ME:5160 Chapter 7

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 1

Chapter 7: Boundary Layer Theory

7.1. Introduction:

Boundary layer flows: External flows around streamlined bodies at

high Re have viscous (shear and no-slip) effects confined close to
the body surfaces and its wake, but are nearly inviscid far from the
body.
Applications of BL theory: aerodynamics (airplanes, rockets,
projectiles), hydrodynamics (ships, submarines, torpedoes),
transportation (automobiles, trucks, cycles), wind engineering
(buildings, bridges, water towers), and ocean engineering (buoys,
breakwaters, cables).

7.2 Flat-Plate Momentum Integral Analysis & Laminar approximate

solution

Consider flow of a viscous fluid at high Re past a flat plate, i.e., flat
plate fixed in a uniform stream of velocity Uiˆ .

Boundary-layer thickness arbitrarily defined by y = δ 99% (where, δ 99% is

the value of y at u = 0.99U). Streamlines outside δ 99% will deflect an
amount δ * (the displacement thickness). Thus the streamlines move
outward from y = H at x = 0 to y = Y = δ = H + δ * at x = x1 .
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 2

Conservation of mass:
H H +δ ∗
∫ ρV • ndA =0= − ∫0 ρUdy + ∫0
CS
ρ udy
Assuming incompressible flow (constant density), this relation simplifies
to
UH = ∫ udy = ∫ (U + u − U )dy = UY + ∫ (u − U )dy
Y Y Y

0 0 0

Note: Y = H + δ * , we get the definition of displacement thickness:

δ * = ∫0Y 1 − dy
u
 U
δ * ( a function of x only) is an important measure of effect of BL on
external flow. To see this more clearly, consider an alternate derivation
based on an equivalent discharge/flow rate argument:
δ

δ* Lam=δ/3
δ* Turb=δ/8

δ δ

∫ Udy =∫ udy
δ* 0

Inviscid flow about δ* body

Flowrate between δ * and δ of inviscid flow=actual flowrate, i.e.,

inviscid flow rate about displacement body = equivalent viscous flow
rate about actual body
δ δ* δ δ
 u
∫0 − ∫0 = ∫0 ⇒ δ = ∫0  U dy
− *
Udy Udy udy 1

w/o BL - displacement effect=actual discharge

For 3D flow, in addition it must also be explicitly required that δ * is a
stream surface of the inviscid flow continued from outside of the BL.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 3

Conservation of x-momentum:
∑ Fx =−D =∫ ρuV • ndA =−∫ ρU (Udy ) + ∫ ρu ( udy )
H Y

0 0
CS

Y
Drag = D = ρU 2 H − ∫0 ρu 2 dy = Fluid force on plate = - Plate
force on CV (fluid)
Y u
Again assuming constant density and using continuity: H = ∫0 U dy
Y
2 Y x
D = ρU ∫0 u / Udy − ∫ u 2 dy = ∫0τ w dx
0
D Y u u 
=θ = ∫0 U 1 − U dy
ρU 2  
where, θ is the momentum thickness (a function of x only), an
important measure of the drag.
2θ 1
x
2D
ρU 2 x x x ∫0 f
CD = = = C dx Per unit span

τw
Cf =
1
⇒ Cf =
d
(xCD ) = 2 dθ
ρU 2 dx dx Special case 2D
2 momentum integral
dθ C f dθ equation for px = 0
= τ w = ρU 2
dx 2 dx
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 4

Simple velocity profile approximations:

u = U (2 y / δ − y 2 / δ 2 )

u(0) = 0 no slip
u(δ) = U matching with outer flow
uy(δ)=0

Use velocity profile to get Cf(δ) and θ(δ) and then integrate momentum
integral equation to get δ(Rex)

δ* = δ/3
θ = 2δ/15
H= δ*/θ= 5/2
τ w = 2µU / δ
2µU / δ dθ d
⇒ Cf = = 2 = 2 (2δ / 15);
1 / 2 ρU 2 dx dx
15µdx
∴ δdδ =
ρU
30µdx
δ2 =
ρU
δ / x = 5.5 / Re1x/ 2
Re𝑥𝑥x == Ux
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 /ν
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈/𝜈𝜈
δ * / x = 1.83 / Re1x/ 2 10% error, cf. Blasius
θ / x = 0.73 / Re1x/ 2
C D = 1.46 / Re1L/ 2 = 2C f ( L)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 2𝑦𝑦 2 2𝑈𝑈

= 𝑈𝑈 � − 2 � � = 𝜈𝜈
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿 𝑦𝑦=0
𝛿𝛿
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 5

7.3. Boundary layer approximations, equations and comments

U, ρ,µ
y
x

𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣 = 0

2D NS, ρ=constant, neglect g

𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = − + 𝜈𝜈(𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 )
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = − + 𝜈𝜈(𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 )
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Introduce non-dimensional variables that includes scales such that all

variables are of O(1):
x* = x / L
y
y* = Re
L
t * = tU / L
u* = u / U
υ𝜈𝜈
= √𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑣𝑣v∗* = Re
U𝑈𝑈
p − p0
p* =
ρU 2
Re𝑥𝑥==UL
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 /ν
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈/𝜈𝜈
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 6

The NS equations become (drop *)

𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
1
𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = −𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
1 1 1
�𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 � = −𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 + 2 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

For large Re (BL assumptions) the underlined terms drop out and the BL
equations are obtained.

Therefore, y-momentum equation reduces to

py = 0
i.e. p = p ( x, t )
⇒ px = − ρ (U t + UU x ) From Euler/Bernoulli equation for
external flow
2D BL equations:
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = (𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡 + 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 ) + 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

Note:

(1) U(x,t), p(x,t) impressed on BL by the external flow.

∂2
(2) = 0 : i.e. longitudinal (or stream-wise) diffusion is
∂x 2
neglected.
(3) Due to (2), the equations are parabolic in x. Physically, this
means all downstream influences are lost other than that
contained in external flow. A marching solution is possible.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 7

(4) Boundary conditions

matching
inlet
δ

Solution by
marching
y

x
X0
No slip

No slip: 𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥, 0, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 0, 𝑡𝑡) = 0

Initial condition: u ( x, y,0 ) known
Inlet condition: u ( x0 , y, t ) given at x0
Matching with outer flow: u ( x, ∞, t ) = U ( x, t )

(5) When applying the boundary layer equations one must keep in
mind the restrictions imposed on them due to the basic BL
assumptions
→ not applicable for thick BL or separated flows (although
they can be used to estimate occurrence of separation).

(6) Curvilinear coordinates

ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 8

Although BL equations have been written in Cartesian

Coordinates, they apply to curved surfaces provided δ << R and
x, y are curvilinear coordinates measured along and normal to
the surface, respectively. In such a system we would find under
the BL assumptions
ρu 2
py =
R
Assume u is a linear function of y: u = Uy δ

dp ρU 2 y 2
=
dy Rδ 2
ρU 2δ
p (δ ) − p (0) ∝
3R
Or

∆p δ
∝
ρU 2 3R therefore, we require δ << R
;

(7) Practical use of the BL theory

For a given body geometry:
(a) Inviscid theory gives p(x) → integration gives L and D = 0
(b) BL theory gives → δ*(x), τw(x), θ(x),etc. and predicts
separation if any
(c) If separation present then no further information → must
use inviscid models, BL equation in inverse mode, or NS
equation.
(d) If separation is absent, integration of τw(x) → frictional
resistance and body + δ* , inviscid theory gives → p(x) for
drag + δ*, can go back to (2) for more accurate BL
calculation including viscous – inviscid interaction
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 9

(8) Separation and shear stress

1
At the wall, 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣 = 0 → u yy = px
µ
1st derivative u gives τw → τ w = µu y
w

τw = 0 separation

2nd derivative u depends on px

Inflection point
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 10

7.4. Laminar Boundary Layer (𝑹𝑹𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓 − 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 ) -

Similarity solutions (2D, steady, incompressible): method of reducing
PDE to ODE by appropriate similarity transformation; also, as a result of
transformation at least one coordinate lacks origin such that the solution
collapses to same form at all length or time scales
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 + 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

BCs: 𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥, 0) = 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 0) = 0

u ( x, ∞ ) = U ( x )
+ inlet condition

u ( x, y )  y 
= F   g (x ) related to δ ( x )
For Similarity U ( x )
 g ( x )  expect
Or in terms of stream function ψ : u = ψ y 𝑣𝑣v = −ψ x
For similarity ψ = U (x )g (x ) f (η ) η = y g (x )
u = ψ y = Uf ' 𝑣𝑣v = −ψ x −(U x gf + Ug x f − Ug xη f ' )
=
BC:
u (x,0 ) = 0 ⇒ U ( x) f ′(0) = 0 ⇒ f ′(0) = 0
v( x,0 ) = 0 ⇒ U x ( x) g ( x) f (0) + U ( x) g x ( x) f (0)
− U ( x) g x ( x) × 0 × f ′(0) = 0
⇒ (U x ( x) g ( x) + U ( x) g x ( x) ) f (0) = 0
⇒ f ( 0) = 0
u (x, ∞ ) = U ( x ) ⇒ U ( x) f ′(∞) = U ( x ) ⇒ f ′(∞) = 1
Write boundary layer equations in terms of ψ
ψ yψ yx − ψ xψ yy = UU x + νψ
𝜈𝜈 yyy
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 11

Substitute
ψ yy = Uf '' g
ψ yyy = Uf ''' g
2

ψ xy = U x f ' − Uf ''ηg x / g
Assemble them together:

 '' g x 
( ) (
Uf U x f − Uf η  − U x gf + Ug x f − Ug xηf ' Uf '' g
' '

g 
)( )

(
= UU x + ν𝜈𝜈 U f ''' g 2 )
U '''
UU x f '2 − UU x ff '' − U 2 g x g ff '' = UU x + ν𝜈𝜈 2
f
g

UU x f '2 −
U
(Ug )x ff '' = UU x +ν𝜈𝜈 U2 f '''
g g

g2
f ''' + 𝜈𝜈 (Ug )x ff '' + 𝜈𝜈 U x 1 − f ' 2 = 0
ν
g
ν
( )
C1 C2

Where for similarity C1 and C2 are constant or function η only

• i.e. for a chosen pair of C1 and C2 U (x ) , g (x ) can be found

(Potential flow is NOT known a priori)
• Then solution of ( )
f ''' + C1 ff '' + C2 1 − f '2 = 0 gives f (η ) 
u ( x, y )=
,τ
∂u
µ=
µUf '' ( 0 )
, δ, δ*,θ, H, Cf, CD
∂y w
w
g
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 12

The Blasius Solution for Flat-Plate Flow

U x = 0  C2 = 0
U=constant
U
C = gg x
Then 1 ν𝜈𝜈
d 2 2C1ν𝜈𝜈
dx
( )
g =
U
g ( x ) = [2C1ν𝜈𝜈x U ]
12

2νx U
C = 1 g ( x ) = 2𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 η=y
Let 1 , then U 2νx
2𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈

Blasius equations
f ''' + 1 / 2 ff '' = 0 for Flat Plate
f (0) = f ' (0) = 0, f ' (∞ ) = 1 Boundary Layer

Solutions by series technique or numerical

u δ 5 Ux
= 0.99 when η = 3.5  = Re x =
U x Re x 𝜈𝜈
ϑ
δ =
* ∞
∫0  1

−
u
U


∞
(
dy = ∫0 1 − f dη
'
)ϑx
22𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈
U

δ*
x
=
1.7208
Re x

θ= ∞
∫0 

1 −
u
U
u ∞
(
 dy = ∫0 1 − f f
 U
2ϑx
' ' 2𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈
U
)dη 
θ
x
=
0.664
Re x
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 13

δ*
So, = H = 2.59
θ
∂u µUf '' (0) Cf =
τw
=
0.664 θ
=
τw = µ =  1
∂y w 2νx U
2𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 ρU 2 Re x x
2
D L dx 1.328
CD = = ∫ Cf = Re L =
UL
1
ρU 2 L
0 L Re L ; 𝜈𝜈ν
;
2

𝑣𝑣 𝜂𝜂𝑓𝑓 ′ −𝑓𝑓
= ≪1 for Re x >> 1
𝑈𝑈 �2𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥
 ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 14

CD ReL
Oseen 3-226 (3rd <1
edition,vicous
flows)
Blasius 100<Re<Retr~3
×106

LE Higher
order
correction Similar breakdown occurs at Trailing edge.
C D = 1.328 / Re L + 2.3 / Re L From triple – deck theory the correction is
+2.661/ Re7L/ 8

Rex small therefore local breakdown of BL approximation

ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 15

Falkner-Skan Wedge Flows

f = f (η )
(
f ''' + C1 ff '' + C2 1 − f '2 = 0 ) η = y g (x )
Similarity
form of BL

f (0 ) = f ' (0 ) = 0, f ' (∞ ) = 1
eq.

u U = f ' (η )
C1 = 𝜈𝜈 (Ug )x C2 = 𝜈𝜈 U x
g g2
ν ν (Blasius Solution: C2=0, C1=1)

Consider (Ug ) 2
x = 2Ugg x + g 2U x
= 2Ugg x + 2 g 2U x − g 2U x
= 2 g (Ug )x − g 2U x
2νC1 −ν
= 2𝜈𝜈 𝜈𝜈C 2
Hence  (Ug ) 2
x = ν𝜈𝜈(2C1 − C 2 ) , C2 =
g2
𝜈𝜈ν
Ux
Choose C1=1 and C2 arbitrary=C,

Integrate Ug 2 = ν𝜈𝜈(2 − C )x
Ux C 1
=
Combine U 2−C x
C = g 2U x ν𝜈𝜈
C
ln U = ln x + k
2−C

Then U ( x ) = kxC (2 − C )
ν𝜈𝜈 (2 − C ) 2−C
1−C

g (x ) = x
k
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 16

Change constants
U (x ) = kx m
y m +1 U
η= =y
g 2 𝜈𝜈
ϑx
β
( )= 0 ,
2m
f + ff + β 1 − f
''' '' '2 β= m =
m +1 , 2−β
f (0 ) = f ' (0 ) = 0 f ' (∞ ) = 1
Solutions for − 0.19884 ≤ β ≤ 1.0

Separation ( τ w = 0 )
Solutions show many commonly observed characteristics of BL flow:
• The parameter β is a measure of the pressure gradient, dp dx .
For β > 0 , dp dx < 0 and the pressure gradient is favorable. For
β < 0 , the dp dx > 0 and the pressure gradient is adverse.
• Negative β solutions drop away from Blasius profiles as separation
approached
• Positive β solutions squeeze closer to wall due to flow acceleration
• Accelerated flow: τ max near wall
• Decelerated flow: τ max moves toward δ 2
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 17
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 18

7.5. Momentum Integral Equation

Historically similarity and other AFD methods used for idealized flows
and momentum integral methods for practical applications, including
pressure gradients.

Momentum integral equation, which is valid for both laminar and

turbulent flow:
∞
∫ (BL form of momentum equation + (u − U )continuity )dy
y =0
τw 1 dθ θ dU
= C f = + (2 + H )
ρU 2 2 dx U dx
dU
For flat plate equation =0
dx
δ u
 u
θ=∫ 1 − dy;
0U  U
δ*
H= ;
θ
δ
 u
δ = ∫ 1 −
*
dy
0 U
∂  p  1 ∂τ
Momentum: uu x + vu y = −  +
∂x  ρ  ρ ∂y
The pressure gradient is evaluated form the outer potential flow using
Bernoulli equation
1
p+ ρU 2 =
constant
2
1
p x + ρ 2UU x = 0
2
− p x = ρUU x
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 19

(𝑢𝑢 − 𝑈𝑈) �� 𝑥𝑥 + ��
�𝑢𝑢��� 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 � = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 − 𝑈𝑈𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
1
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 − 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 − 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦 + �����������������
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 − 𝑈𝑈𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
����������������� 𝜌𝜌
0
0
1
− 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦 = −2𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 − 𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑈𝑈𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
𝜌𝜌
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
= (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑢𝑢2 ) + (𝑈𝑈 − 𝑢𝑢)𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 + (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 0
∞ 1 0
∂ ∞ ∞
∫ − τ y dy = −(τ ∞ − τ w ) / ρ = ∫ u (U − u )dy + U x ∫ (U − u )dy + (vU vu ) ∞
− 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 0
0 ρ ∂x 0 0
τw ∂  2∞ u  u  ∞ 
= U ∫ 1 − dy + U x ∫ (U − u )dy  =
ρ ∂x  0 U  U  0 
U 2θ x + 2UU xθ + U xδ *

Cf
2
=
dθ
dx
(
+ 2θ + δ *
1 dU
U dx
)
Cf dθ θ dU δ *
= + (2 + H ) ,H=
2 dx U dx θ
τw 1 θ
= C f = θ x + ( 2 + H ) Ux
ρU 2 2 U

Historically two approaches for solving the momentum integral equation

for specified potential flow U(x):

1. Guessed Profiles
2. Empirical Correlations

Best approach is to use empirical correlations to get integral parameters

(δ, δ*,θ, H, Cf, CD) after which use these to get velocity profile u/U
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 20

Thwaites Method
Uθ
Multiply momentum integral equation by
ν𝜈𝜈
τ wθ Uθ dθ θ 2 dU
= +
𝜈𝜈
(2 + H )
𝜈𝜈
µU ν dx ν dx

The equation is dimensionless and, LHS and H can be correlated with

θ 2
dU
pressure gradient parameter λ = as shear and shape-factor
ν dx
correlations

τ wθ
= S ( λ=
) (λ + 0.09)0.62
µU
5
H δ=
= (λ )
/ θ H=*
∑ a (0.25 − λ )
i =0
i
i

ai = (2, 4.14, -83.5, 854, -3337, 4576)

Note

Uθ dθ 1 d  θ 2 
= U  
𝜈𝜈ν dx 2 dx  ϑ 
Substitute above into momentum integral equation

1 d θ 2 
S (λ ) = U   + λ (2 + H )
2 dx  ν 𝜈𝜈 
d (λ / U x )
U = 2[S − λ (2 + H )λ ] = F (λ )
dx

F (=
λ ) 0.45 − 6λ based on AFD and EFD
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 21

θ2
Define z =
dU
so that λ = z
ν dx
dz dU
U = 0.45 − 6λ = 0.45 − 6 z
dx dx
dz dU
U + 6z = 0.45
dx dx
i.e.
1 d
5 dx
zU (
6
= 0.45)
U
x
zU = 0.45 ∫ U 5 dx + C
6
0
0.45ν
x
θ = θ + ∫
2 2 5
 0 6
U dx
U 0
θ 0 ( x = 0) = 0 and U(x) known from potential flow solution
Complete solution:

θ 2 dU
λ = λ (θ ) =
ν dx
τ wθ
= S (λ )
µU
δ * = θH (λ )

Accuracy: mild px ± 5% and strong adverse px (τw near 0) ± 15%

ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 22

i. Pohlhausen Velocity Profile:

u
= f (η ) = aη + bη 2 + cη 3 + dη 4 with η = y
U δ
a, b, c, d determined from boundary conditions
U
1) y = 0  u = 0, u yy = − Ux
ν
2) y = δ  u = U , u y = 0 , u yy = 0
No slip is automatically satisfied.
separation
F (η ) = 2η − 2η 3 + η 4
u
η  = F (η ) + ΛG (η ), − 12 ≤ Λ ≤ 12
G (η ) = (1 − η )3 U
6 (experiment: Λ separation = -5)

δ 2 dU δ2
Λ= = − px
ν dx µU
pressure gradient parameter related to

 37 Λ Λ2 
λ = λ (Λ ) =  − + Λ
 315 945 9072 
 

Profiles are fairly realistic, except near separation. In guessed profile

methods u/U directly used to solve momentum integral equation
numerically, but accuracy not as good as empirical correlation methods;
therefore, use Thwaites method to get λ, etc., and then use λ to get Λ and
plot u/U.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 23

ii. Howarth linearly decelerating flow (example of exact

solution of steady state 2D boundary layer)

Howarth proposed a linearly decelerating external velocity distribution

 x
U ( x) = U 0 1 −  as a theoretical model for laminar boundary layer study.
 L
Use Thwaites’s method to compute:
a) Xsep
b) C f  = 0.1
x
L 
Note Ux = -U0/L

Solution
0.45ν 
x
x
5
νL  x
−6

6 ∫
θ =
2
U  1 − 
5
0 dx = 0.075 1 −  − 1
 x   L U0  L  
U 0 1 − 
6 0

 L

can be evaluated for given L, ReL

θ = 0 → x = 0,
(Note: )
θ =∞→x=L

θ 2 dU  x  −6

λ= = −0.0751 −  − 1
ν dx  L  
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 24

X sep
λ sep = −0.09 ⇒ = 0.123
L

3% higher than exact solution =0.1199

x 
C f  = 0.1 i.e. just before separation
L 
λ = −0.0661
1
( λ ) 0.099
S= = C f Reθ
2
2(0.099)
Cf =
Reθ

Compute Reθ in terms if ReL

θ 2 = 0.075
νL
U0
[(1 − 0.1) −6
]
− 1 = 0.0661
ϑL
U0
θ2 νL 0.0661
= 0.0661 =
L2 U0 Re L
θ 0.257
= 1
L Re L 2
To complete
θ 1
Re θ = Re L = 0.257 Re L 2 solution must
L specify ReL
2(0.099 ) −1
Cf = Re L 2 = 0.77 Re −L1 / 2
0.257
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 25

Consider the complex potential

F ( z ) = z 2 = r 2 e 2i θ
a a
2 2
ϕ = Re[F ( z )] = r 2 cos 2θ
a
2
ψ = Im[F ( z )] = r 2 sin 2θ
a
2
Orthogonal rectangular hyperbolas

ϕ : asymptotes y = ± x

ψ : asymptotes x=0, y=0

1
V = ∇ϕ = ϕ r eˆr + ϕθ eˆθ
r
π
v r = ar cos 2θ ≤ θ ≤ 0 (flow direction as shown)
2
vθ = − ar sin 2θ

V = vr (cos θiˆ + sin θˆj ) + vθ (− sin θiˆ + cos θˆj ) =

(vr cos θ − vθ sin θ )iˆ + (vr sin θ + vθ cos θ ) ˆj
Potential flow slips along surface: (consider θ = 90  )

1) determine a such that vr = U 0 at r=L, θ = 90 

U0
vr = aL cos(2 × 90) = U 0 ⇒ aL = −U 0 , i.e. a = −
L
2) let U ( x ) = vr at x=L-r:
⇒ vr = a(L − x )cos(2 × 90) = U ( x)
U x
Or : U ( x) = −a( L − x) = 0 ( L − x) = U 0 (1 − )
L L
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 26
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 27
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 28

7.6. Turbulent Boundary Layer

1. Introduction: Transition to Turbulence

Chapter 6 described the transition process as a succession of Tollmien-
Schlichting waves, development of Λ - structures, vortex decay and
formation of turbulent spots as preliminary stages to fully turbulent
boundary-layer flow.
The phenomena observed during the transition process are similar for
the flat plate boundary layer and for the plane channel flow, as shown in
the following figure based on measurements by M. Nishioka et al.
(1975). Periodic initial perturbations were generated in the BL using an
oscillating cord.
For typical commercial surfaces transition occurs at Re x ,tr ≈ 5 ×105 .
However, one can delay the transition to Re x ,tr ≈ 3 ×10 6 with care in
polishing the wall.

2. Reynolds Average of 2D boundary layer equations

u = u + u ′; v = v + v′; w = w + w′; p = p + p′;

Substituting u, v and w into continuity equation and taking the time
average we obtain,
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 29

∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u ' ∂v ' ∂w'

+ + =0 + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
Similarly for the momentum equations and using continuity (neglecting
g),
DV
ρ = −∇p + ∇ ⋅τ ij
Dt
Where
 ∂ui ∂u j 
τ ij = µ  +  − ρ ui' u 'j
 ∂x j ∂xi 
 
Laminar Turbulent

Assume
∂ ∂
δ (x ) << x which means v << u , <<
a. ∂x ∂y
∂
b. mean flow structure is two-dimensional: w = 0 , ∂z = 0
Note the mean lateral turbulence is actually not zero, w ≠ 0 , but its z
'2
derivative is assumed to vanish.
Then, we get the following BL equations for incompressible steady
flow:

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y Continuity

∂u ∂u dU e 1 ∂τ
u +v ≈ Ue + x-momentum
∂x ∂y dx ρ ∂y
∂p ∂v '2
≈ −ρ y-momentum
∂y ∂y
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 30

Where U e is the free-stream velocity and:

∂u
τ =µ − ρu 'v '
∂y
Note:
• The equations are solved for the time averages u and v
• The shear stress now consists of two parts: 1. first part is due to
the molecular exchange and is computed from the time-averaged
field as in the laminar case; 2. The second part appears
additionally and is due to turbulent motions.
• The additional term is new unknown for which a relation with
the average field of the velocity must be constructed via a
turbulence model.

Integrate y- momentum equation across the boundary layer

p ≈ pe ( x ) − ρv '2
So, unlike laminar BL, there is a slight variation of pressure across the
turbulent BL due to velocity fluctuations normal to the wall, which is no
more than 4% of the stream-wise velocity and thus can be neglected.
The Bernoulli relation is assumed to hold in the inviscid free-stream:
dpe / dx ≈ − ρU e dU e / dx
Assume the free stream conditions, U e ( x ) is known, the boundary
conditions:
No slip: u ( x,0 ) = v ( x,0 ) = 0
Free stream matching: u ( x, δ ) = U e ( x )
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 31

3. Momentum Integral Equations valid for BL solutions

The momentum integral equation has the identical form as the

laminar-flow relation:
dθ θ dU e τ C
+ (2 + H ) = w2 = f
dx U e dx ρU e 2

For laminar flow:

θ 2 dU e
( C f , H ,θ ) are correlated in terms of simple parameter λ=
υ dx

For Turbulent flow:

( C f , H ,θ ) cannot be correlated in terms of a single parameter.
Additional parameters and relationships are required that model the
influence of the turbulent fluctuations. There are many possibilities all of
which require a certain amount of empirical data. As an example we will
review the π−β method.

4. Flat plate boundary layer (zero pressure gradient)

a. Smooth flat plate

Ret = 5×105∼ 3×106 for a flat plate boundary layer

Recrit ∼ 100,000
c f dθ
=
2 dx

as was done for the approximate laminar flat plate boundary-

layer analysis, solve by expressing cf = cf (δ) and θ = θ(δ) and
integrate, i.e. assume log-law valid across entire turbulent
boundary-layer
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 32

u 1 yu* neglect laminar sub layer and

= ln +B
u *
κ ν velocity defect region

at y = δ, u = U

U 1 δu *
= ln +B
u *
κ ν
1/ 2
c 
Re δ  f 
2
2 
1/ 2
  cf  
1/ 2
or   = 2.44 ln Re δ    + 5
 cf    2   cf (δ)

c f ≅ .02 Re δ −1 / 6 power-law fit

Next, evaluate

dθ d δ u  u 
= ∫ 1 − dy
dx dx 0 U  U 

can use log-law or more simply a power law fit

1/ 7
u  y
=  Note: cannot be used to
U δ obtain cf (δ) since τw → ∞
7
θ = δ = θ(δ )
72
1 dθ 7 dδ
⇒ τ w = c f ρU 2 = ρU 2 = ρU 2
2 dx 72 dx
dδ
Re δ −1/ 6 = 9.72
dx
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 33

δ
or = 0.16 Re −x 1/7 i.e., much faster
x growth rate than
δ ∝ x 6 / 7 almost linear laminar
boundary layer
0.027
cf =
Re1/7
x

0.0135𝜇𝜇 1/7 𝜌𝜌6/7 𝑈𝑈 13/7

𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 1/7
τw,turb decreases slowly with x, increases with ρ and U2 and insensitive to
µ
0.031 7
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = 1/7 = 6 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 (𝐿𝐿)
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿
1
𝛿𝛿 ∗ = 8 𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿 ∗
𝐻𝐻 = 𝜃𝜃 = 1.3
These formulas are for a fully turbulent flow over a smooth flat
plate from the leading edge; in general, give better results for
sufficiently large Reynolds number ReL > 107.

1
𝑢𝑢 𝑦𝑦 7
≈� �
𝑈𝑈 𝛿𝛿

(See Table 4-1 on

page 13 of this
lecture note)

𝑢𝑢 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 2
≈ 2� � − � �
𝑈𝑈 𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿

Comparison of dimensionless laminar and turbulent flat-plate velocity profiles (Ref: White,
F. M., Fluid Mechanics, 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill)
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 34

Alternate forms by using the same velocity profile u/U = (y/δ)1/7

assumption but using an experimentally determined shear stress
formula τw = 0.0225ρU2(ν/Uδ)1/4 are:

δ 0.058
= 0.37 Re −x 1/5 cf = Cf =
0.074
x Re1/5
x Re1/5
L

0.029 ρU 2
shear stress: τw =
Re1/5
x

These formulas are valid only in the range of the experimental

data, which covers ReL = 5 × 105 ∼ 107 for smooth flat plates.

Other empirical formulas are by using the logarithmic velocity-

profile instead of the 1/7-power law:
𝛿𝛿
= 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 (0.98 log 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 − 0.732)
𝐿𝐿

𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 = (2 log 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 − 0.65)−2.3

0.455
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = (log 2.58
10 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 )

These formulas are also called as the Prandtl-Schlichting skin-

friction formula and valid in the whole range of ReL ≤ 109.

For these experimental/empirical formulas, the boundary layer is

usually “tripped” by some roughness or leading edge disturbance, to
make the boundary layer turbulent from the leading edge.

No definitive values for turbulent conditions since depend on

empirical data and turbulence modeling.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 35

Finally, composite formulas that take into account both the initial
laminar boundary layer and subsequent turbulent boundary layer, i.e.
in the transition region (5 × 105 < ReL < 8 × 107) where the laminar
drag at the leading edge is an appreciable fraction of the total drag:

0.031 1440
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = 1 −
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿7

0.074 1700
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = 1 −
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿5

0.455 1700
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = −
(log10 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 )2.58 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿

with transitions at Ret = 5 × 105 for all cases.

ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 36

Local friction coefficient 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 (top) and friction drag coefficient

𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 (bottom) for a flat plate parallel to the upstream flow.
 ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 37

b. Influence of roughness
The influence of roughness can be analyzed in an exactly analogous
manner as done for pipe flow i.e.
1 yu *
=u +
ln + B + ∆B(ε + ) 1
κ υ
1
∆B(ε + ) =
− ln(1 + 0.3ε + )
κ
i.e. rough wall velocity profile shifts downward by a constant amount
∆B(ε + ) which, increases with ε + = εu* / ϑ
A complete rough-wall analysis can be done using the composite log-
law in a similar manner as done for a smooth wall i.e. determine Cf(δ)
and θ(δ) from 1 and equate using momentum integral equation
d
C f (δ ) = 2 θ (δ )
dx
Then eliminate δ to get C f ( x, ε / x)
However, analysis is complicated: solution is Fig. 7.6. For fully rough-
flow a curve fit to the Cf and CD equations is given by,
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 38

Fig. 7.6 Drag coefficient of laminar and turbulent boundary layers on

smooth and rough flat plates.

x
C f = (2.87 + 1.58 log ) − 2.5
ε Fully rough flow
L
CD = (1.89 + 1.62 log ) − 2.5
ε
Again, shown on Fig. 7.6. along with transition region curves developed
by Schlichting which depend on Ret = 5×105
3×106
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 39

5. Boundary layer with pressure gradient

ux + vy = 0
∂ 1 ∂τ
uu x + vu y = − ( p / ρ ) +
∂x ρ ∂y
∂u
τ = µ − ρ u ′v′
∂y
The pressure gradient term has a large influence on the solution. In
particular, adverse pressure gradient (i.e. increasing pressure) can cause
flow separation. Recall that the y momentum equation subject to the
boundary layer assumptions reduced to

py= 0 i.e. p = pe = constant across BL.

That is, pressure (which drives BL equations) is given by external

inviscid flow solution which in many cases is also irrotational. Consider
a typical inviscid flow solution (chapter 8)
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 40

Even without solving the BL equations we can deduce information about

the shape of the velocity profiles just by evaluating the BL equations at
the wall (y = 0)
∂ 2u ∂pe
µ =
∂y 2 ∂x
∂pe dU e
where = -ρ Ue
∂x dx

which, shows that the curvature of the velocity profile at the wall is
related to the pressure gradient.

Effect of Pressure Gradient on Velocity Profiles

Point of inflection: a point where a graph changes between concave
upward and concave downward.
The point of inflection is basically the location where second derivative
∂ 2u
of u is zero, i.e. ∂y 2 = 0

(a) favorable gradient: px<0, Ux>0, uyy<0

No point of inflection i.e. curvature is negative all across the BL and BL

is very resistant to separation. Note uyy(δ)<0 in order for u to merge
smoothly with U.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 41

(b) zero gradient: px = Ux = uyy = 0

(c) weak adverse gradient: px>0, Ux<0, uyy>0

PI in flow, still no separation

ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 42

(d) critical adverse gradient: px>0, Ux<0, uyy>0, uy = 0

PI in flow, incipient separation

(e) excessive adverse gradient: px>0, Ux<0, uyy>0, uy < 0

τw < 0

PI in flow, backflow near wall i.e. separated flow region

i.e. main flow breaks away or separates from the wall: large increase in
drag and loss of performance:
Hseparation = 3.5 laminar
= 2.4 turbulent
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 43

6. π-β Method

√2 𝐻𝐻
𝜆𝜆 = = 𝑎𝑎(Π)
𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻 − 1
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 44
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 45
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 46

7. 3-D Integral methods

Momentum integral methods perform well (i.e. compare well with

experimental data) for a large class of both laminar and turbulent 2D
flows. However, for 3D flows they do not, primarily due to the inability
of correlating the cross flow velocity components.

∂p
The cross flow is driven by , which is imposed on BL from the
∂z
outer potential flow U(x,z).

3-D boundary layer equations

∂ ∂
uu x + vu y + wu z = − ( p / ρ ) + ϑu yy − (u ′v′);
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
uwx + vw y + wwz = − ( p / ρ ) + ϑw yy − (v′w′);
∂z ∂y
u x + v y + wz = 0;
+ closure equations
Differential methods have been developed for this reason as well as for
extensions to more complex and non-thin boundary layer flows.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 47

7.7 Separation
What causes separation?
The increasing downstream pressure slows down the wall flow and
can make it go backward-flow separation.
dp dx > 0 adverse pressure gradient, flow separation may occur.
dp dx < 0 favorable gradient, flow separation can never occur

Previous analysis of BL was valid before separation.

Separation Condition
 ∂u 
τ w = µ   = 0
 ∂y  y =0

Note: 1. Due to backflow close to the wall, a strong thickening of the

BL takes place and BL mass is transported away into the
outer flow
2. At the point of separation, the streamlines leave the wall at a
certain angle.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 48

Separation of Boundary Layer

Notes:
1. D to E, pressure drop, pressure is transformed into kinetic energy.
2. From E to F, kinetic energy is transformed into pressure.
3. A fluid particle directly at the wall in the boundary layer is also
acted upon by the same pressure distribution as in the outer flow
(inviscid).
4. Due to the strong friction forces in the BL, a BL particle loses so
much of its kinetic energy that is cannot manage to get over the
“pressure gradient” from E to F.
5. The following figure shows the time sequence of this process:
a. reversed motion begun at the trailing edge
b. boundary layer has been thickened, and start of the reversed
motion has moved forward considerably.
c. and d. a large vortex formed from the backflow and then soon
separates from the body.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 49

Examples of BL Separations (two-dimensional)

Features: The entire boundary layer flow breaks away at the point of
zero wall shear stress and, having no way to diverge left or right, has to
go up and over the resulting separation bubble or wake.
Thin wall
1. Plane wall(s)

(a). Plane stagnation-point flow: no separation on the streamlines of

symmetry (no wall friction present), and no separation at the wall
(favorable pressure gradient)
(b).Flat wall with right angle to the wall: flow separate, why?

2. Diffuser flow:
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 50

3. Turbulent Boundary Layer

(a)

(b)

Influence of a strong pressure gradient on a turbulent flow

(a) a strong negative pressure gradient may re-laminarize a flow
(b) a strong positive pressure gradient causes a strong boundary
layer top thicken. (Photograph by R.E. Falco)

Examples of BL Separations (three-dimensional)

Features: unlike 2D separations, 3D separations allow many more
options.
There are four different special points in separation:
(1). A nodal Point, where an infinite number of surface streamlines
merged tangentially to the separation line
(2). A saddle point, where only two surface streamlines intersect and
all others divert to either side
(3). A focus, or spiral node, which forms near a saddle point and
around which an infinite number of surface streamlines swirl
(4). A three-dimensional singular point, not on the wall, generally
serving as the center for a horseshoe vortex.
ME:5160 Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 51

1. Boundary layer separations induced by free surface (animation)

CFDSHIP-IOWA

2. Separation regions in corner flow

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3. 3D separations on a round-nosed body at angle of attack

Video Library (animations from “Multi-media Fluid Mechanics”,

Homsy, G. M., etc.)

Conditions Producing Separation Separations on airfoil (different attack angles)

Leading edge separation Separations in diffuser

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Effect of body shape on separation Laminar and Turbulent separation

Flow over cylinders: effect of Re Flow over spheres: effect of Re

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Flow over edges and blunt bodies Flow over a truck

Effect of separation on sports balls