : When the work is done
Length of the string is 21
Enter something : if you wanna make your work also fun:
Length of the string is 37
Enter something : use Python!
Length of the string is 11
Enter something : quit
Done
How It WorksIn this program, we repeatedly take the user’s input and print the length
of each input each time. We are providing a special condition to stop the program by
checking if the user input is 'quit' . We stop the program by breaking out of the
loop and reach the end of the program.
The length of the input string can be found out using the built-in len function.
Remember that the break statement can be used with the for loop as well.
Programming is fun
When the work is done
if you wanna make your work also fun:
use Python!
while True:
62
Control Flow
Output:
$ python continue.py
Enter something : a
Too small
Enter something : 12
Too small
Enter something : abc
Input is of sufficient length
Enter something : quit
How It WorksIn this program, we accept input from the user, but we process the input
string only if it is at least 3 characters long. So, we use the built-in len function to get
the length and if the length is less than 3, we skip the rest of the statements in the block
by using the continue statement. Otherwise, the rest of the statements in the loop
are executed, doing any kind of processing we want to do here.
Note that the continue statement works with the for loop as well.
7.6. Summary
We have seen how to use the three control flow statements - if , while and for
along with their associated break and continue statements. These are some of
the most commonly used parts of Python and hence, becoming comfortable with them
is essential.
63
Chapter 8. Functions
Functions are reusable pieces of programs. They allow you to give a name to a block
of statements, allowing you to run that block using the specified name anywhere in
your program and any number of times. This is known as calling the function. We have
already used many built-in functions such as len and range .
The function concept is probably the most important building block of any non-
trivial software (in any programming language), so we will explore various aspects of
functions in this chapter.
Functions are defined using the def keyword. After this keyword comes an identifier
name for the function, followed by a pair of parentheses which may enclose some
names of variables, and by the final colon that ends the line. Next follows the block
of statements that are part of this function. An example will show that this is actually
very simple:
def say_hello():
# block belonging to the function
print 'hello world'
# End of function
Output:
$ python function1.py
hello world
hello world
How It WorksWe define a function called say_hello using the syntax as explained
above. This function takes no parameters and hence there are no variables declared in
the parentheses. Parameters to functions are just input to the function so that we can
pass in different values to it and get back corresponding results.
Notice that we can call the same function twice which means we do not have to write
the same code again.
64
Functions
Parameters are specified within the pair of parentheses in the function definition,
separated by commas. When we call the function, we supply the values in the same
way. Note the terminology used - the names given in the function definition are called
parameters whereas the values you supply in the function call are called arguments.
x = 5
y = 7
Output:
$ python function_param.py
4 is maximum
7 is maximum
How It WorksHere, we define a function called print_max that uses two parameters
called a and b . We find out the greater number using a simple if..else statement
and then print the bigger number.
65
Functions
The first time we call the function print_max , we directly supply the numbers as
arguments. In the second case, we call the function with variables as arguments.
print_max(x, y) causes the value of argument x to be assigned to parameter
a and the value of argument y to be assigned to parameter b . The print_max
function works the same way in both cases.
x = 50
def func(x):
print 'x is', x
x = 2
print 'Changed local x to', x
func(x)
print 'x is still', x
Output:
$ python function_local.py
x is 50
Changed local x to 2
x is still 50
How It WorksThe first time that we print the value of the name x with the first line in
the function’s body, Python uses the value of the parameter declared in the main block,
above the function definition.
Next, we assign the value 2 to x . The name x is local to our function. So, when
we change the value of x in the function, the x defined in the main block remains
unaffected.
66
Functions
With the last print statement, we display the value of x as defined in the main
block, thereby confirming that it is actually unaffected by the local assignment within
the previously called function.
You can use the values of such variables defined outside the function (assuming there
is no variable with the same name within the function). However, this is not encouraged
and should be avoided since it becomes unclear to the reader of the program as to
where that variable’s definition is. Using the global statement makes it amply clear
that the variable is defined in an outermost block.
x = 50
def func():
global x
func()
print 'Value of x is', x
Output:
$ python function_global.py
x is 50
Changed global x to 2
Value of x is 2
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Functions
You can specify more than one global variable using the same global statement
e.g. global x, y, z .
Note that the default argument value should be a constant. More precisely, the default
argument value should be immutable - this is explained in detail in later chapters. For
now, just remember this.
say('Hello')
say('World', 5)
Output:
$ python function_default.py
Hello
WorldWorldWorldWorldWorld
How It WorksThe function named say is used to print a string as many times as
specified. If we don’t supply a value, then by default, the string is printed just once. We
achieve this by specifying a default argument value of 1 to the parameter times .
In the first usage of say , we supply only the string and it prints the string once. In the
second usage of say , we supply both the string and an argument 5 stating that we
want to say the string message 5 times.
Only those parameters which are at the end of the parameter list can
be given default argument values i.e. you cannot have a parameter
with a default argument value preceding a parameter without a
default argument value in the function’s parameter list.
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Functions
There are two advantages - one, using the function is easier since we do not need
to worry about the order of the arguments. Two, we can give values to only those
parameters to which we want to, provided that the other parameters have default
argument values.
func(3, 7)
func(25, c=24)
func(c=50, a=100)
Output:
$ python function_keyword.py
a is 3 and b is 7 and c is 10
a is 25 and b is 5 and c is 24
a is 100 and b is 5 and c is 50
How It WorksThe function named func has one parameter without a default
argument value, followed by two parameters with default argument values.
In the first usage, func(3, 7) , the parameter a gets the value 3 , the parameter
b gets the value 7 and c gets the default value of 10 .
In the second usage func(25, c=24) , the variable a gets the value of 25 due
to the position of the argument. Then, the parameter c gets the value of 24 due to
naming i.e. keyword arguments. The variable b gets the default value of 5 .
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Functions
In the third usage func(c=50, a=100) , we use keyword arguments for all specified
values. Notice that we are specifying the value for parameter c before that for a even
though a is defined before c in the function definition.
Output:
$ python function_varargs.py
166
How It WorksWhen we declare a starred parameter such as *param , then all the
positional arguments from that point till the end are collected as a tuple called 'param'.
70
Functions
if x > y:
return x
elif x == y:
return 'The numbers are equal'
else:
return y
print maximum(2, 3)
Output:
$ python function_return.py
3
How It WorksThe maximum function returns the maximum of the parameters, in this
case the numbers supplied to the function. It uses a simple if..else statement to
find the greater value and then returns that value.
Note that a return statement without a value is equivalent to return None . None
is a special type in Python that represents nothingness. For example, it is used to
indicate that a variable has no value if it has a value of None .
Every function implicitly contains a return None statement at the end unless
you have written your own return statement. You can see this by running print
some_function() where the function some_function does not use the return
statement such as:
def some_function():
pass
8.8. DocStrings
Python has a nifty feature called documentation strings, usually referred to by its
shorter name docstrings. DocStrings are an important tool that you should make use
of since it helps to document the program better and makes it easier to understand.
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Functions
Amazingly, we can even get the docstring back from, say a function, when the program
is actually running!
if x > y:
print x, 'is maximum'
else:
print y, 'is maximum'
print_max(3, 5)
print print_max.__doc__
Output:
$ python function_docstring.py
5 is maximum
Prints the maximum of two numbers.
How It WorksA string on the first logical line of a function is the docstring for that
function. Note that DocStrings also apply to modules and classes which we will learn
about in the respective chapters.
The convention followed for a docstring is a multi-line string where the first line starts
with a capital letter and ends with a dot. Then the second line is blank followed by any
detailed explanation starting from the third line. You are strongly advised to follow this
convention for all your docstrings for all your non-trivial functions.
We can access the docstring of the print_max function using the doc (notice the
double underscores) attribute (name belonging to) of the function. Just remember
that Python treats everything as an object and this includes functions. We’ll learn more
about objects in the chapter on classes.
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Functions
If you have used help() in Python, then you have already seen the usage of
docstrings! What it does is just fetch the doc attribute of that function and displays
it in a neat manner for you. You can try it out on the function above - just include
help(print_max) in your program. Remember to press the q key to exit help .
Automated tools can retrieve the documentation from your program in this manner.
Therefore, I strongly recommend that you use docstrings for any non-trivial function
that you write. The pydoc command that comes with your Python distribution works
similarly to help() using docstrings.
8.9. Summary
We have seen so many aspects of functions but note that we still haven’t covered all
aspects of them. However, we have already covered most of what you’ll use regarding
Python functions on an everyday basis.
73
Chapter 9. Modules
You have seen how you can reuse code in your program by defining functions once.
What if you wanted to reuse a number of functions in other programs that you write?
As you might have guessed, the answer is modules.
There are various methods of writing modules, but the simplest way is to create a file
with a .py extension that contains functions and variables.
Another method is to write the modules in the native language in which the Python
interpreter itself was written. For example, you can write modules in the C programming
1
language and when compiled, they can be used from your Python code when using
the standard Python interpreter.
A module can be imported by another program to make use of its functionality. This
is how we can use the Python standard library as well. First, we will see how to use
the standard library modules.
import sys
Output:
1
http://docs.python.org/2/extending/
74
Modules
'/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages',
'/usr/local/lib/python2.7/site-packages']
How It WorksFirst, we import the sys module using the import statement.
Basically, this translates to us telling Python that we want to use this module. The sys
module contains functionality related to the Python interpreter and its environment i.e.
the system.
When Python executes the import sys statement, it looks for the sys module. In
this case, it is one of the built-in modules, and hence Python knows where to find it.
If it was not a compiled module i.e. a module written in Python, then the Python
interpreter will search for it in the directories listed in its sys.path variable. If the
module is found, then the statements in the body of that module are run and the module
is made available for you to use. Note that the initialization is done only the first time
that we import a module.
The argv variable in the sys module is accessed using the dotted notation i.e.
sys.argv . It clearly indicates that this name is part of the sys module. Another
advantage of this approach is that the name does not clash with any argv variable
used in your program.
The sys.argv variable is a list of strings (lists are explained in detail in a later
chapter. Specifically, the sys.argv contains the list of command line arguments
i.e. the arguments passed to your program using the command line.
If you are using an IDE to write and run these programs, look for a way to specify
command line arguments to the program in the menus.
Remember, the name of the script running is always the first argument in
the sys.argv list. So, in this case we will have 'module_using_sys.py'
as sys.argv[0] , 'we' as sys.argv[1] , 'are' as sys.argv[2] and
'arguments' as sys.argv[3] . Notice that Python starts counting from 0 and not
1.
The sys.path contains the list of directory names where modules are imported from.
Observe that the first string in sys.path is empty - this empty string indicates that the
75
Modules
current directory is also part of the sys.path which is same as the PYTHONPATH
environment variable. This means that you can directly import modules located in the
current directory. Otherwise, you will have to place your module in one of the directories
listed in sys.path .
Note that the current directory is the directory from which the program is launched. Run
import os; print os.getcwd() to find out the current directory of your program.
These .pyc files are usually created in the same directory as the
corresponding .py files. If Python does not have permission to write
to files in that directory, then the .pyc files will not be created.
In general, you should avoid using this statement and use the import statement
instead since your program will avoid name clashes and will be more readable.
Example:
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Modules
make the module behave in different ways depending on whether it is being used by
itself or being imported from another module. This can be achieved using the name
attribute of the module.
if __name__ == '__main__':
print 'This program is being run by itself'
else:
print 'I am being imported from another module'
Output:
$ python module_using_name.py
This program is being run by itself
$ python
>>> import module_using_name
I am being imported from another module
>>>
How It WorksEvery Python module has its name defined. If this is 'main' , that
implies that the module is being run standalone by the user and we can take appropriate
actions.
def say_hi():
print 'Hi, this is mymodule speaking.'
__version__ = '0.1'
The above was a sample module. As you can see, there is nothing particularly special
about it compared to our usual Python program. We will next see how to use this module
in our other Python programs.
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Modules
Remember that the module should be placed either in the same directory as the
program from which we import it, or in one of the directories listed in sys.path .
import mymodule
mymodule.say_hi()
print 'Version', mymodule.__version__
Output:
$ python mymodule_demo.py
Hi, this is mymodule speaking.
Version 0.1
How It WorksNotice that we use the same dotted notation to access members of the
module. Python makes good reuse of the same notation to give the distinctive 'Pythonic'
feel to it so that we don’t have to keep learning new ways to do things.
say_hi()
print 'Version', __version__
Notice that if there was already a version name declared in the module that imports
mymodule, there would be a clash. This is also likely because it is common practice
for each module to declare it’s version number using this name. Hence, it is always
recommended to prefer the import statement even though it might make your
program a little longer.
78
Modules
This will import all public names such as say_hi but would not import version
because it starts with double underscores.
Zen of Python
One of Python’s guiding principles is that "Explicit is better than Implicit". Run
import this in Python to learn more.
When you supply a module name to the`dir()` function, it returns the list of the names
defined in that module. When no argument is applied to it, it returns the list of names
defined in the current module.
Example:
$ python
>>> import sys
79
Modules
>>> dir()
['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', '__package__', 'a']
# delete/remove a name
>>> del a
>>> dir()
['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', '__package__']
How It WorksFirst, we see the usage of dir on the imported sys module. We can
see the huge list of attributes that it contains.
Next, we use the dir function without passing parameters to it. By default, it returns
the list of attributes for the current module. Notice that the list of imported modules is
also part of this list.
In order to observe the dir in action, we define a new variable a and assign it a
value and then check dir and we observe that there is an additional value in the list
of the same name. We remove the variable/attribute of the current module using the
del statement and the change is reflected again in the output of the dir function.
A note on del - this statement is used to delete a variable/name and after the
statement has run, in this case del a , you can no longer access the variable a - it
is as if it never existed before at all.
Note that the dir() function works on any object. For example, run dir(str) for
the attributes of the str (string) class.
2
There is also a vars() function which can potentially give you the attributes and
their values, but it will not work for all cases.
9.6. Packages
By now, you must have started observing the hierarchy of organizing your programs.
Variables usually go inside functions. Functions and global variables usually go inside
modules. What if you wanted to organize modules? That’s where packages come into
the picture.
Packages are just folders of modules with a special init.py file that indicates to
Python that this folder is special because it contains Python modules.
2
http://docs.python.org/2/library/functions.html#vars
80
Modules
Let’s say you want to create a package called 'world' with subpackages 'asia', 'africa',
etc. and these subpackages in turn contain modules like 'india', 'madagascar', etc.
Packages are just a convenience to hierarchically organize modules. You will see many
instances of this in the standard library.
9.7. Summary
Just like functions are reusable parts of programs, modules are reusable programs.
Packages are another hierarchy to organize modules. The standard library that comes
with Python is an example of such a set of packages and modules.
We have seen how to use these modules and create our own modules.
Next, we will learn about some interesting concepts called data structures.
81
Chapter 10. Data Structures
Data structures are basically just that - they are structures which can hold some data
together. In other words, they are used to store a collection of related data.
There are four built-in data structures in Python - list, tuple, dictionary and set. We will
see how to use each of them and how they make life easier for us.
10.1. List
A list is a data structure that holds an ordered collection of items i.e. you can store
a sequence of items in a list. This is easy to imagine if you can think of a shopping list
where you have a list of items to buy, except that you probably have each item on a
separate line in your shopping list whereas in Python you put commas in between them.
The list of items should be enclosed in square brackets so that Python understands
that you are specifying a list. Once you have created a list, you can add, remove or
search for items in the list. Since we can add and remove items, we say that a list is
a mutable data type i.e. this type can be altered.
A list is an example of usage of objects and classes. When we use a variable i and
assign a value to it, say integer 5 to it, you can think of it as creating an object (i.e.
instance) i of class (i.e. type) int . In fact, you can read help(int) to understand
this better.
A class can also have methods i.e. functions defined for use with respect to that class
only. You can use these pieces of functionality only when you have an object of that
class. For example, Python provides an append method for the list class which
allows you to add an item to the end of the list. For example, mylist.append('an
item') will add that string to the list mylist . Note the use of dotted notation for
accessing methods of the objects.
A class can also have fields which are nothing but variables defined for use with
respect to that class only. You can use these variables/names only when you have
82
Data Structures
an object of that class. Fields are also accessed by the dotted notation, for example,
mylist.field .
Output:
$ python ds_using_list.py
I have 4 items to purchase.
These items are: apple mango carrot banana
I also have to buy rice.
My shopping list is now ['apple', 'mango', 'carrot', 'banana', 'rice']
I will sort my list now
Sorted shopping list is ['apple', 'banana', 'carrot', 'mango', 'rice']
The first item I will buy is apple
I bought the apple
My shopping list is now ['banana', 'carrot', 'mango', 'rice']
How It WorksThe variable shoplist is a shopping list for someone who is going to
the market. In shoplist , we only store strings of the names of the items to buy but
you can add any kind of object to a list including numbers and even other lists.
83
Data Structures
We have also used the for..in loop to iterate through the items of the list. By now,
you must have realised that a list is also a sequence. The speciality of sequences will
be discussed in a later section.
Notice the use of the trailing comma in the print statement to indicate that we want
to end the output with a space instead of the usual line break. Think of the comma as
telling Python that we have more items to print on the same line.
Next, we add an item to the list using the append method of the list object, as already
discussed before. Then, we check that the item has been indeed added to the list by
printing the contents of the list by simply passing the list to the print statement which
prints it neatly.
Then, we sort the list by using the sort method of the list. It is important to understand
that this method affects the list itself and does not return a modified list - this is different
from the way strings work. This is what we mean by saying that lists are mutable and
that strings are immutable.
Next, when we finish buying an item in the market, we want to remove it from the list. We
achieve this by using the del statement. Here, we mention which item of the list we
want to remove and the del statement removes it from the list for us. We specify that
we want to remove the first item from the list and hence we use del shoplist[0]
(remember that Python starts counting from 0).
If you want to know all the methods defined by the list object, see help(list) for
details.
10.3. Tuple
Tuples are used to hold together multiple objects. Think of them as similar to lists, but
without the extensive functionality that the list class gives you. One major feature of
tuples is that they are immutable like strings i.e. you cannot modify tuples.
Tuples are defined by specifying items separated by commas within an optional pair
of parentheses.
Tuples are usually used in cases where a statement or a user-defined function can
safely assume that the collection of values i.e. the tuple of values used will not change.
84
Data Structures
Output:
$ python ds_using_tuple.py
Number of animals in the zoo is 3
Number of cages in the new zoo is 3
All animals in new zoo are ('monkey', 'camel', ('python', 'elephant',
'penguin'))
Animals brought from old zoo are ('python', 'elephant', 'penguin')
Last animal brought from old zoo is penguin
Number of animals in the new zoo is 5
How It WorksThe variable zoo refers to a tuple of items. We see that the len
function can be used to get the length of the tuple. This also indicates that a tuple is
a sequence as well.
We are now shifting these animals to a new zoo since the old zoo is being closed.
Therefore, the new_zoo tuple contains some animals which are already there along
with the animals brought over from the old zoo. Back to reality, note that a tuple within
a tuple does not lose its identity.
We can access the items in the tuple by specifying the item’s position within a pair of
square brackets just like we did for lists. This is called the indexing operator. We access
the third item in new_zoo by specifying new_zoo[2] and we access the third item
within the third item in the new_zoo tuple by specifying new_zoo[2][2] . This is
pretty simple once you’ve understood the idiom.
85
Data Structures
simple. You have to specify it using a comma following the first (and
only) item so that Python can differentiate between a tuple and a pair
of parentheses surrounding the object in an expression i.e. you have
to specify singleton = (2 , ) if you mean you want a tuple
containing the item 2 .
10.4. Dictionary
A dictionary is like an address-book where you can find the address or contact details
of a person by knowing only his/her name i.e. we associate keys (name) with values
(details). Note that the key must be unique just like you cannot find out the correct
information if you have two persons with the exact same name.
Note that you can use only immutable objects (like strings) for the keys of a dictionary
but you can use either immutable or mutable objects for the values of the dictionary.
This basically translates to say that you should use only simple objects for keys.
Pairs of keys and values are specified in a dictionary by using the notation d =
{key1 : value1, key2 : value2 } . Notice that the key-value pairs are separated
by a colon and the pairs are separated themselves by commas and all this is enclosed
in a pair of curly braces.
Remember that key-value pairs in a dictionary are not ordered in any manner. If you
want a particular order, then you will have to sort them yourself before using it.
The dictionaries that you will be using are instances/objects of the dict class.
ab = { 'Swaroop' : 'swaroop@swaroopch.com',
'Larry' : 'larry@wall.org',
'Matsumoto' : 'matz@ruby-lang.org',
'Spammer' : 'spammer@hotmail.com'
86
Data Structures
if 'Guido' in ab:
print "\nGuido's address is", ab['Guido']
Output:
$ python ds_using_dict.py
Swaroop's address is swaroop@swaroopch.com
How It WorksWe create the dictionary ab using the notation already discussed.
We then access key-value pairs by specifying the key using the indexing operator as
discussed in the context of lists and tuples. Observe the simple syntax.
We can delete key-value pairs using our old friend - the del statement. We simply
specify the dictionary and the indexing operator for the key to be removed and pass it
to the del statement. There is no need to know the value corresponding to the key
for this operation.
Next, we access each key-value pair of the dictionary using the items method of the
dictionary which returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains a pair of items - the
key followed by the value. We retrieve this pair and assign it to the variables name
87
Data Structures
and address correspondingly for each pair using the for..in loop and then print
these values in the for-block.
We can add new key-value pairs by simply using the indexing operator to access a key
and assign that value, as we have done for Guido in the above case.
10.5. Sequence
Lists, tuples and strings are examples of sequences, but what are sequences and what
is so special about them?
The major features are membership tests, (i.e. the in and not in expressions)
and indexing operations, which allow us to fetch a particular item in the sequence
directly.
The three types of sequences mentioned above - lists, tuples and strings, also have
a slicing operation which allows us to retrieve a slice of the sequence i.e. a part of
the sequence.
88
Data Structures
# Slicing on a list #
print 'Item 1 to 3 is', shoplist[1:3]
print 'Item 2 to end is', shoplist[2:]
print 'Item 1 to -1 is', shoplist[1:-1]
print 'Item start to end is', shoplist[:]
# Slicing on a string #
print 'characters 1 to 3 is', name[1:3]
print 'characters 2 to end is', name[2:]
print 'characters 1 to -1 is', name[1:-1]
print 'characters start to end is', name[:]
Output:
$ python ds_seq.py
Item 0 is apple
Item 1 is mango
Item 2 is carrot
Item 3 is banana
Item -1 is banana
Item -2 is carrot
Character 0 is s
Item 1 to 3 is ['mango', 'carrot']
Item 2 to end is ['carrot', 'banana']
Item 1 to -1 is ['mango', 'carrot']
Item start to end is ['apple', 'mango', 'carrot', 'banana']
characters 1 to 3 is wa
characters 2 to end is aroop
characters 1 to -1 is waroo
characters start to end is swaroop
How It WorksFirst, we see how to use indexes to get individual items of a sequence.
This is also referred to as the subscription operation. Whenever you specify a number
to a sequence within square brackets as shown above, Python will fetch you the item
corresponding to that position in the sequence. Remember that Python starts counting
numbers from 0. Hence, shoplist[0] fetches the first item and shoplist[3]
fetches the fourth item in the `shoplist`sequence.
The index can also be a negative number, in which case, the position is calculated
from the end of the sequence. Therefore, shoplist[-1] refers to the last item in
the sequence and shoplist[-2] fetches the second last item in the sequence.
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Data Structures
The slicing operation is used by specifying the name of the sequence followed by an
optional pair of numbers separated by a colon within square brackets. Note that this
is very similar to the indexing operation you have been using till now. Remember the
numbers are optional but the colon isn’t.
The first number (before the colon) in the slicing operation refers to the position from
where the slice starts and the second number (after the colon) indicates where the
slice will stop at. If the first number is not specified, Python will start at the beginning
of the sequence. If the second number is left out, Python will stop at the end of the
sequence. Note that the slice returned starts at the start position and will end just before
the end position i.e. the start position is included but the end position is excluded from
the sequence slice.
You can also do slicing with negative positions. Negative numbers are used for
positions from the end of the sequence. For example, shoplist[:-1] will return
a slice of the sequence which excludes the last item of the sequence but contains
everything else.
You can also provide a third argument for the slice, which is the step for the slicing (by
default, the step size is 1):
Notice that when the step is 2, we get the items with position 0, 2,… When the step
size is 3, we get the items with position 0, 3, etc.
Try various combinations of such slice specifications using the Python interpreter
interactively i.e. the prompt so that you can see the results immediately. The great thing
about sequences is that you can access tuples, lists and strings all in the same way!
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Data Structures
10.6. Set
Sets are unordered collections of simple objects. These are used when the existence of
an object in a collection is more important than the order or how many times it occurs.
Using sets, you can test for membership, whether it is a subset of another set, find the
intersection between two sets, and so on.
10.7. References
When you create an object and assign it to a variable, the variable only refers to the
object and does not represent the object itself! That is, the variable name points to that
part of your computer’s memory where the object is stored. This is called binding the
name to the object.
Generally, you don’t need to be worried about this, but there is a subtle effect due to
references which you need to be aware of:
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Data Structures
Output:
$ python ds_reference.py
Simple Assignment
shoplist is ['mango', 'carrot', 'banana']
mylist is ['mango', 'carrot', 'banana']
Copy by making a full slice
shoplist is ['mango', 'carrot', 'banana']
mylist is ['carrot', 'banana']
Remember that if you want to make a copy of a list or such kinds of sequences or
complex objects (not simple objects such as integers), then you have to use the slicing
operation to make a copy. If you just assign the variable name to another name, both
of them will ''refer'' to the same object and this could be trouble if you are not careful.
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Data Structures
The strings that you use in program are all objects of the class str . Some useful
methods of this class are demonstrated in the next example. For a complete list of such
methods, see help(str) .
if name.startswith('Swa'):
print 'Yes, the string starts with "Swa"'
if 'a' in name:
print 'Yes, it contains the string "a"'
if name.find('war') != -1:
print 'Yes, it contains the string "war"'
delimiter = '_*_'
mylist = ['Brazil', 'Russia', 'India', 'China']
print delimiter.join(mylist)
Output:
$ python ds_str_methods.py
Yes, the string starts with "Swa"
Yes, it contains the string "a"
Yes, it contains the string "war"
Brazil_*_Russia_*_India_*_China
How It WorksHere, we see a lot of the string methods in action. The startswith
method is used to find out whether the string starts with the given string. The in
operator is used to check if a given string is a part of the string.
The find method is used to locate the position of the given substring within the string;
find returns -1 if it is unsuccessful in finding the substring. The str class also has
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Data Structures
a neat method to join the items of a sequence with the string acting as a delimiter
between each item of the sequence and returns a bigger string generated from this.
10.9. Summary
We have explored the various built-in data structures of Python in detail. These data
structures will be essential for writing programs of reasonable size.
Now that we have a lot of the basics of Python in place, we will next see how to design
and write a real-world Python program.
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Chapter 11. Problem Solving
We have explored various parts of the Python language and now we will take a look
at how all these parts fit together, by designing and writing a program which does
something useful. The idea is to learn how to write a Python script on your own.
Although, this is a simple problem, there is not enough information for us to get started
with the solution. A little more analysis is required. For example, how do we specify
which files are to be backed up? How are they stored? Where are they stored?
After analyzing the problem properly, we design our program. We make a list of things
about how our program should work. In this case, I have created the following list on
how I want it to work. If you do the design, you may not come up with the same kind of
analysis since every person has their own way of doing things, so that is perfectly okay.
• The name of the zip archive is the current date and time.
• We use the standard zip command available by default in any standard GNU/
Linux or Unix distribution. Note that you can use any archiving command you want
as long as it has a command line interface.
1
http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/downlinks/zip.php
2
http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/packages/zip.htm
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Problem Solving
Save as backup_ver1.py :
import os
import time
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Problem Solving
Output:
$ python backup_ver1.py
Zip command is:
zip -r /Users/swa/backup/20140328084844.zip /Users/swa/notes
Running:
adding: Users/swa/notes/ (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah1.txt (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah2.txt (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah3.txt (stored 0%)
Successful backup to /Users/swa/backup/20140328084844.zip
Now, we are in the testing phase where we test that our program works properly. If
it doesn’t behave as expected, then we have to debug our program i.e. remove the
bugs (errors) from the program.
If the above program does not work for you, copy the line printed after the Zip
command is line in the output, paste it in the shell (on GNU/Linux and Mac OS X) /
cmd (on Windows), see what the error is and try to fix it. Also check the zip command
manual on what could be wrong. If this command succeeds, then the problem might be
in the Python program itself, so check if it exactly matches the program written above.
How It WorksYou will notice how we have converted our design into code in a step-
by-step manner.
We make use of the os and time modules by first importing them. Then, we specify
the files and directories to be backed up in the source list. The target directory is
where we store all the backup files and this is specified in the target_dir variable.
The name of the zip archive that we are going to create is the current date and time
which we generate using the time.strftime() function. It will also have the .zip
extension and will be stored in the target_dir directory.
Notice the use of the os.sep variable - this gives the directory separator according
to your operating system i.e. it will be '/' in GNU/Linux and Unix, it will be '\\'
in Windows and ':' in Mac OS. Using os.sep instead of these characters directly
will make our program portable and work across all of these systems.
The time.strftime() function takes a specification such as the one we have used
in the above program. The %Y specification will be replaced by the year with the
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Problem Solving
We create the name of the target zip file using the addition operator which concatenates
the strings i.e. it joins the two strings together and returns a new one. Then, we create
a string zip_command which contains the command that we are going to execute.
You can check if this command works by running it in the shell (GNU/Linux terminal
or DOS prompt).
The zip command that we are using has some options and parameters passed. The
-r option specifies that the zip command should work recursively for directories i.e.
it should include all the subdirectories and files. The two options are combined and
specified in a shortcut as -qr . The options are followed by the name of the zip archive
to create followed by the list of files and directories to backup. We convert the source
list into a string using the join method of strings which we have already seen how
to use.
Then, we finally run the command using the os.system function which runs the
command as if it was run from the system i.e. in the shell - it returns 0 if the command
was successfully, else it returns an error number.
Depending on the outcome of the command, we print the appropriate message that
the backup has failed or succeeded.
That’s it, we have created a script to take a backup of our important files!
Now that we have a working backup script, we can use it whenever we want to take
a backup of the files. This is called the operation phase or the deployment phase of
the software.
The above program works properly, but (usually) first programs do not work exactly as
you expect. For example, there might be problems if you have not designed the program
3
http://docs.python.org/2/library/time.html#time.strftime
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Problem Solving
properly or if you have made a mistake when typing the code, etc. Appropriately, you
will have to go back to the design phase or you will have to debug your program.
One of the refinements I felt was useful is a better file-naming mechanism - using the
time as the name of the file within a directory with the current date as a directory within
the main backup directory. The first advantage is that your backups are stored in a
hierarchical manner and therefore it is much easier to manage. The second advantage
is that the filenames are much shorter. The third advantage is that separate directories
will help you check if you have made a backup for each day since the directory would
be created only if you have made a backup for that day.
Save as backup_ver2.py :
import os
import time
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Problem Solving
Output:
$ python backup_ver2.py
Successfully created directory /Users/swa/backup/20140329
Zip command is:
zip -r /Users/swa/backup/20140329/073201.zip /Users/swa/notes
Running:
adding: Users/swa/notes/ (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah1.txt (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah2.txt (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah3.txt (stored 0%)
Successful backup to /Users/swa/backup/20140329/073201.zip
How It WorksMost of the program remains the same. The changes are that we
check if there is a directory with the current day as its name inside the main backup
directory using the os.path.exists function. If it doesn’t exist, we create it using
the os.mkdir function.
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Problem Solving
Save as backup_ver3.py :
import os
import time
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Problem Solving
Output:
$ python backup_ver3.py
File "backup_ver3.py", line 39
target = today + os.sep + now + '_' +
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
How This (does not) WorkThis program does not work! Python says there is a
syntax error which means that the script does not satisfy the structure that Python
expects to see. When we observe the error given by Python, it also tells us the place
where it detected the error as well. So we start debugging our program from that line.
On careful observation, we see that the single logical line has been split into two
physical lines but we have not specified that these two physical lines belong together.
Basically, Python has found the addition operator ( + ) without any operand in that
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Problem Solving
logical line and hence it doesn’t know how to continue. Remember that we can specify
that the logical line continues in the next physical line by the use of a backslash at the
end of the physical line. So, we make this correction to our program. This correction of
the program when we find errors is called bug fixing.
import os
import time
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Problem Solving
Output:
$ python backup_ver4.py
Enter a comment --> added new examples
Zip command is:
zip -r /Users/swa/backup/20140329/074122_added_new_examples.zip /Users/
swa/notes
Running:
adding: Users/swa/notes/ (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah1.txt (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah2.txt (stored 0%)
adding: Users/swa/notes/blah3.txt (stored 0%)
Successful backup to /Users/swa/
backup/20140329/074122_added_new_examples.zip
How It WorksThis program now works! Let us go through the actual enhancements that
we had made in version 3. We take in the user’s comments using the input function
and then check if the user actually entered something by finding out the length of the
input using the len function. If the user has just pressed enter without entering
anything (maybe it was just a routine backup or no special changes were made), then
we proceed as we have done before.
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Problem Solving
However, if a comment was supplied, then this is attached to the name of the zip archive
just before the .zip extension. Notice that we are replacing spaces in the comment
with underscores - this is because managing filenames without spaces is much easier.
The most important refinement would be to not use the os.system way of creating
4 5
archives and instead using the zipfile or tarfile built-in modules to create these
archives. They are part of the standard library and available already for you to use
without external dependencies on the zip program to be available on your computer.
However, I have been using the os.system way of creating a backup in the above
examples purely for pedagogical purposes, so that the example is simple enough to be
understood by everybody but real enough to be useful.
6
Can you try writing the fifth version that uses the zipfile module instead of the
os.system call?
1. What (Analysis)
2. How (Design)
3. Do It (Implementation)
4
http://docs.python.org/2/library/zipfile.html
5
http://docs.python.org/2/library/tarfile.html
6
http://docs.python.org/2/library/zipfile.html
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Problem Solving
6. Maintain (Refinement)
Remember:
11.8. Summary
We have seen how to create our own Python programs/scripts and the various stages
involved in writing such programs. You may find it useful to create your own program
just like we did in this chapter so that you become comfortable with Python as well as
problem-solving.
7
http://97things.oreilly.com/wiki/index.php/Great_software_is_not_built,_it_is_grown
106
Chapter 12. Object Oriented Programming
In all the programs we wrote till now, we have designed our program around functions
i.e. blocks of statements which manipulate data. This is called the procedure-oriented
way of programming. There is another way of organizing your program which is to
combine data and functionality and wrap it inside something called an object. This
is called the object oriented programming paradigm. Most of the time you can use
procedural programming, but when writing large programs or have a problem that is
better suited to this method, you can use object oriented programming techniques.
Classes and objects are the two main aspects of object oriented programming. A class
creates a new type where objects are instances of the class. An analogy is that you
can have variables of type int which translates to saying that variables that store
integers are variables which are instances (objects) of the int class.
C# and Java 1.5 programmers will find this similar to the boxing and
unboxing concept.
Objects can store data using ordinary variables that belong to the object. Variables that
belong to an object or class are referred to as fields. Objects can also have functionality
by using functions that belong to a class. Such functions are called methods of
the class. This terminology is important because it helps us to differentiate between
functions and variables which are independent and those which belong to a class or
object. Collectively, the fields and methods can be referred to as the attributes of that
class.
Fields are of two types - they can belong to each instance/object of the class or they
can belong to the class itself. They are called instance variables and class variables
respectively.
A class is created using the class keyword. The fields and methods of the class are
listed in an indented block.
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Object Oriented Programming
Although, you can give any name for this parameter, it is strongly recommended that
you use the name self - any other name is definitely frowned upon. There are many
advantages to using a standard name - any reader of your program will immediately
recognize it and even specialized IDEs (Integrated Development Environments) can
help you if you use self .
You must be wondering how Python gives the value for self and why you don’t need
to give a value for it. An example will make this clear. Say you have a class called
MyClass and an instance of this class called myobject . When you call a method of
this object as myobject.method(arg1, arg2) , this is automatically converted by
Python into MyClass.method(myobject, arg1, arg2) - this is all the special
self is about.
This also means that if you have a method which takes no arguments, then you still
have to have one argument - the self .
12.2. Classes
The simplest class possible is shown in the following example (save as
oop_simplestclass.py ).
class Person:
pass # An empty block
p = Person()
print(p)
Output:
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Object Oriented Programming
$ python oop_simplestclass.py
<__main__.Person instance at 0x10171f518>
How It WorksWe create a new class using the class statement and the name of
the class. This is followed by an indented block of statements which form the body of
the class. In this case, we have an empty block which is indicated using the pass
statement.
Next, we create an object/instance of this class using the name of the class followed
by a pair of parentheses. (We will learn more about instantiation in the next section).
For our verification, we confirm the type of the variable by simply printing it. It tells us
that we have an instance of the Person class in the main module.
Notice that the address of the computer memory where your object is stored is also
printed. The address will have a different value on your computer since Python can
store the object wherever it finds space.
12.3. Methods
We have already discussed that classes/objects can have methods just like functions
except that we have an extra self variable. We will now see an example (save as
oop_method.py ).
class Person:
def say_hi(self):
print('Hello, how are you?')
p = Person()
p.say_hi()
# The previous 2 lines can also be written as
# Person().say_hi()
Output:
$ python oop_method.py
Hello, how are you?
How It WorksHere we see the self in action. Notice that the say_hi method takes
no parameters but still has the self in the function definition.
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Object Oriented Programming
The init method is run as soon as an object of a class is instantiated. The method
is useful to do any initialization you want to do with your object. Notice the double
underscores both at the beginning and at the end of the name.
class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def say_hi(self):
print 'Hello, my name is', self.name
p = Person('Swaroop')
p.say_hi()
# The previous 2 lines can also be written as
# Person('Swaroop').say_hi()
Output:
$ python oop_init.py
Hello, my name is Swaroop
How It WorksHere, we define the init method as taking a parameter name (along
with the usual self ). Here, we just create a new field also called name . Notice these
are two different variables even though they are both called 'name'. There is no problem
because the dotted notation self.name means that there is something called "name"
that is part of the object called "self" and the other name is a local variable. Since we
explicitly indicate which name we are referring to, there is no confusion.
Most importantly, notice that we do not explicitly call the init method but pass the
arguments in the parentheses following the class name when creating a new instance
of the class. This is the special significance of this method.
Now, we are able to use the self.name field in our methods which is demonstrated
in the say_hi method.
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Object Oriented Programming
There are two types of fields - class variables and object variables which are classified
depending on whether the class or the object owns the variables respectively.
Class variables are shared - they can be accessed by all instances of that class. There
is only one copy of the class variable and when any one object makes a change to a
class variable, that change will be seen by all the other instances.
Object variables are owned by each individual object/instance of the class. In this
case, each object has its own copy of the field i.e. they are not shared and are not
related in any way to the field by the same name in a different instance. An example
will make this easy to understand (save as oop_objvar.py ):
class Robot:
"""Represents a robot, with a name."""
def die(self):
"""I am dying."""
print "{} is being destroyed!".format(self.name)
Robot.population -= 1
if Robot.population == 0:
print "{} was the last one.".format(self.name)
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Object Oriented Programming
else:
print "There are still {:d} robots working.".format(
Robot.population)
def say_hi(self):
"""Greeting by the robot.
@classmethod
def how_many(cls):
"""Prints the current population."""
print "We have {:d} robots.".format(cls.population)
droid1 = Robot("R2-D2")
droid1.say_hi()
Robot.how_many()
droid2 = Robot("C-3PO")
droid2.say_hi()
Robot.how_many()
Robot.how_many()
Output:
$ python oop_objvar.py
(Initializing R2-D2)
Greetings, my masters call me R2-D2.
We have 1 robots.
(Initializing C-3PO)
Greetings, my masters call me C-3PO.
We have 2 robots.
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Object Oriented Programming
How It WorksThis is a long example but helps demonstrate the nature of class and
object variables. Here, population belongs to the Robot class and hence is a
class variable. The name variable belongs to the object (it is assigned using self )
and hence is an object variable.
The how_many is actually a method that belongs to the class and not to the object. This
means we can define it as either a classmethod or a staticmethod depending
on whether we need to know which class we are part of. Since we refer to a class
variable, let’s use classmethod .
how_many = classmethod(how_many)
Observe that the init method is used to initialize the Robot instance with a name.
In this method, we increase the population count by 1 since we have one more
robot being added. Also observe that the values of self.name is specific to each
object which indicates the nature of object variables.
Remember, that you must refer to the variables and methods of the same object using
the self only. This is called an attribute reference.
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Object Oriented Programming
In this program, we also see the use of docstrings for classes as well as methods. We
can access the class docstring at runtime using Robot.doc and the method docstring
as Robot.say_hi.doc
All class members are public. One exception: If you use data members with names
using the double underscore prefix such as __privatevar , Python uses name-
mangling to effectively make it a private variable.
Thus, the convention followed is that any variable that is to be used only within the
class or object should begin with an underscore and all other names are public and
can be used by other classes/objects. Remember that this is only a convention and is
not enforced by Python (except for the double underscore prefix).
12.6. Inheritance
One of the major benefits of object oriented programming is reuse of code and one of
the ways this is achieved is through the inheritance mechanism. Inheritance can be
best imagined as implementing a type and subtype relationship between classes.
Suppose you want to write a program which has to keep track of the teachers and
students in a college. They have some common characteristics such as name, age and
address. They also have specific characteristics such as salary, courses and leaves
for teachers and, marks and fees for students.
You can create two independent classes for each type and process them but adding a
new common characteristic would mean adding to both of these independent classes.
This quickly becomes unwieldy.
A better way would be to create a common class called SchoolMember and then have
the teacher and student classes inherit from this class i.e. they will become sub-types
of this type (class) and then we can add specific characteristics to these sub-types.
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Object Oriented Programming
to the SchoolMember class. However, changes in the subtypes do not affect other
subtypes. Another advantage is that if you can refer to a teacher or student object as
a SchoolMember object which could be useful in some situations such as counting
of the number of school members. This is called polymorphism where a sub-type can
be substituted in any situation where a parent type is expected i.e. the object can be
treated as an instance of the parent class.
Also observe that we reuse the code of the parent class and we do not need to repeat
it in the different classes as we would have had to in case we had used independent
classes.
The SchoolMember class in this situation is known as the base class or the
superclass. The Teacher and Student classes are called the derived classes
or subclasses.
class SchoolMember:
'''Represents any school member.'''
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
print '(Initialized SchoolMember: {})'.format(self.name)
def tell(self):
'''Tell my details.'''
print 'Name:"{}" Age:"{}"'.format(self.name, self.age),
class Teacher(SchoolMember):
'''Represents a teacher.'''
def __init__(self, name, age, salary):
SchoolMember.__init__(self, name, age)
self.salary = salary
print '(Initialized Teacher: {})'.format(self.name)
def tell(self):
SchoolMember.tell(self)
print 'Salary: "{:d}"'.format(self.salary)
class Student(SchoolMember):
'''Represents a student.'''
def __init__(self, name, age, marks):
SchoolMember.__init__(self, name, age)
self.marks = marks
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Object Oriented Programming
def tell(self):
SchoolMember.tell(self)
print 'Marks: "{:d}"'.format(self.marks)
members = [t, s]
for member in members:
# Works for both Teachers and Students
member.tell()
Output:
$ python oop_subclass.py
(Initialized SchoolMember: Mrs. Shrividya)
(Initialized Teacher: Mrs. Shrividya)
(Initialized SchoolMember: Swaroop)
(Initialized Student: Swaroop)
How It WorksTo use inheritance, we specify the base class names in a tuple following
the class name in the class definition. Next, we observe that the init method of the
base class is explicitly called using the self variable so that we can initialize the
base class part of the object. This is very important to remember - Python does not
automatically call the constructor of the base class, you have to explicitly call it yourself.
We also observe that we can call methods of the base class by prefixing the class name
to the method call and then pass in the self variable along with any arguments.
Notice that we can treat instances of Teacher or Student as just instances of the
SchoolMember when we use the tell method of the SchoolMember class.
Also, observe that the tell method of the subtype is called and not the tell method
of the SchoolMember class. One way to understand this is that Python always starts
looking for methods in the actual type, which in this case it does. If it could not find the
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Object Oriented Programming
method, it starts looking at the methods belonging to its base classes one by one in the
order they are specified in the tuple in the class definition.
A note on terminology - if more than one class is listed in the inheritance tuple, then
it is called multiple inheritance.
The trailing comma is used at the end of the print statement in the superclass’s
tell() method to print a line and allow the next print to continue on the same line.
This is a trick to make print not print a \n (newline) symbol at the end of the printing.
12.7. Summary
We have now explored the various aspects of classes and objects as well as the
various terminologies associated with it. We have also seen the benefits and pitfalls
of object-oriented programming. Python is highly object-oriented and understanding
these concepts carefully will help you a lot in the long run.
Next, we will learn how to deal with input/output and how to access files in Python.
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Chapter 13. Input and Output
There will be situations where your program has to interact with the user. For example,
you would want to take input from the user and then print some results back. We can
achieve this using the raw_input() function and print statement respectively.
For output, we can also use the various methods of the str (string) class. For
example, you can use the rjust method to get a string which is right justified to a
specified width. See help(str) for more details.
Another common type of input/output is dealing with files. The ability to create, read and
write files is essential to many programs and we will explore this aspect in this chapter.
def reverse(text):
return text[::-1]
def is_palindrome(text):
return text == reverse(text)
Output:
$ python io_input.py
Enter text: sir
No, it is not a palindrome
$ python io_input.py
Enter text: madam
Yes, it is a palindrome
$ python io_input.py
Enter text: racecar
Yes, it is a palindrome
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Input and Output
How It WorksWe use the slicing feature to reverse the text. We’ve already seen how
we can make slices from sequences using the seq[a:b] code starting from position
a to position b . We can also provide a third argument that determines the step by
which the slicing is done. The default step is 1 because of which it returns a continuous
part of the text. Giving a negative step, i.e., -1 will return the text in reverse.
The raw_input() function takes a string as argument and displays it to the user.
Then it waits for the user to type something and press the return key. Once the user
has entered and pressed the return key, the raw_input() function will then return
that text the user has entered.
We take that text and reverse it. If the original text and reversed text are equal, then
1
the text is a palindrome .
13.2. Files
You can open and use files for reading or writing by creating an object of the file
class and using its read , readline or write methods appropriately to read from
or write to the file. The ability to read or write to the file depends on the mode you have
specified for the file opening. Then finally, when you are finished with the file, you call
the close method to tell Python that we are done using the file.
poem = '''\
Programming is fun
When the work is done
if you wanna make your work also fun:
use Python!
'''
1
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/palindrome
2
Use a tuple (you can find a list of all punctuation marks here [http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
marks/marks.htm]) to hold all the forbidden characters, then use the membership test to determine
whether a character should be removed or not, i.e. forbidden = ( ! , ? , . , …).
119
Input and Output
# If no mode is specified,
# 'r'ead mode is assumed by default
f = open('poem.txt')
while True:
line = f.readline()
# Zero length indicates EOF
if len(line) == 0:
break
# The `line` already has a newline
# at the end of each line
# since it is reading from a file.
print line,
# close the file
f.close()
Output:
$ python io_using_file.py
Programming is fun
When the work is done
if you wanna make your work also fun:
use Python!
How It WorksFirst, open a file by using the built-in open function and specifying the
name of the file and the mode in which we want to open the file. The mode can be a
read mode ( 'r' ), write mode ( 'w' ) or append mode ( 'a' ). We can also specify
whether we are reading, writing, or appending in text mode ( 't' ) or binary mode
( 'b' ). There are actually many more modes available and help(open) will give
you more details about them. By default, open() considers the file to be a 't’ext file
and opens it in 'r’ead mode.
In our example, we first open the file in write text mode and use the write method of
the file object to write to the file and then we finally close the file.
Next, we open the same file again for reading. We don’t need to specify a mode
because 'read text file' is the default mode. We read in each line of the file using the
120
Input and Output
readline method in a loop. This method returns a complete line including the newline
character at the end of the line. When an empty string is returned, it means that we
have reached the end of the file and we 'break' out of the loop.
Now, check the contents of the poem.txt file to confirm that the program has indeed
written to and read from that file.
13.3. Pickle
Python provides a standard module called pickle using which you can store any
plain Python object in a file and then get it back later. This is called storing the object
persistently.
import pickle
Output:
$ python io_pickle.py
['apple', 'mango', 'carrot']
121
Input and Output
How It WorksTo store an object in a file, we have to first open the file in write binary
mode and then call the dump function of the pickle module. This process is called
pickling.
Next, we retrieve the object using the load function of the pickle module which
returns the object. This process is called unpickling.
13.4. Unicode
So far, when we have been writing and using strings, or reading and writing to a file,
we have used simple English characters only. If we want to be able to read and write
other non-English languages, we need to use the unicode type, and it all starts with
the character u :
We use the unicode type instead of strings to make sure that we handle non-
English languages in our programs. However, when we read or write to a file or when
we talk to other computers on the Internet, we need to convert our unicode strings
into a format that can be sent and received, and that format is called "UTF-8". We can
read and write in that format, using a simple keyword argument to our standard open
function:
# encoding=utf-8
import io
How It WorksYou can ignore the import statement for now, we’ll explore that in
detail in the modules chapter.
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Input and Output
Whenever we write a program that uses Unicode literals like we have used above, we
have to make sure that Python itself is told that our program uses UTF-8, and we have
to put # encoding=utf-8 comment at the top of our program.
We use io.open and provide the "encoding" and "decoding" argument to tell Python
that we are using unicode, and in fact, we have to pass in a string in the form of u""
to make it clear that we are using Unicode strings.
13.5. Summary
We have discussed various types of input/output, about file handling, about the pickle
module and about Unicode.
3
http://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/Unicode.html
4
http://docs.python.org/2/howto/unicode.html
5
http://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html
123
Chapter 14. Exceptions
Exceptions occur when exceptional situations occur in your program. For example,
what if you are going to read a file and the file does not exist? Or what if you
accidentally deleted it when the program was running? Such situations are handled
using exceptions.
Similarly, what if your program had some invalid statements? This is handled by Python
which raises its hands and tells you there is an error.
14.1. Errors
Consider a simple print function call. What if we misspelt print as Print ? Note
the capitalization. In this case, Python raises a syntax error.
Observe that a SyntaxError is raised and also the location where the error was
detected is printed. This is what an error handler for this error does.
14.2. Exceptions
We will try to read input from the user. Press ctrl-d and see what happens.
Python raises an error called EOFError which basically means it found an end of file
symbol (which is represented by ctrl-d ) when it did not expect to see it.
124
Exceptions
try:
text = raw_input('Enter something --> ')
except EOFError:
print 'Why did you do an EOF on me?'
except KeyboardInterrupt:
print 'You cancelled the operation.'
else:
print 'You entered {}'.format(text)
Output:
# Press ctrl + d
$ python exceptions_handle.py
Enter something --> Why did you do an EOF on me?
# Press ctrl + c
$ python exceptions_handle.py
Enter something --> ^CYou cancelled the operation.
$ python exceptions_handle.py
Enter something --> No exceptions
You entered No exceptions
How It WorksWe put all the statements that might raise exceptions/errors inside the
try block and then put handlers for the appropriate errors/exceptions in the except
clause/block. The except clause can handle a single specified error or exception,
or a parenthesized list of errors/exceptions. If no names of errors or exceptions are
supplied, it will handle all errors and exceptions.
Note that there has to be at least one except clause associated with every try
clause. Otherwise, what’s the point of having a try block?
If any error or exception is not handled, then the default Python handler is called which
just stops the execution of the program and prints an error message. We have already
seen this in action above.
125
Exceptions
You can also have an else clause associated with a try..except block. The
else clause is executed if no exception occurs.
In the next example, we will also see how to get the exception object so that we can
retrieve additional information.
The error or exception that you can raise should be a class which directly or indirectly
must be a derived class of the Exception class.
class ShortInputException(Exception):
'''A user-defined exception class.'''
def __init__(self, length, atleast):
Exception.__init__(self)
self.length = length
self.atleast = atleast
try:
text = raw_input('Enter something --> ')
if len(text) < 3:
raise ShortInputException(len(text), 3)
# Other work can continue as usual here
except EOFError:
print 'Why did you do an EOF on me?'
except ShortInputException as ex:
print ('ShortInputException: The input was ' + \
'{0} long, expected at least {1}')\
.format(ex.length, ex.atleast)
else:
print 'No exception was raised.'
Output:
$ python exceptions_raise.py
Enter something --> a
ShortInputException: The input was 1 long, expected at least 3
126
Exceptions
$ python exceptions_raise.py
Enter something --> abc
No exception was raised.
How It WorksHere, we are creating our own exception type. This new exception type
is called ShortInputException . It has two fields - length which is the length
of the given input, and atleast which is the minimum length that the program was
expecting.
In the except clause, we mention the class of error which will be stored as the
variable name to hold the corresponding error/exception object. This is analogous to
parameters and arguments in a function call. Within this particular except clause, we
use the length and atleast fields of the exception object to print an appropriate
message to the user.
import sys
import time
f = None
try:
f = open("poem.txt")
# Our usual file-reading idiom
while True:
line = f.readline()
if len(line) == 0:
break
print line,
sys.stdout.flush()
print "Press ctrl+c now"
# To make sure it runs for a while
time.sleep(2)
except IOError:
print "Could not find file poem.txt"
except KeyboardInterrupt:
print "!! You cancelled the reading from the file."
127
Exceptions
finally:
if f:
f.close()
print "(Cleaning up: Closed the file)"
Output:
$ python exceptions_finally.py
Programming is fun
Press ctrl+c now
^C!! You cancelled the reading from the file.
(Cleaning up: Closed the file)
How It WorksWe do the usual file-reading stuff, but we have arbitrarily introduced
sleeping for 2 seconds after printing each line using the time.sleep function so
that the program runs slowly (Python is very fast by nature). When the program is still
running, press ctrl + c to interrupt/cancel the program.
Observe that the KeyboardInterrupt exception is thrown and the program quits.
However, before the program exits, the finally clause is executed and the file object
is always closed.
Note that we use sys.stdout.flush() after print so that it prints to the screen
immediately.
Save as exceptions_using_with.py :
with open("poem.txt") as f:
for line in f:
print line,
How It WorksThe output should be same as the previous example. The difference
here is that we are using the open function with the with statement - we leave the
closing of the file to be done automatically by with open .
128
Exceptions
What happens behind the scenes is that there is a protocol used by the with
statement. It fetches the object returned by the open statement, let’s call it "thefile"
in this case.
It always calls the thefile.enter function before starting the block of code under
it and always calls thefile.exit after finishing the block of code.
So the code that we would have written in a finally block should be taken care
of automatically by the exit method. This is what helps us to avoid having to use
explicit try..finally statements repeatedly.
1
More discussion on this topic is beyond scope of this book, so please refer PEP 343
for a comprehensive explanation.
14.7. Summary
We have discussed the usage of the try..except and try..finally
statements. We have seen how to create our own exception types and how to raise
exceptions as well.
1
http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343/
129
Chapter 15. Standard Library
The Python Standard Library contains a huge number of useful modules and is part of
every standard Python installation. It is important to become familiar with the Python
Standard Library since many problems can be solved quickly if you are familiar with
the range of things that these libraries can do.
We will explore some of the commonly used modules in this library. You can find
complete details for all of the modules in the Python Standard Library in the 'Library
1
Reference' section of the documentation that comes with your Python installation.
If you find the topics in this chapter too advanced, you may skip this
chapter. However, I highly recommend coming back to this chapter
when you are more comfortable with programming using Python.
Suppose we want to check the version of the Python software being used, the sys
module gives us that information.
$ python
>>> import sys
>>> sys.version_info
sys.version_info(major=2, minor=7, micro=6, releaselevel='final',
serial=0)
>>> sys.version_info.major == 2
True
How It WorksThe sys module has a version_info tuple that gives us the version
information. The first entry is the major version. We can pull out this information to use it.
1
http://docs.python.org/2/library/
130
Standard Library
Save as stdlib_logging.py :
if platform.platform().startswith('Windows'):
logging_file = os.path.join(os.getenv('HOMEDRIVE'),
os.getenv('HOMEPATH'),
'test.log')
else:
logging_file = os.path.join(os.getenv('HOME'),
'test.log')
logging.basicConfig(
level=logging.DEBUG,
format='%(asctime)s : %(levelname)s : %(message)s',
filename = logging_file,
filemode = 'w',
)
Output:
$ python stdlib_logging.py
Logging to /Users/swa/test.log
$ cat /Users/swa/test.log
2014-03-29 09:27:36,660 : DEBUG : Start of the program
2014-03-29 09:27:36,660 : INFO : Doing something
2014-03-29 09:27:36,660 : WARNING : Dying now
131
Standard Library
If you do not have the cat command, then you can just open the test.log file in
a text editor.
How It WorksWe use three modules from the standard library - the os module for
interacting with the operating system, the platform module for information about the
platform i.e. the operating system and the logging module to log information.
First, we check which operating system we are using by checking the string returned
by platform.platform() (for more information, see import platform;
help(platform) ). If it is Windows, we figure out the home drive, the home folder and
the filename where we want to store the information. Putting these three parts together,
we get the full location of the file. For other platforms, we need to know just the home
folder of the user and we get the full location of the file.
We use the os.path.join() function to put these three parts of the location
together. The reason to use a special function rather than just adding the strings
together is because this function will ensure the full location matches the format
expected by the operating system.
We configure the logging module to write all the messages in a particular format to
the file we have specified.
Finally, we can put messages that are either meant for debugging, information, warning
or even critical messages. Once the program has run, we can check this file and we
will know what happened in the program, even though no information was displayed
to the user running the program.
The best way to further explore the standard library is to read Doug Hellmann’s
5 6
excellent Python Module of the Week series (also available as a book ) and reading
7
the Python documentation .
2
http://docs.python.org/2/library/pdb.html
3
http://docs.python.org/2/library/argparse.html
4
http://docs.python.org/2/library/re.html
5
http://pymotw.com/2/contents.html
6
http://amzn.com/0321767349
7
http://docs.python.org/2/
132
Standard Library
15.4. Summary
We have explored some of the functionality of many modules in the Python Standard
Library. It is highly recommended to browse through the Python Standard Library
8
documentation to get an idea of all the modules that are available.
Next, we will cover various aspects of Python that will make our tour of Python more
complete.
8
http://docs.python.org/2/library/
133
Chapter 16. More
So far we have covered a majority of the various aspects of Python that you will use. In
this chapter, we will cover some more aspects that will make our knowledge of Python
more well-rounded.
Notice that the usage of a, b = <some expression> interprets the result of the
expression as a tuple with two values.
This also means the fastest way to swap two variables in Python is:
>>> a = 5; b = 8
>>> a, b
(5, 8)
>>> a, b = b, a
>>> a, b
(8, 5)
Special methods are used to mimic certain behaviors of built-in types. For example, if
you want to use the x[key] indexing operation for your class (just like you use it for
134
More
lists and tuples), then all you have to do is implement the getitem() method and
your job is done. If you think about it, this is what Python does for the list class itself!
Some useful special methods are listed in the following table. If you want to know about
1
all the special methods, see the manual .
init(self, …)
This method is called just before the newly created object is returned for usage.
del(self)
Called just before the object is destroyed (which has unpredictable timing, so avoid
using this)
str(self)
Called when we use the print statement or when str() is used.
lt(self, other)
Called when the less than operator (<) is used. Similarly, there are special methods
for all the operators (+, >, etc.)
getitem(self, key)
Called when x[key] indexing operation is used.
len(self)
Called when the built-in len() function is used for the sequence object.
Notice that the single statement is used in-place and not as a separate block. Although,
you can use this for making your program smaller, I strongly recommend avoiding this
1
http://docs.python.org/2/reference/datamodel.html#special-method-names
135
More
short-cut method, except for error checking, mainly because it will be much easier to
add an extra statement if you are using proper indentation.
Output:
$ python more_lambda.py
[{'y': 1, 'x': 4}, {'y': 3, 'x': 2}]
How It WorksNotice that the sort method of a list can take a key parameter
which determines how the list is sorted (usually we know only about ascending or
descending order). In our case, we want to do a custom sort, and for that we need to
write a function but instead of writing a separate def block for a function that will get
used in only this one place, we use a lambda expression to create a new function.
listone = [2, 3, 4]
listtwo = [2*i for i in listone if i > 2]
print listtwo
136
More
Output:
$ python more_list_comprehension.py
[6, 8]
The advantage of using list comprehensions is that it reduces the amount of boilerplate
code required when we use loops to process each element of a list and store it in a
new list.
Because we have a * prefix on the args variable, all extra arguments passed to the
function are stored in args as a tuple. If a ** prefix had been used instead, the extra
parameters would be considered to be key/value pairs of a dictionary.
137
More
to check this, and raise an error if it is not true, then assert statement is ideal in this
situation. When the assert statement fails, an AssertionError is raised.
The assert statement should be used judiciously. Most of the time, it is better to
catch exceptions, either handle the problem or display an error message to the user
and then quit.
16.8. Decorators
Decorators are a shortcut to applying wrapper functions. This is helpful to "wrap"
functionality with the same code over and over again. For example, I created a retry
decorator for myself that I can just apply to any function and if any exception is thrown
during a run, it is retried again, till a maximum of 5 times and with a delay between each
retry. This is especially useful for situations where you are trying to make a network
call to a remote computer:
def retry(f):
@wraps(f)
def wrapped_f(*args, **kwargs):
MAX_ATTEMPTS = 5
for attempt in range(1, MAX_ATTEMPTS + 1):
try:
return f(*args, **kwargs)
except:
log.exception("Attempt %s/%s failed : %s",
attempt,
138
More
MAX_ATTEMPTS,
(args, kwargs))
sleep(10 * attempt)
log.critical("All %s attempts failed : %s",
MAX_ATTEMPTS,
(args, kwargs))
return wrapped_f
counter = 0
@retry
def save_to_database(arg):
print "Write to a database or make a network call or etc."
print "This will be automatically retried if exception is thrown."
global counter
counter += 1
# This will throw an exception in the first call
# And will work fine in the second call (i.e. a retry)
if counter < 2:
raise ValueError(arg)
if __name__ == '__main__':
save_to_database("Some bad value")
Output:
$ python more_decorator.py
Write to a database or make a network call or etc.
This will be automatically retried if exception is thrown.
ERROR:retry:Attempt 1/5 failed : (('Some bad value',), {})
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "more_decorator.py", line 14, in wrapped_f
return f(*args, **kwargs)
File "more_decorator.py", line 39, in save_to_database
raise ValueError(arg)
ValueError: Some bad value
Write to a database or make a network call or etc.
This will be automatically retried if exception is thrown.
How It WorksSee:
• http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-cpdecor.html
139
More
• http://toumorokoshi.github.io/dry-principles-through-python-decorators.html
2
• "Six" library
3
• Porting to Python 3 Redux by Armin
4
• Python 3 experience by PyDanny
5
• Official Django Guide to Porting to Python 3
6
• Discussion on What are the advantages to python 3.x?
16.10. Summary
We have covered some more features of Python in this chapter and yet we haven’t
covered all the features of Python. However, at this stage, we have covered most of
what you are ever going to use in practice. This is sufficient for you to get started with
whatever programs you are going to create.
2
http://pythonhosted.org/six/
3
http://lucumr.pocoo.org/2013/5/21/porting-to-python-3-redux/
4
http://pydanny.com/experiences-with-django-python3.html
5
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/topics/python3/
6
http://www.reddit.com/r/Python/comments/22ovb3/what_are_the_advantages_to_python_3x/
140
Chapter 17. What Next
If you have read this book thoroughly till now and practiced writing a lot of programs,
then you must have become comfortable and familiar with Python. You have probably
created some Python programs to try out stuff and to exercise your Python skills as
well. If you have not done it already, you should. The question now is 'What Next?'.
This is fairly easy if you think about it in terms of all the various stuff that we have come
1
across till now. If you still want directions on how to proceed, then here’s a hint .
Once you are able to do this, you can claim to be a Python programmer. Now,
2
immediately send me an email thanking me for this great book ;-). This step is
3
optional but recommended. Also, please consider buying a printed copy to support
the continued development of this book.
The replace command can be as simple or as sophisticated as you wish, from simple
string substitution to looking for patterns (regular expressions).
1
Create a class to represent the person’s information. Use a dictionary to store person objects with
their name as the key. Use the pickle module to store the objects persistently on your hard disk. Use the
dictionary built-in methods to add, delete and modify the persons.
2
http://swaroopch.com/contact/
3
http://swaroopch.com/buybook/
4
http://unixhelp.ed.ac.uk/CGI/man-cgi?replace
5
http://www.dreamincode.net/forums/topic/78802-martyr2s-mega-project-ideas-list/
141
What Next
6
Also see Intermediate Python Projects .
7
• Python Cookbook is an extremely valuable collection of recipes or tips on how to
solve certain kinds of problems using Python. This is a must-read for every Python
user.
8
• Python Module of the Week is another excellent must-read guide to the Standard
Library.
17.3. Advice
9
• The Hitchhiker’s Guide to Python!
10
• Python Big Picture
11
• "Writing Idiomatic Python" ebook (paid)
17.4. Videos
12
• PyVideo
6
https://openhatch.org/wiki/Intermediate_Python_Workshop/Projects
7
http://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/
8
http://pymotw.com/2/contents.html
9
http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/
10
http://slott-softwarearchitect.blogspot.ca/2013/06/python-big-picture-whats-roadmap.html
11
http://www.jeffknupp.com/writing-idiomatic-python-ebook/
12
http://www.pyvideo.org
13
http://docs.python.org/3/howto/doanddont.html
14
http://www.python.org/doc/faq/general/
15
http://norvig.com/python-iaq.html
142
What Next
16
• Python Interview Q & A
17
• StackOverflow questions tagged with python
17.6. Tutorials
18
• Hidden features of Python
• What’s the one code snippet/python trick/etc did you wish you knew when you
19
learned python?
20
• Awaretek’s comprehensive list of Python tutorials
17.7. Discussion
If you are stuck with a Python problem, and don’t know whom to ask, then the python-
21
tutor list is the best place to ask your question.
Make sure you do your homework by trying to solving the problem yourself first and
22
ask smart questions .
17.8. News
If you want to learn what is the latest in the world of Python, then follow the Official
23
Python Planet .
16
http://dev.fyicenter.com/Interview-Questions/Python/index.html
17
http://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/python
18
http://stackoverflow.com/q/101268/4869
19
http://www.reddit.com/r/Python/comments/19dir2/
whats_the_one_code_snippetpython_tricketc_did_you/
20
http://www.awaretek.com/tutorials.html
21
http://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/tutor
22
http://catb.org/~esr/faqs/smart-questions.html
23
http://planet.python.org
24
http://pypi.python.org/pypi
25
http://www.pip-installer.org/en/latest/
143
What Next
27
• Flask Official Quickstart
28
• The Flask Mega-Tutorial
29
• Example Flask Projects
Kivy
http://kivy.org
PyGTK
This is the Python binding for the GTK+ toolkit which is the foundation upon
which GNOME is built. GTK+ has many quirks in usage but once you become
comfortable, you can create GUI apps fast. The Glade graphical interface designer
is indispensable. The documentation is yet to improve. GTK+ works well on GNU/
Linux but its port to Windows is incomplete. You can create both free as well as
30
proprietary software using GTK+. To get started, read the PyGTK tutorial .
PyQt
This is the Python binding for the Qt toolkit which is the foundation upon which
the KDE is built. Qt is extremely easy to use and very powerful especially due to
the Qt Designer and the amazing Qt documentation. PyQt is free if you want to
create open source (GPL’ed) software and you need to buy it if you want to create
proprietary closed source software. Starting with Qt 4.5 you can use it to create non-
31
GPL software as well. To get started, read about PySide .
26
http://flask.pocoo.org
27
http://flask.pocoo.org/docs/quickstart/
28
http://blog.miguelgrinberg.com/post/the-flask-mega-tutorial-part-i-hello-world
29
https://github.com/mitsuhiko/flask/tree/master/examples
30
http://www.pygtk.org/tutorial.html
31
http://qt-project.org/wiki/PySide
144
What Next
wxPython
This is the Python bindings for the wxWidgets toolkit. wxPython has a learning curve
associated with it. However, it is very portable and runs on GNU/Linux, Windows,
Mac and even embedded platforms. There are many IDEs available for wxPython
32
which include GUI designers as well such as SPE (Stani’s Python Editor) and the
33
wxGlade GUI builder. You can create free as well as proprietary software using
34
wxPython. To get started, read the wxPython tutorial .
Unfortunately, there is no one standard GUI tool for Python. I suggest that you choose
one of the above tools depending on your situation. The first factor is whether you are
willing to pay to use any of the GUI tools. The second factor is whether you want the
program to run only on Windows or on Mac and GNU/Linux or all of them. The third
factor, if GNU/Linux is a chosen platform, is whether you are a KDE or GNOME user
on GNU/Linux.
For a more detailed and comprehensive analysis, see Page 26 of the 'The Python
36
Papers, Volume 3, Issue 1' .
We have been using the CPython software to run our programs. It is referred to as
CPython because it is written in the C language and is the Classical Python interpreter.
There are also other software that can run your Python programs:
37
Jython
A Python implementation that runs on the Java platform. This means you can use
Java libraries and classes from within Python language and vice-versa.
32
http://spe.pycs.net/
33
http://wxglade.sourceforge.net/
34
http://zetcode.com/wxpython/
35
http://www.python.org/cgi-bin/moinmoin/GuiProgramming
36
http://archive.pythonpapers.org/ThePythonPapersVolume3Issue1.pdf
37
http://www.jython.org
145
What Next
38
IronPython
A Python implementation that runs on the .NET platform. This means you can
use .NET libraries and classes from within Python language and vice-versa.
39
PyPy
A Python implementation written in Python! This is a research project to make it
fast and easy to improve the interpreter since the interpreter itself is written in a
dynamic language (as opposed to static languages such as C, Java or C# in the
above three implementations)
40
There are also others such as CLPython - a Python implementation written in
41
Common Lisp and Brython which is an implementation on top of a JavaScript
interpreter which could mean that you can use Python (instead of JavaScript) to write
your web-browser ("Ajax") programs.
Each of these implementations have their specialized areas where they are useful.
42
• Functional Programming Howto by A.M. Kuchling
43
• Functional programming chapter in 'Dive Into Python' book
44
• Functional Programming with Python presentation
45
• Funcy library
17.15. Summary
We have now come to the end of this book but, as they say, this is the the beginning
of the end!. You are now an avid Python user and you are no doubt ready to solve
38
http://www.codeplex.com/Wiki/View.aspx?ProjectName=IronPython
39
http://codespeak.net/pypy/dist/pypy/doc/home.html
40
http://common-lisp.net/project/clpython/
41
http://brython.info/
42
http://docs.python.org/3/howto/functional.html
43
http://www.diveintopython.net/functional_programming/index.html
44
http://ua.pycon.org/static/talks/kachayev/index.html
45
https://github.com/Suor/funcy
146
What Next
many problems using Python. You can start automating your computer to do all kinds
of previously unimaginable things or write your own games and much much more. So,
get started!
147
Chapter 18. Appendix: FLOSS
Please note that this section was written in 2003, so some of this
might sound quaint to you :-)
1
"Free/Libre and Open Source Software", in short, FLOSS is based on the concept
of a community, which itself is based on the concept of sharing, and particularly the
sharing of knowledge. FLOSS are free for usage, modification and redistribution.
If you have already read this book, then you are already familiar with FLOSS since you
have been using Python all along and Python is an open source software!
Here are some examples of FLOSS to give an idea of the kind of things that community
sharing and building can create:
2
Linux
This is a FLOSS OS kernel used in the GNU/Linux operating system. Linux, the
kernel, was started by Linus Torvalds as a student. Android is based on Linux. Any
website you use these days will mostly be running on Linux.
3
Ubuntu
This is a community-driven distribution, sponsored by Canonical and it is the most
popular GNU/Linux distribution today. It allows you to install a plethora of FLOSS
available and all this in an easy-to-use and easy-to-install manner. Best of all, you
can just reboot your computer and run GNU/Linux off the CD! This allows you
to completely try out the new OS before installing it on your computer. However,
Ubuntu is not entirely free software; it contains proprietary drivers, firmware, and
applications.
4
LibreOffice
This is an excellent community-driven and developed office suite with a writer,
presentation, spreadsheet and drawing components among other things. It can
even open and edit MS Word and MS PowerPoint files with ease. It runs on almost
all platforms and is entirely free, libre and open source software.
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOSS
2
http://www.kernel.org
3
http://www.ubuntu.com
4
http://www.libreoffice.org/
148
Appendix: FLOSS
5
Mozilla Firefox
This is the best web browser. It is blazingly fast and has gained critical acclaim for
its sensible and impressive features. The extensions concept allows any kind of
plugins to be used.
6
Mono
This is an open source implementation of the Microsoft .NET platform. It allows .NET
applications to be created and run on GNU/Linux, Windows, FreeBSD, Mac OS and
many other platforms as well.
7
Apache web server
This is the popular open source web server. In fact, it is the most popular web server
on the planet! It runs nearly more than half of the websites out there. Yes, that’s
right - Apache handles more websites than all the competition (including Microsoft
IIS) combined.
8
VLC Player
This is a video player that can play anything from DivX to MP3 to Ogg to VCDs and
DVDs to … who says open source ain’t fun? ;-)
This list is just intended to give you a brief idea - there are many more excellent FLOSS
out there, such as the Perl language, PHP language, Drupal content management
system for websites, PostgreSQL database server, TORCS racing game, KDevelop
IDE, Xine - the movie player, VIM editor, Quanta+ editor, Banshee audio player, GIMP
image editing program, … This list could go on forever.
To get the latest buzz in the FLOSS world, check out the following websites:
9
• OMG! Ubuntu!
10
• Web Upd8
11
• DistroWatch
12
• Planet Debian
5
http://www.mozilla.org/products/firefox
6
http://www.mono-project.com
7
http://httpd.apache.org
8
http://www.videolan.org/vlc/
9
http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/
10
http://www.webupd8.org/
11
http://www.distrowatch.com
12
http://planet.debian.org/
149
Appendix: FLOSS
13
• GitHub Explore
14
• Code Triage
15
• SourceForge
16
• FreshMeat
So, go ahead and explore the vast, free and open world of FLOSS!
13
http://github.com/explore
14
http://www.codetriage.com/
15
http://www.sourceforge.net
16
http://www.freshmeat.net
150
Appendix: Colophon
Almost all of the software that I have used in the creation of this book are FLOSS.
Initially, I was using KWord to write the book (as explained in the history lesson in the
preface).
2. Teenage Years
Later, I switched to DocBook XML using Kate but I found it too tedious. So, I switched
to OpenOffice which was just excellent with the level of control it provided for formatting
as well as the PDF generation, but it produced very sloppy HTML from the document.
Finally, I discovered XEmacs and I rewrote the book from scratch in DocBook XML
(again) after I decided that this format was the long term solution.
In the sixth draft, I decided to use Quanta+ to do all the editing. The standard XSL
stylesheets that came with Fedora Core 3 Linux were being used. However, I had
written a CSS document to give color and style to the HTML pages. I had also written
a crude lexical analyzer, in Python of course, which automatically provides syntax
highlighting to all the program listings.
17
For the seventh draft, I’m using MediaWiki as the basis of my setup. I used to edit
everything online and the readers can directly read/edit/discuss within the wiki website,
but I ended up spending more time fighting spam than writing.
18 19
For the eight draft, I used Vim , Pandoc , and Mac OS X.
17
http://www.mediawiki.org
18
http://www.swaroopch.com/notes/vim
19
http://johnmacfarlane.net/pandoc/README.html
151
Appendix: Colophon
3. Now
20 21
For the ninth draft, I switched to AsciiDoc format and used Emacs 24.3 , tomorrow
22 23 24
theme , Fira Mono font and adoc-mode to write.
20
http://asciidoctor.org/docs/what-is-asciidoc/
21
http://www.masteringemacs.org/articles/2013/03/11/whats-new-emacs-24-3/
22
https://github.com/chriskempson/tomorrow-theme
23
https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/styleguide/products/firefox-os/typeface/#download-primary
24
https://github.com/sensorflo/adoc-mode/wiki
152
Chapter 19. Appendix: History Lesson
I first started with Python when I needed to write an installer for software I had written
called 'Diamond' so that I could make the installation easy. I had to choose between
Python and Perl bindings for the Qt library. I did some research on the web and I came
1
across an article by Eric S. Raymond , a famous and respected hacker, where he
talked about how Python had become his favorite programming language. I also found
out that the PyQt bindings were more mature compared to Perl-Qt. So, I decided that
Python was the language for me.
Then, I started searching for a good book on Python. I couldn’t find any! I did find some
O’Reilly books but they were either too expensive or were more like a reference manual
than a guide. So, I settled for the documentation that came with Python. However, it
was too brief and small. It did give a good idea about Python but was not complete. I
managed with it since I had previous programming experience, but it was unsuitable
for newbies.
About six months after my first brush with Python, I installed the (then) latest Red Hat
9.0 Linux and I was playing around with KWord. I got excited about it and suddenly
got the idea of writing some stuff on Python. I started writing a few pages but it quickly
became 30 pages long. Then, I became serious about making it more useful in a book
form. After a lot of rewrites, it has reached a stage where it has become a useful guide
to learning the Python language. I consider this book to be my contribution and tribute
to the open source community.
This book started out as my personal notes on Python and I still consider it in the same
way, although I’ve taken a lot of effort to make it more palatable to others :)
In the true spirit of open source, I have received lots of constructive suggestions,
criticisms and feedback from enthusiastic readers which has helped me improve this
book a lot.
1
http://www.python.org/about/success/esr/
2
http://www.asciidoctor.org
153
Appendix: History Lesson
3
• Last major update of this book was in Mar-Apr 2014, converted to Asciidoc using
4 5
Emacs 24 and adoc-mode .
• In Dec 2008, the book was updated for the Python 3.0 release (one of the first books
to do so). But now, I have converted the book back for Python 2 language because
readers would often get confused between the default Python 2 installed on their
systems vs. Python 3 which they had to separately install and all the tooling, esp.
editors would assume Python 2 as well. I had a hard time justifying why I had to
aggravate readers and make them go through all this when the fact is that they can
learn either one and it would be just as useful. So, Python 2 it is.
The book needs the help of its readers such as yourselves to point out any parts of the
book which are not good, not comprehensible or are simply wrong. Please write to the
6
main author or the respective translators with your comments and suggestions.
3
http://asciidoctor.org/docs/what-is-asciidoc/
4
http://swaroopch.com/2013/10/17/emacs-configuration-tutorial/
5
https://github.com/sensorflo/adoc-mode/wiki
6
http://swaroopch.com/contact
154
Chapter 20. Appendix: Revision History
• 3.0
# 31 Mar 2014
1 2
# Rewritten using AsciiDoc and adoc-mode .
• 2.1
# 03 Aug 2013
3
# Rewritten using Markdown and Jason Blevins' Markdown Mode
• 2.0
# 20 Oct 2012
4
# Rewritten in Pandoc format , thanks to my wife who did most of the conversion
from the Mediawiki format
# Simplifying text, removing non-essential sections such as nonlocal and
metaclasses
• 1.90
# 13 Jan 2005
6 7
# Complete rewrite using Quanta+ on Fedora Core 3 with lot of corrections and
updates. Many new examples. Rewrote my DocBook setup from scratch.
• 1.15
1
http://asciidoctor.org/docs/what-is-asciidoc/
2
https://github.com/sensorflo/adoc-mode/wiki
3
http://jblevins.org/projects/markdown-mode/
4
http://johnmacfarlane.net/pandoc/README.html
5
http://www.mediawiki.org
6
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanta_Plus
7
http://fedoraproject.org/
155
Appendix: Revision History
# 28 Mar 2004
# Minor revisions
• 1.12
# 16 Mar 2004
• 1.10
# 09 Mar 2004
• 1.00
# 08 Mar 2004
• 0.99
# 22 Feb 2004
• 0.98
# 16 Feb 2004
# Wrote a Python script and CSS stylesheet to improve XHTML output, including
a crude-yet-functional lexical analyzer for automatic VIM-like syntax highlighting
of the program listings.
• 0.97
# 13 Feb 2004
# Another completely rewritten draft, in DocBook XML (again). Book has improved
a lot - it is more coherent and readable.
• 0.93
# 25 Jan 2004
156
Appendix: Revision History
• 0.92
# 05 Jan 2004
• 0.91
# 30 Dec 2003
# Corrected typos. Improvised many topics.
• 0.90
# 18 Dec 2003
8
# Added 2 more chapters. OpenOffice format with revisions.
• 0.60
# 21 Nov 2003
• 0.20
# 20 Nov 2003
• 0.15
# 20 Nov 2003
9
# Converted to DocBook XML with XEmacs.
• 0.10
# 14 Nov 2003
10
# Initial draft using KWord .
8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenOffice
9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DocBook
10
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kword
157
Chapter 21. Translations
There are many translations of the book available in different human languages, thanks
to many tireless volunteers!
If you want to help with these translations, please see the list of volunteers and
languages below and decide if you want to start a new translation or help in existing
translation projects.
If you plan to start a new translation, please read the Translation Howto.
21.1. Arabic
Below is the link for the Arabic version. Thanks to Ashraf Ali Khalaf for translating
the book, you can read the whole book online at http://www.khaledhosny.org/byte-of-
1
python/index.html or you can download it from sourceforge.net for more info see http://
itwadi.com/byteofpython_arabi.
2
Samuel Dias Neto (samuel.arataca@gmail.com ) made the first Brazilian Portuguese
translation (older translation) of this book when Python was in 2.3.5 version. This is no
longer publicly accessible.
3 4
Rodrigo Amaral (rodrigoamaral@gmail.com ) has volunteered to translate the book
to Brazilian Portuguese, (newer translation) which still remains to be completed.
21.3. Catalan
5
Moises Gomez (moisesgomezgiron@gmail.com ) has volunteered to translate the
book to Catalan. The translation is in progress.
1
http://downloads.sourceforge.net/omlx/byteofpython_arabic.pdf?use_mirror=osdn
2
mailto:samuel.arataca@gmail.com
3
http://rodrigoamaral.net
4
mailto:rodrigoamaral@gmail.com
5
mailto:moisesgomezgiron@gmail.com
158
Translations
So, why not try to translate it? And I did for a previous version of BoP.
21.4. Chinese
Translations are available at http://woodpecker.org.cn/abyteofpython_cn/chinese/ and
http://zhgdg.gitcafe.com/static/doc/byte_of_python.html.
6
Juan Shen (orion_val@163.com ) has volunteered to translate the book to Chinese.
'A Byte of Python' is my tutorial to learn Python. It’s clear and effective
to lead you into a world of Python in the shortest time. It’s not too long,
but efficiently covers almost all important things in Python. I think 'A Byte
of Python' should be strongly recommendable for newbies as their first
Python tutorial. Just dedicate my translation to the potential millions of
Python users in China.
6
mailto:orion_val@163.com
159
Translations
It is available at http://code.google.com/p/zhpy/wiki/ByteOfZhpy.
An exciting feature of this translation is that it also contains the executable chinese
python sources side by side with the original python sources.
21.6. French
8
Gregory (coulix@ozforces.com.au ) has volunteered to translate the book to French.
9
Gérard Labadie (gerard.labadie@gmail.com ) has completed to translate the book to
French.
7
mailto:gasolin@gmail.com
8
mailto:coulix@ozforces.com.au
9
mailto:gerard.labadie@gmail.com
160
Translations
21.7. German
10 11
Lutz Horn (lutz.horn@gmx.de ), Bernd Hengelein (bernd.hengelein@gmail.com )
12
and Christoph Zwerschke (cito@online.de ) have volunteered to translate the book
to German.
10
mailto:lutz.horn@gmx.de
11
mailto:bernd.hengelein@gmail.com
12
mailto:cito@online.de
161
Translations
21.8. Greek
13
The Greek Ubuntu Community translated the book in Greek , for use in our
on-line asynchronous Python lessons that take place in our forums. Contact
14
@savvasradevic for more information.
21.9. Indonesian
15
Daniel (daniel.mirror@gmail.com ) is translating the book to Indonesian at http://
python.or.id/moin.cgi/ByteofPython.
16
Wisnu Priyambodo (cibermen@gmail.com ) also has volunteered to translate the
book to Indonesian.
17
Also, Bagus Aji Santoso (baguzzzaji@gmail.com ) has volunteered.
13
http://wiki.ubuntu-gr.org/byte-of-python-el
14
https://twitter.com/savvasradevic
15
mailto:daniel.mirror@gmail.com
16
mailto:cibermen@gmail.com
17
mailto:baguzzzaji@gmail.com
162
Translations
21.10. Italian
18 19
Enrico Morelli (mr.mlucci@gmail.com ) and Massimo Lucci (morelli@cerm.unifi.it )
have volunteered to translate the book to Italian.
21.11. Japanese
20
Shunro Dozono (dozono@gmail.com ) is translating the book to Japanese.
21.12. Korean
21
Jeongbin Park (pjb7687@gmail.com ) has translated the book to Korean - https://
github.com/pjb7687/byte_of_python
A year ago, I was looking for a good tutorial/guide for Python to introduce
it to my colleagues, because using Python in such research fields is
becoming inevitable due to the user base is growing more and more.
18
mailto:mr.mlucci@gmail.com
19
mailto:morelli@cerm.unifi.it
20
mailto:dozono@gmail.com
21
mailto:pjb7687@gmail.com
163
Translations
But at that time only few Python books are available in Korean, so I
decided to translate your ebook because it looks like one of the best
guides that I have ever read!
21.13. Mongolian
22
Ariunsanaa Tunjin (luftballons2010@gmail.com ) has volunteered to translate the
book to Mongolian.
Update on Nov 22, 2009 : Ariunsanaa is on the verge of completing the translation.
22
mailto:luftballons2010@gmail.com
23
http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandvika_videreg%C3%A5ende_skole
24
http://forbedre.blogspot.com/
164
Translations
21.15. Polish
25
Dominik Kozaczko (dominik@kozaczko.info ) has volunteered to translate the book to
26
Polish. Translation is in progress and it’s main page is available here: Uk## Pythona .
Update : The translation is complete and ready as of Oct 2, 2009. Thanks to Dominik,
his two students and their friend for their time and effort!
21.16. Portuguese
27
Fidel Viegas (fidel.viegas@gmail.com ) has volunteered to translate the book to
Portuguese.
21.17. Romanian
28
Paul-Sebastian Manole (brokenthorn@gmail.com ) has volunteered to translate this
book to Romanian.
21.18. Russian
29
Vladimir Smolyar (v_2e@ukr.net ) has completed a Russian translation at http://
wombat.org.ua/AByteOfPython/.
25
mailto:dominik@kozaczko.info
26
http://python.edu.pl/byteofpython/
27
mailto:fidel.viegas@gmail.com
28
mailto:brokenthorn@gmail.com
29
mailto:v_2e@ukr.net
165
Translations
21.19. Ukranian
30
Averkiev Andrey (averkiyev@ukr.net ) has volunteered to translate the book to
Russian, and perhaps Ukranian (time permitting).
21.20. Serbian
31
"BugSpice" (amortizerka@gmail.com ) has completed a Serbian translation:
21.21. Slovak
32
Albertio Ward (albertioward@gmail.com ) has translated the book to Slovak at http://
www.fatcow.com/edu/python-swaroopch-sl/ :
21.22. Spanish
33
Alfonso de la Guarda Reyes (alfonsodg@ictechperu.net ), Gustavo
34
Echeverria (gustavo.echeverria@gmail.com ), David Crespo Arroyo
30
mailto:averkiyev@ukr.net
31
mailto:amortizerka@gmail.com
32
mailto:albertioward@gmail.com
33
mailto:alfonsodg@ictechperu.net
34
mailto:gustavo.echeverria@gmail.com
166
Translations
35
(davidcrespoarroyo@hotmail.com ) and Cristian Bermudez Serna
36
(crisbermud@hotmail.com ) have volunteered to translate the book to Spanish.
21.23. Swedish
37
Mikael Jacobsson (leochingkwake@gmail.com ) has volunteered to translate the
book to Swedish.
21.24. Turkish
38 39
Türker SEZER (tsezer@btturk.net ) and Bugra Cakir (bugracakir@gmail.com )
have volunteered to translate the book to Turkish. "Where is Turkish version? Bitse
de okusak."
35
mailto:davidcrespoarroyo@hotmail.com
36
mailto:crisbermud@hotmail.com
37
mailto:leochingkwake@gmail.com
38
mailto:tsezer@btturk.net
39
mailto:bugracakir@gmail.com
167
Chapter 22. Translation Howto
1. The full source of the book is available from https://github.com/swaroopch/
byte_of_python.
1
2. Please fork the repository .
2
3. Then, fetch the repository to your computer. You need to know how to use Git
to do that.
3
4. Read AsciiDoc syntax quick reference .
1
https://help.github.com/articles/fork-a-repo
2
http://www.git-scm.com
3
http://asciidoctor.org/docs/asciidoc-syntax-quick-reference/
168