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Structural design of corrugated boxes for horticultural produce: A review

Article  in  Biosystems Engineering · September 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.06.021

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Review

Structural design of corrugated boxes for

horticultural produce: A review

Pankaj B. Pathare a,b, Umezuruike Linus Opara a,b,*

a
Postharvest Technology Research Laboratory, South African Research Chair in Postharvest Technology, Department
of Horticultural Science, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, South Africa
b
Postharvest Technology Research Laboratory, South African Research Chair in Postharvest Technology, Department
of Food Science, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, South Africa

article info
Corrugated boxes are used extensively for transporting and storing fresh produce in the
Article history: horticultural industry. These boxes protect their contents from mechanical damage due to
Received 24 July 2013 drops, impacts, vibration and compression loads. The analysis and prediction of the
Received in revised form stacking compression load capacity of corrugated boxes is important to study the response
25 June 2014 of existing packaging to mechanical stress or to design new boxes to meet postharvest
Accepted 30 June 2014 handling conditions. Good design of vented packaging is important in optimising the
Published online 23 July 2014 cooling and ventilation uniformity, minimising quality deterioration of packed produce
and maintaining the mechanical integrity of the box. Various experimental and modelling
Keywords: tools are used to investigate the design and mechanical performance of packaging.
Corrugated packaging Experimental studies on mechanical performance of packaging include compression,
Finite element modelling impact and vibration analysis. Finite element analysis and simulation is useful for study
Compression test and structural design of ventilated corrugated packaging, considering the shape, location
Drop test and size of the vent. Advances in information and communication technologies offer new
Vibration test prospects for development of user-friendly software toward integrated design and per-
formance analysis of fresh produce packaging.
© 2014 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

carrying printed information and graphics (Ha €gglund &

1. Introduction Carlsson, 2011). Packaging is one of the most important
steps in the long and complicated journey of fresh horticul-
Packaging plays a critical role in the postharvest handling and tural produce from grower to consumer (Boyette, Sanders, &
distribution of fresh and processed food and other bio- Rutledge, 1996).
materials (Opara, 2011; Pathare, Opara, Vigneault, Delele, & The types of packaging used for fresh horticultural produce
Al-Said, 2012). Packaging has many other important func- handling include wood crates, corrugated shipping boxes,
tions, such as protecting the packaged goods from hazards polymeric films pouches, bags, baskets, crates, trays, paper
including contamination in the distribution environment, sheets, pouches, etc (Pascall, 2010). Boxes have to withstand
facilitating transportation and storing of products, and

* Corresponding author. Postharvest Technology Research Laboratory, South African Research Chair in Postharvest Technology,
Department of Horticultural Science, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, South Africa. Tel.: þ27 21 808 4064; fax: þ27 21 808
3743.
E-mail address: [email protected] (U.L. Opara).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.06.021
1537-5110/© 2014 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0 129

significant compression loading conditions during carriage and

 et al. 2011) and corrugated boxes are well known
storage (Viguie 2. Applications of corrugated boxes for
for their good stacking strength (when dry), easy availability and horticultural produce
low cost (Twede & Harte, 2003). Corrugated board is the domi-
nant packaging material in the horticultural industry and has Fresh produce boxes are designed to facilitate postharvest
many advantages such as low mass (saves money when operations such as precooling, protect from environmental
transporting), customised easily for the purpose, strong and stiff and physical damage, reduce the loss of produce shelf life and
compared to its mass, easy to handle, easy to print and recy- meet the specific fresh produce handling requirements
clable (Allansson & Sva€ rd, 2001). The strength and serviceability (Vigneault, Thompson, & Wu, 2009). Several parameters may
of corrugated paperboard have improved over the years. Paper be used to assess the quality of a packaging design including
and board (38%) is the most used consumer packaging, followed compression strength, stiffness, tearing resistance, tensile
by plastic (30%) (World Packaging Organization, 2008). Corru- strength, water absorption capacity and product safety.
gated boxes are predominantly used for export while reusable Corrugated board has been reported to have good properties
plastic containers (RPC) are used for the domestic market as a material packaging which reduced mechanical damage of
(Jarimopas, Sirisomboon, Sothomwit, & Terdwongworaku, apple (Jarimopas, Toomsaengtong, Singh, Singh, & Sothornvit,
2007). The use of bamboo baskets is common in many devel- 2007) and mangosteen (Darmawati, Yulianti, Salokhe, & Soni,
oping countries such as India; however, due to the geometrical 2009; Sutrisno, Sugiyono, & Edris, 2010). The ease of recycla-
design, baskets cannot be successfully stacked or be used for bility along with its high strength to weight ratio and high
long distance transport in trucks (Ladanyia, 2008). printability has made corrugated packages a prime choice for
It is important to have a clear understanding of the wide fresh produce packaging.
range of packaging options available as packing methods and Corrugated board is an orthotropic sandwich structure in
packaging materials contribute a significant cost to the pro- which a central paper (corrugated medium) has been formed
duce industry (Boyette et al., 1996). Cost savings could be (using heat, adhesive and pressure) in a corrugated (i.e. fluted)
made by reducing the quantity of material used in the box, shape on one or two flat papers (called liners) (Fig. 1). The
provided that adequate compression strength can be main- principal directions are the machine direction (MD), the cross-
tained. Design of corrugated boxes should include optimal machine direction (CD), and the thickness direction (ZD). Due
combination of raw materials, optimal selection of prism type, to the distribution of the fibres during forming of the sheet and
overall box design optimisation, and the packaging cost (Chen, the different drying strains in MD and CD, the MD is usually
Zhang, & Sun, 2011). The objective of fresh horticultural the stiffest and strongest direction (Stenberg, Fellers, &
€
Ostlund, 2001). Corrugated board has been referred to by
packaging design is to reduce mechanical damage to produce
during the distribution process and improve overall packaging different terms such as corrugate, corrugated and corrugated
performance. Cool storage and transport conditions for fresh fibreboard, and is manufactured in many different styles and
horticultural produce provide one of the most demanding masses (Boyette, Sanders, & Rutledge, 2000). The sheet can be
environments for corrugated boxes. Conventionally, a product modified to reduce mass or increase strength and protection
reliability test to prevent impact-induced damage is carried from the external elements by flute size variations or adding
out by ‘design e prototype e test e redesign’ procedure which flute layers. The flutes act like arches, resisting flat crush, to
is costly and time consuming. Numerical modelling of the provide cushioning trapped air, and give some insulation
product and its interaction with packaging provides an effi- properties (Twede & Selke, 2005). Corrugated boards may be
cient methodology to predict the structural strength during graded by the size of the fluted medium and are commonly
impact (Djilali Hammou, Minh Duong, Abbe s, Makhlouf, & classified based on the number of flutes m1 (namely A, B, C, E,
F or microflutes) (Ha € gglund & Carlsson, 2011). The most
Guo, 2012). Finite element analysis (FEA) simulation offers a
useful tool for the mechanical design of ventilated packaging, common way to specify a corrugated board is by basic mass or
taking into account factors such as the shape, location and grammage (mass per unit area) where higher basic mass re-
size of ventilated opening. Application of FEA to predict sults in stiffer and stronger board. Bending stiffness or flexural
possible failures reduces the need for numerous and expen- rigidity is also an important attribute of a corrugated board
sive experimental tests during the design stage (Djilali (Luo, Suhling, & Laufenberg, 1995).
Hammou et al., 2012). Ventilated packaging has been widely adopted for fresh
The traditional functions of packaging applicable to fresh produce storage and marketing, partly due to the ability to
horticultural produce are containment, display, maintenance promote rapid, uniform and efficient cooling process (de Castro,
of quality and prevention of mechanical damage during
handling and shipping, and facilitation of transport and
marketing. High incidence of mechanical damage is a major
source of postharvest losses in the fresh produce industry and
hence corrugated board packaging is widely used for bulk
handling and marketing of fresh horticultural produce (Opara
& Pathare, 2014). The present article provides an overview of
the application of corrugated boxes in the horticultural in-
dustry, and discusses the experimental and modelling ap-
proaches used to investigate the structural design and Fig. 1 e Structure of the corrugated board (Gospodinov,
performance analysis packaging. Stefanov, & Hadjiiski, 2011).
130 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0

Vigneault, & Cortez, 2005; Thompson, Mejia, & Singh, 2010). Due to its unique fluted structure, corrugated board is
Ventilation holes in the container maintain an air flow channel resistant to buckling and can be made to exhibit considerable
between the surroundings and the inside of the containers stacking strength, making it an ideal choice for fresh produce
(Pathare, Opara, Vigneault, Delele, & Al-Said, 2012), resulting in industry. Depending on the loading requirements of the product
reinforcement of the preservation function of the container inside a box, corrugated board can be manufactured to have
(Han & Park, 2007). Vents allow the heat built up by respiration to higher compressive strength by adding layers of flute (Patterson,
escape, and hence, ventilated boxes should allow sufficient and 2011). Structural performance of corrugated boxes plays a vital
uniform airflow distribution, and consequently uniform pro- role in their marketplace success as shipping requirements have
duce cooling. The box must have enough vents to provide uni- changed from being based on tonnage to being based on per-
form airflow through the entire mass of produce while providing formance (Luo et al., 1995). The box compression test (BCT)
sufficient mechanical strength (de Castro, Vigneault, & Cortez, constitutes a general measure of the performance potential of a
2004a; Vigneault & de Castro, 2005; Vigneault & Goyette, 2002). corrugated board package (Markstro € m, 1999). BCT is a pure top-
A proper box vent design must consider not only the total vent to-bottom compression load test between flat parallel steel
area (Brosnan & Sun, 2001; de Castro, Vigneault, & Cortez, 2004b; plates that is carried out on an empty sealed corrugated box
Smale, Tanner, Amos, & Cleland, 2003; Stanley, 1989), but also using a constant deformation speed (Singh, Olsen, Singh,
the size and the position of each vent to enhance the efficiency Manley, & Wallace, 2008). The compressive load and cross-
of forced air precooling system while still offering an adequate head displacement are recorded continuously until collapse
mechanical support for the produce (Pathare et al., 2012; occurs. The edge crush test (ECT) is used to evaluate the

Vigneault & Emond, 1998). compression strength (N m1) of the corrugated board in the
The presence of vents reduces the mechanical strength of directions of the flutes. It gives information on the ability to
corrugated boxes. Recently, Pathare et al. (2012) reported a resist crushing. The ECT of a corrugated sample is tested ac-
comprehensive review of ventilated packaging systems and cording to T 811om-02 (TAPPI, 2007). The box resistance to ver-
found a wide range of ventilation (4e27%) for corrugated box. tical compression is the parameter that gives the best account of
The review showed that vents should be placed away from the the effects of transport and storage conditions, and of the
vertical corners and generally should less than 5% of total box stackability of the packages (Poustis, 2005). The ECT and its
wall area to reduce strength loss (Kader, 2002), and boxes with relationship to compression and stacking strength plays a key
greater than 5% venting must be specially designed in order to role in corrugated box performance (Twede & Selke, 2005). The
provide adequate strength (Thompson, Brecht, & Hinsch, strength considerations for corrugated boxes are always related
2002). The vent area used for exporting lemon (Spain), ba- to stacking strength. Compressive strength of corrugated boxes
nana (Ecudor) and orange (Uruguay) were 7.9%, 8.2% and 2.1%, can be lost due to distribution hazards such as high relative
respectively (Scharnow, 2013). However, South African pome humidity, excessive stacking load, long term storage or offset
fruit industry recommends at least 5% vent area for corru- stacking pattern (Jinkarn, Boonchu, & Bao-Ban, 2006).
gated boxes (Hortgro, 2013). The diverse recommendation for
ventilation area shows the challenge in designing optimal
ventilated corrugated box. These studies show that cost- 4. Effects of storage environment on
effective design of ventilated packaging for horticultural pro- corrugated box strength
duce requires careful consideration of two conflicting objec-
tives: (a) maintaining the cold chain at high relative humidity, Stacking strength is a measure of the top load a box is able to
and (b) ensuring mechanical integrity of the box and resis- carry for an extended period under static load applied by other
tance to impact and compressive loads. boxes on top of it in the unit (Frank, 2014). Stacking strength
(SS) is commonly estimated as the ratio of compression
strength (CS) and a safety factor (F) (Twede & Selke, 2005):
3. Effect of structural design on corrugated
boxes strength CS
SS ¼ (1)
F
Corrugated box performance requirements range from where F ranges from 3 to 8.
appearance to mechanical strength and ability to protect their The reduction in compression strength is less when the
contents. Overall, corrugated box performance is affected by contents of the box support the load. During long term storage
the manufacturing quality control protocol, machine preci- of stacked pallet loads, corrugated boxes must be designed and
sion, the human factor involved in the corrugation process manufactured to withstand large amounts of compression
and the engineering properties of liner, medium and adhesive forces for extended periods of time. In this scenario, the safety
(Rahman & Abubakr, 2004). These properties have consider- factor (F) in Equation (1) also accounts for the effects of storage
able influence on the resistance of corrugated board to time, humidity and alignment of the boxes. When compressed
compressive forces during stacking and impacts, vibration for long periods, corrugated boxes can experience fatigue, creep
and exposure to fluctuating storage environmental condi- and even buckling. If the box fails in this manner, severe
tions. In order to improve the design and manufacturing of product damage can occur and to prevent this, the box must be
corrugated boxes, it is important to have a clear and sound designed with a focus on the strength of the vertical sidewalls,
understanding of these factors affecting box performance since two-thirds of the box's total strength is derived from the
(Luo et al., 1995). Warehouse storage and transportation con- vertical faces (Patterson, 2011). It is practical to add material in
ditions should also be taken into consideration. these areas rather than thickening the top or bottom horizontal
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0 131

faces. Understanding the compression strength of corrugated the mechanical properties. Recent research has shown that,
boxes will assist in improving product performance, either by as the moisture content of corrugated package increased from
reducing the amount of packaging material or allowing unique 7.7% to 16.4%, compressive strength reduced by 52% (Zhang
design features (like vents) so that corrugated board can et al., 2011). Significant reduction of box strength can lead to
compete more favourably with other packaging materials packaging collapse, thus causing further mechanical damage
(Urbanik & Saliklis, 2003). While box strength is important to to produce (Marcondes, 1992). Kellicutt (1960) found a negative
protect the content against mechanical damage, package exponential relationship between compression strength (Y) of
design optimisation is essential to save money and resources corrugated board boxes and their moisture content:
(Biancolini & Brutti, 2003).
The stacking pattern of boxes on the pallet also affects Y ¼ b10mx (2)
stacking strength. Since the strength of a box depends mainly where b is the compressive strength of box at zero moisture, m
on the strength of the walls and upright edges, perfectly is the average slope of the curve where the logarithm of
aligned column stacking offer the best compression strength compressive strength is plotted against moisture and x is the
because alignment of the edges and corners creates a support dry based moisture content (ratio between the weight of water
beam structure within a pallet load. If boxes are misaligned or in the board and the oven dry weight of the board). Biodeteri-
an interlocking pallet pattern is used, stacking strength will be oration of paperboard may also occur due to wetting (Koivula &
lower and to avoid this situation, the bottom layers are often Ha€ nninen, 1999).
column stacked while the upper layers are interlocked Corrugated boxes become structurally weak over time under
(Boyette et al., 2000). Pallet overhang and wide deck board gaps load, especially with increased handling during storage and
also reduce stacking strength since they affect the level sur- transport. Furthermore, corrugated boxes lose strength over
face of the bottom-most boxes in the stack, which are ex- time when supporting external or their own weight, a situation
pected to carry the heaviest load. commonly referred to as ‘fatigue’. For example, a box sup-
During postharvest handling and cold storage, corrugated porting weight for 10 days will have only 65% of its original,
boxes used for handling fresh produce may be exposed to laboratory-determined strength; after 100 days its strength is
changes in temperature and relative humidity which can only 55% of the original strength (Thompson & Mitchell, 2011).
drastically reduce the stacking strength of the package An important example of such requirements is the strength of
(Dongmei, Huxiang, & Ziyou, 2013; Patterson, 2011). Research the box in compression (stacking strength) during high hu-
has shown that when the relative humidity of storage air midity exposure. The packaging must withstand the load dur-
increased gradually from 30% to 90%, edge compressive ing the specified time of storage (Ha€ gglund & Carlsson, 2011).
strength reduced by 19% (Zhang, Chen, & Wu, 2011). Similarly, Studies by Twede and Selke (2005) showed that a box under
Allaoui, Aboura, and Benzeggagh (2009) reported that the load may lose about 40% of its strength in the first 90 days of
Young's modulus of the components reduced by up to 50% in storage at 23  C & 50% RH. Under static load boxes experienced
CD and 30% in MD when RH increased from 50% to 90%. creep which increased with time. Creep also increased with the
Moisture transport through packaging has a big impact on the relative humidity in the environment. Under dynamic condi-
product and the structural integrity of the package (Bronlund, tions, the creep process can be accelerated due to the interac-
Redding, & Robertson, 2014). Corrugated boxes must be made tion between fibre bonds and moisture (Frank, 2014). Box
to withstand large amounts of compression forces for extended strength requirement and the influence of environmental fac-
periods of time while stacked on pallets. As fresh produce has a tors on the box performance must be considered in designing
rapid spoilage rate, rapid refrigeration is often required. To the corrugated box for long term storage (Koning & Stern, 1977).
accommodate this need, corrugated boxes must be made to
withstand frequent changes in temperature and humidity
throughout the product's lifecycle. 5. Experimental analysis of load resistance
Tanner (1998) and Tanner, Cleland, and Robertson (2002) of corrugated boxes
reported that apples can lose between 0.60% and 3.72% mass
when stored at 0  C up to 12 weeks. Knowledge of moisture In supply chain journeys, fresh produce boxes are expected to
transport of fresh produce is therefore useful in efficient protect the product from various static and dynamic hazards
packaging design to maintain produce quality and packaging such as compression, drops, impacts, vibration and climatic
strength. Relative humidity (RH) of the surrounding environ- (Singh, Singh, & Paek, 2009). Damage can be caused by any of
ment is closely related to equilibrium moisture content of these hazards or a combination of two or more. The shock and
paper. Paper fibres may absorb moisture from or release to the vibration experienced by produce may result from the vibra-
surrounding environment as the RH of the environment tion of a cargo-carrying vehicle, the shock resulting from the
fluctuates. Compression strength of a corrugated package in a impacts of railway cars, and the shock caused by the handling
given environment depends on the moisture content due to (e.g. dropping) of packages, etc (Guo, Xu, Fu, & Wang, 2011). It
hysteresis in the absorption/desorption curve (Frank, 2014). is important to protect the goods from shock and vibration
Moisture content affects the mechanical properties of paper- damage.
board materials, and thus the use of boxes made of paper-
board (Kellicutt & Landt, 1952) at elevated moisture content 5.1. Compression load resistance of corrugated boxes
leads to substantial degradation of the board (Sørensen &
Hoffmann, 2003). The increase in moisture content in the Compression occurs when a pushing force reduces the volume
material breaks the bonds between cellulose fibres, affecting of an object. Static compression is a loading force that a box
132 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0

will endure when it is stacked vertically for an amount of time means of evaluating box performance. However, in order to
when the force being applied is not changing. A box may also distinguish between factors that govern box performance it is
encounter dynamic compression while being transported in necessary to test the quality of the corrugated board and its
the back of a truck. Dynamic compression occurs when there is components, maintain good control of conversion operations
a moving force being pressed against the object. Dynamic and environmental influences such as humidity and load
compression is the form of compression that is observed dur- duration (Nordstrand, 2003). The most common failure mode
ing cushion testing. Corrugated box strength is a most impor- for a corrugated box loaded in top-to-bottom compression is
tant requirement as, due to logistic needs during goods post-buckling deflection of its side panels, followed by biaxial
shipping and warehousing, boxes are stacked so that every box compressive failure of the board in the highly stressed corner
has to prevent damage to its contents and to supported boxes regions of the box. Local instabilities of the liners and fluting
(Biancolini, Brutti, & Porziani, 2010). For horticultural fresh may also interact with failure progression (Johnson & Urbanik,
produce, boxes are usually provided with opening vents and 1989; Westerlind & Carlsson, 1992). Table 1 illustrates the
strength capability is dependent on the location, sizes and different experimental approaches to compression test
shapes of the ventilation holes (Pathare et al., 2012). applicable to fresh horticultural produce.
Mechanical properties can be divided into two categories, Panyarjun and Burgess (2001) tested various long corru-
those that pertain to rough handling and those to stacking. gated packages with different lengths, cross sectional shapes,
Both of these types are difficult to duplicate accurately in the flute directions and board strengths in bending. An equation
laboratory. As a consequence, BCT has been widely used as a to relate the box compression strength to the various

Table 1 e Different experimental methodologies reported by researchers during mechanical testing of corrugated boxes.
Approach Methodology/Calculation References
1
Box compression test Compression tests (Instron 5569 press). Test speed e 13 mm min . The  et al. (2011)
Viguie
compression force and the axial plate displacement were recorded. It
permitted the macroscopic box axial stress to be calculated.
Box compression test Box compression tests were performed using two test machines for  et al. (2010)
Viguie
experimental convenience:
a Van der Korput (Büchel BV, Utrecht, the Netherlands, maximum axial
force 5 kN, maximum cross-head velocity 100 mm min1) and a MTS (MTS,
Eden Prairie, MN, USA) DY26 (maximum axial force 100 kN, maximum
crosshead velocity 500 mm min1). During the experiments, the load F and
the axial platen displacement d (<0) were electronically recorded. This
allowed calculation of the macroscopic box axial stress
Box compression test Box tested with 10 kN load capacity. Biancolini et al. (2010)
Speed e 10 mm min1 (23 ± 2  C temperature and 50 ± 5% RH), as
prescribed in FEFCO N 50 normative for BCT procedure
Box compression test BCT (ASTM-D-642-00) Average value for calculation the number of Tungsangprateep et al. (2006)
stacking
Max. Safety factor e 10
Box compression test Package loaded on compression testing and results are presented as force Beldie et al. (2001)
displacement diagrams. It provides information about the stiffness and
the strength of a package subjected to a compressive load.
Static compression test Compression machine (Testometric-micro 350, UK by Shirley Jinkarn et al. (2006)
Developments, with 10-kg load cell)
Compression test Lansmont (model 152-30) compression test system accordance with ASTM Singh et al. (2008)
D642. Preload e 22.68 kgf to observe compression strength value. Test
speed e 12.7 ± 2.5 mm min1 until failure.
Effect of shape, size and location of ventilation and hand holes on loss of
compression strength
Compression strength Lansmont compression tester (ASTM D-642) Panyarjun and Burgess (2001)
Edge crush test (ECT) Predict the first buckling mode and the related critical load of a container Biancolini and Brutti (2003)
FEFCO No. 8, by assuming an elastic and orthotropic mechanical behaviour for the
simulated corrugated board.
Predict critical buckling load.
McKee formula estimates BCT values depending on the container
geometry and ECT.
Shear moduli Block shear test (10 kN Alwetron TCTlO test machine) Nordstrand and Carlsson (1997)
Shear modulus along the corrugations, determined with the three-point
bend test. Experimental results were compared to shear moduli obtained
by FEA and analytical predictions.
Operational modal analysis Dynamics of stacked corrugated packaging  lez, Liarte,
Bernad, Laspalas, Gonza
and Jimenez (2010)
Vibration transmissibility of Evaluation on the vibration transmissibility of corrugated paperboard with Park et al. (2011)
corrugated paperboard corrugation shape and the equilibrium atmospheric conditions by a
sinusoidal sweep vibration test.
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0 133

properties of the box was developed. Packages having flutes

running around the box had 20% higher compression strength
than packages with horizontal flutes. Failure of packages in
bending is due to localised crushing of the panel at the point of
application of the load, rather than collapse of the whole box.
Jinkarn et al. (2006) studied the effects of the carrying slots on
the compressive strength of corrugated board panels. Total
slotting area used was 1%, 2%, 3% and 4% of the board panel.
Circle shaped slotting showed the less strength reduction
compared to other shapes. Perforated style retained more
compressive strength than the true cut slot. Smaller slot size
retained the higher compressive strength. Singh et al. (2008)
found the presence of ventilation and hand holes can cause
strength reduction between 20 and 50% in single wall corru-
Fig. 2 e Dynamic cushioning curves of three-layers pad.
gated shipping containers. Vertical holes that are rectangular
Adapted from Guo et al. (2010).
or parallelogram in shape retained better corrugated box
strength as compare to circular holes. The box retained 80%
strength when 10% material removed. A linear relationship
between the loss of strength and the total area of the holes increasing the relative density of paper honeycomb (Wang,
made for venting or handling was found (up to 40% of the face 2009). Garcia-Romeu-Martinez, Sek, and Cloquell-Ballester
material removed). Strength and stability of boxes are (2009) investigated the deterioration of the shock attenua-
importance for practical packaging application. During tion characteristics of corrugated paperboard cushions in
stacking the box at bottom experienced the highest load, and consecutive impacts, using optimum static stress with the
has to possess sufficient box compression strength to with- expected number of impacts in order to optimise the cushion
stand this load without collapsing. It is important to consider performance.
vent size, shape and location for enhancing the corrugated Packaged produce may be seriously damaged by inner-
box performance. resonance when dropped in the distribution circle (Wang,
Yang, Li, Lu, & Chen, 2010). The oscillations in the packaging
5.2. Impact load resistance of corrugated boxes system are inherently nonlinear (Wang, Duan, Jiang, Lu, &
Wang, 2012; Wang, Wang, Lu, Zhu, & Wang, 2011), and it re-
Impacts (also referred to as shocks) occur when there is a mains a problem to obtain the resonance condition. Wang
sudden increase in velocity (falling) followed by a sudden et al. (2013) proposed a dynamic model for a corrugated
decrease in velocity (hitting a surface). It can occur in a range paperboard cushioning packaging system. The variational
of distribution environments such as manual handling, falling iteration method (VIM) was applied and the multiplier was
from a forklift or storage area, a sudden stop by a truck or identified. Resonance conditions should be avoided in the
train, and other similar situations. It is important to deter- cushioning packaging design. Lu and Gao (2012) established a
mine the potential drop height that a packaged product may phenomenological model for single flute corrugated paper-
encounter and the fragility of the product itself, also known as board, based on universal and drop testing machine. The
the critical acceleration. The structure and quality of a model performed better than maximum acceleration-static
corrugated board are essential to ensure the protection of the stress curves which required more tests and data for pack-
product during dropping. During storage and transportation, age design.
products can fall onto the floor resulting in damage, and a
drop test is used to determine the box's ability to retain and 5.3. Vibration load resistance of corrugated boxes
protect its contents under a shock due to a free fall (Djilali
Hammou et al., 2012). Drop testing is performed for several Vibration is oscillating motion over time, and with regard to
reasons: (a) to design impact-tolerant, or rugged, portable fresh horticultural produce, a box will endure vibration when
products, (b) to replicate the abuse that might occur during it is transported by truck, rail, or plane. Vibration is often
manufacturing, shipping and installation and (c) for acceler- overlooked when considering potential mechanical hazards
ated life testing (Goyal & Buratynski, 2000). affecting fresh produce but it can be as damaging as both
In drop testing, the potential energy of the box is the shock and compression. During transportation, fruit and
product of the weight of contents and the drop height (Poustis, vegetables move randomly in the boxes. Deterioration of
2005). Guo, Xu, Fu, and Zhang (2010) evaluated the dynamic fruits and vegetables was determined by the duration and
shock cushioning property of corrugated paperboard pads by intensity of vibration related to the extent of the repeated
drop shock tests, and establish experimental formulae for force and displacement (Çakmak, Alayunt, Akdeniz, Aksoy, &
dynamic cushioning curves (Fig. 2). Third order polynomial Can, 2010). The potential for mechanical damage to fresh
functions of static stress have proved to be the best expression horticultural produce to occur during transportation depends
for dynamic cushioning of corrugated paperboard pads. on the type of packaging (Schulte Pason, Timm, Brown,
Flexible corrugated boards as liners improved the compres- Marshall, & Burton, 1990). Some types of packaging, such as
sion resistance and cushioning properties (Wang, 2009). En- bulk bins, can substantially amplify vibrations during trans-
ergy absorption ability of the sandwich panels is improved by portation from the bottom to the top of the shipment column
134 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0

(Chesson & O'Brien, 1971; O'Brien, Gentry, & Gibson, 1965; relationship between the vent area, and the compression
O'Brien & Guillou, 1969). Road roughness, distance, travelling strength because the compression load intensity is not the
speed, load, truck suspension and the number of axles had an same on all points of the perimeter, so the location of vent
influence on vibration during transportation (Berardinelli, holes also has an effect on compression strength. Allerby,
Donati, Giunchi, Guarnieri, & Ragni, 2003). Wholesale- Laing, and Cardwell (1985) modified the constant and expo-
packaged sweet tamarind was subjected to mechanical nents of McKee's equation to predict the compression
loading damage during transportation mainly through vibra- strength of boxes made of C- flute corrugated fibreboards.
tion (Jarimopas & Sirisawas, 2006). Several researchers
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi0:38
BP 0:46
(Schulte Pason, Timm, Brown, Marshall, & Burton, 1990; Singh BCT ¼ 0:13ECT0:71 BSMD  BSCD (6)
& Xu, 1993; Timm, Brown, & Armstrong, 1996) reported the 1000
influence of the container on fruit damage during trans- where BP is the box perimeter (m), ECT is edge crush test, BSMD
portation. Product damage can be associated with various is the bending stiffness machine direction (N m), BSCD is the
vibration forces that originate during horticultural fresh pro- bending stiffness cross machine and BP is box perimeter (m).
duce transportation (Jarimopas, Singh, & Saengnil, 2005). Fruit Kawanishi (1989) developed an empirical equation to pre-
bruising has been reduced by careful handling and proper dict the box compression strength of wrap-around and regular
packaging (Singh, Burgess, & Xu, 1992) and top cushioning slotted cantons. Moisture content is included for the predic-
material (Vursavus & Ozguven, 2004). Package and packing tion of compressive strength.
configuration affected the bruising of mangoes and other
4:15
sensitive fruits during shipping and handling (Chonhenchob BCT ¼ 9:81  3:79  108  K0:379  b0:650
w:L  bw:B  TF
1:20
 CC2:45
& Singh, 2003).  C3:43
k  BPK0:565  BT0:315  PR0:0602  MC1:10
SW

(7)
6. Strength prediction model of corrugated where K is linerboard factor, bw.L is total basis weight of li-
boxes nerboards (g m2), bw.B is total basis weight of corrugated fi-
breboards (g m2), TF is take up factor, CC is average
Kellicutt and Landt (1952) developed one of the earliest models corrugation count, CK is corrugated fibreboard thickness
for estimating the compressive strength of corrugated box (mm), BPK is box perimeter (mm), BT is box type factor, PR is
based on box compression test (BCT). BCT was predicted from printed ratio and MCSW is sidewall moisture content (%).
the design parameter of the box and the overall ring crush Urbanik (1996) reviewed the effect of buckling mode and
strength of linerboards. Equation (3) indicates that the geometry effects on post buckling strength of corrugated
compression strength is directly proportional to the overall containers. Some researchers (Nordstrand, 2004; Patel,
ring strength of the linerboards. Nordstrand, & Carlsson, 1997) have described the buckling

2=3 and post-buckling behaviour of individual board panels.
A
BCT ¼ RCT 4 B (3) Nordstrand (2004) used TsaieWu failure criterion for a plane
BPKL
stress case, which accounts for anisotropic strengths and
where BCT is the box compression strength, RCT is overall ring different strengths in tension and compression loading situ-
crush strength of the linerboards, BPKL is box perimeter, A is ations. TsaieWu failure criterion is widely used for aniso-
flute constant and B is box constant. tropic materials (Mascia, Todeschini, & Nicolas, 2010). It can
Maltenfort (1956) reported the statistical relationships be- be expressed as
tween box compression strength P and box length L, width W,
Fi si þ Fij si sj ¼ 1 (8)
and depth D. The formula derived from an extensive body of
14,800 compression tests and presented as where i, j from 1 to 6, si, sj are stresses, and Fi, Fij are strength

 parameters determined through uniaxial tensile, compres-
350
P ¼ 2090 þ z þ 328  237D (4) sion and shear tests as well as biaxial tests.
L=W þ 1
Recently, a mathematical model to predict the stress
where P is expressed in N and D and Z in mm. ECT values can plateau of multilayered corrugated paperboard in various
be used to predict the box compression test (BCT). Compres- humidity environments has been developed (Dongmei et al.,
sion strength of an empty box depends on the board's flexural 2013; E & Wang, 2012). A nonlinear material model to predict
(bending) stiffness, the ECT and the perimeter. McKee, the compressive strength of the panels and containers was
Gander, and Wachuta (1963) developed a relationship, which proposed by Urbanik (1996; 1997). A three-parameter hyper-
predicts the box compression strength, and this is still a bolic tangent equation that characterised the stressestrain
widely-used formula. relationship was used to describe the material nonlinearity.
The corrugated structure was taken as an effective homoge-
BCT ¼ K  ECTa  FSb  Dc (5) neous plate. Their material nonlinearity theory predicted
where D is the dimension of the box (perimeter), FS is the more conservative buckling loads for low width panels and
flexural stiffness of the board, ECT is the edge crush test of the yielded a more accurate and sensitive compressive strength
board, and K, a, b and c are empirical constants. The McKee prediction than those using linear material properties. Viguie 
formula shows the relationship of compression strength and et al. (2010) used a 3D digital image stereo-correlation tech-
the dimension of the box, which is the perimeter of the nique method to analyse the buckling behaviour of box panels
corrugated shipping container. However, it does not show the during their compression. This is a highly efficient technique
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0 135

to provide relevant data on the 3D displacement and strain parameter inputs from the base material such as Young's
fields at the surface. Some studies have been based on the modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio used (Yoshihara,
numerical finite element method for more accurate 2012). These are all estimates at best, given that paper is a
compression strength prediction (Biancolini & Brutti, 2003; somewhat variable material that will change properties with
Nordstrand, 2003). age, temperature, and humidity, among other factors (Morris,
2011). FEM simulation results can be compared to experi-
mental results for verification. Mechanical behaviours of
7. Finite element modelling for strength corrugated paperboard such as buckling, transverse shear,
prediction of corrugated boxes elasticity, stability, collapse and ultimate failure have been
studied using finite element models (Aboura, Talbi, Allaoui, &
Differences in mechanical properties of corrugated boards Benzeggagh, 2004; Gilchrist et al., 1998; Haj-Ali, Choi, Wei,
correspond to the direction of the axis (referred to MD, CD and Popil, & Schaepe, 2009; Nordstrand & Allansson, 2003; Talbi,
ZD) for non-isotropic material properties (Lorenz & Ignat, Batti, Ayad, & Guo, 2009).
2011). The complicated nonlinear behaviour or paper makes FEM can be applied to predict the effect of complex design
modelling of the mechanical response of corrugated board a features like vent holes on box performance. (Kirwan, 2005). It
difficult task (Gilchrist, Suhling, & Urbanik, 1998). FEA has can be used to predict behaviour of complex product such as
been considered as a replacement for semi-empirical wood pallets and paperboard. Orthotropic properties make
formulae for accuracy improvement in box compression corrugated paperboard more difficult to model than isotropic
strength prediction for corrugated paperboard industry material. Table 2 presents an example of FEA application in
(Jime nez-Caballero, Conde, Garcı́a, & Liarte, 2009). Figure 3 corrugated packaging/paper industry. Pommier and Poustis
shows the FEA simulation results in terms of BCT load, (1989) used the linear elastic finite element method to pre-
damaged area and failure mode. Maximum stress was pro- dict the top to bottom compression strength of a corrugated
duced at the corner and diagonal lines connecting the corners box and the results were in agreement with their experi-
on an empty intact box. The box with ventilated openings also mental values. Pommier and Poustis (1990) used FEM to study
experienced stress concentration. the bending stiffness of corrugated board and developed
FEA is a computer simulation technique used mostly by linear elastic analysis code SYSTUS. However the proposed
engineers, scientists, and mathematicians (Huebner, model was insufficient to determine the terms of the bending
Dewhirst, Smith, & Byrom, 2001). The basic principle of FEA flexibility matrix of an equivalent orthotropic sheet. Beldie,
is that a complicated structural model can be divided into Sandberg, and Sandberg (2001) studied mechanical behav-
smaller components, called elements, by using a sub-dividing iour of paperboard package subjected to static compression
system in which the differential equations obtain the load using FEA. The study divided in three parts and experi-
approximate solution. This numerical analysis uses a com- ments and FEA were conducted for each part: compression of
plex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a panel, package segments, and a whole package box. Good
mesh. This mesh is programmed to contain the material comparisons were shown between the numerical result and
properties which define how the migration will occur. Com- experiment for a panel with a height to width ratio of two or
mercial FEA software (e.g. ABAQUS, MSC, ANSYS) contains higher. FEA results showed the models are stiffer than found
different element types and material properties for input in experimental results as the numerical model did not
variable. consider the behaviour of creases of the paperboard package.
FEA software uses three steps to solve a problem: pre- Recently, Bronlund et al. (2014) used FEA approach to pre-
process or structural modelling, numerical analysis, and dict steady-state moisture transport through corrugated
post processing. An advantage of using FEA software is that fibreboard. The model showed reasonable agreement with
there are no limitations on package geometry, boundary experimental observations. Weigel (2001) developed a FEA
conditions, and loading conditions. The components with model to study the dynamic interactions between wood pal-
different behaviours and mathematical descriptions can be lets and corrugated containers during resonant vibration
combined (Cook, Malkus, Plesha, & Witt, 2002). Finite element within the unit load system. The developed model was useful
modelling (FEM) simulations depend on a large number of to improve the efficiency of the unit load system during

Fig. 3 e Stress distribution of intact and ventilated corrugated box. Adapted from Han and Park (2007).
136 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0

Table 2 e Examples of applications of finite element analysis (FEA) in corrugated packaging/paper industry.
Study purpose Research output References
Predict the top to bottom compression Agreement with experimental values. Pommier and Poustis (1989)
strength of a corrugated box
Bending stiffness of corrugated board Results were insufficient to determine the terms of the Pommier and Poustis (1990)
structures bending flexibility matrix of an equivalent orthotropic sheet
Dynamic interactions between wood Improved the efficiency of the unit load system Weigel (2001)
pallets and corrugated containers during transportation and distribution
during resonant vibration within the
unit load system
Buckling behaviour of corrugated paper Able to reproduce with a very good accuracy of buckling loads Biancolini and Brutti (2003)
packages
Determine appropriate pattern, location The appropriate pattern and location of both the Han and Park (2007)
and size of the vent/hand holes. ventilation holes and hand holes based on the FEA
simulation agreed well with laboratory test results.
Study the mechanical characteristics of Model results compared to experimental Gospodinov et al. (2011)
the layers of the corrugated paperboard data showed good agreement.
affect its complex mechanical
characteristics.
FE simulation with homogenisation model Model results were found to be in good Djilali Hammou et al. (2012)
and experimental study of free drop agreement with experimental observations.
tests of corrugated cardboard packaging
To predict steady-state moisture transport Model showed reasonable agreement with Bronlund et al. (2014)
through corrugated fibreboard experimental observations.

transportation and distribution. Masood and Haider Rizvi strength. In horticultural fresh produce transportation, the
(2006) proposed several new pallet designs and analysed damage to products can be associated with various vibration
them by using the FEM and related information of weight, forces that originate from the transportation method used
loading and safety conditions. Biancolini and Brutti (2003) during shipping. It is important to know the type and levels of
analysed the mechanical behaviour of corrugated paper these forces to reduce damage by designing optimum
package with experiment and finite element models. They packaging.
used elastic material properties from experimental results for Horticultural packaging is subject to a number of different
numerical analysis. Experimental buckling load was repro- loading conditions in the filling, stacking, transportation, and
duced by FEM model very accurately. storage operations. Boxes are often stacked on a pallet and the
A study by Han and Park (2007) used FEA to predict the loss boxes at the bottom experienced the highest compression
of compression strength due to fifteen different styles of vent load due to the overlying packages. The final box design
and hand holes. This study reported a compression strength should be a balance between strength and cost, as stronger
loss of less than 10% based on FEA and experimental data. boxes required more material and became expensive. Also the
This work optimised vent and hand hole design for shape and main impact of box design on optimisation of the fresh pro-
location, with FE models of boxes in uniform compression, duce is to maintain structural integrity and improve cooling
supported with experimental results. Recently an efficient performance. However, there are currently no agreed criteria
homogenisation model for corrugated cardboard has been for ventilation area of corrugated box among fresh produce
developed and implemented into ABAQUS through the user packaging researcher and industry. Optimal structure design
subroutine UGENS by Djilali Hammou et al. (2012). Drop tests is not the only key success factor for corrugated boxes appli-
of the corrugated cardboard box containing different foam cation as a horticultural packaging, but packaging engineers
cushion configurations were simulated by this model. The FE must also look into other innovation technology as such as
simulation results agreed well with the experimental results. modified atmosphere and active packaging technology for
Corrugated cardboard box with the corner foam cushions shelf life extension of produces or time-temperature-indicator
gives a more damping effect to the shock response of the technology for cold chain monitoring.
product. Empirical formulae have been widely used to predict the
mechanical strength of corrugated boxes. Although ventilated
packaging is the most commonly used for handling fresh
8. Conclusion horticultural produce to facilitate the airflow needed to
maintain the cold chain, existing formulae do not incorporate
The review has highlighted the importance of structural the effects of vent opening on mechanical strength of the
design of corrugated packaging which plays a major role in package. A finite element simulation has been considered to
fresh produce transportation and storage. Corrugated boxes improve the accuracy of box compression strength prediction
require good strength and stiffness to protect fresh produce considering the vent size, shape and location on the package.
during storage and transportation, and the box compression Future research efforts should be directed towards the
test (BCT) is the most commonly reported measure of box development of robust simulation models that include box
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 2 5 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 2 8 e1 4 0 137

vent opening, stacks of packages and storage conditions for Çakmak, B., Alayunt, F. N., Akdeniz, R. C., Aksoy, U., & Can, H. Z.
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