Computer Awareness

Top Careers & You™ Introduction to Computers

1

INT RODUCT ION T O COMPUT ERS

What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with information. The term ‘computer is derived
from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means to calculate. A computer is a programmable machine, which
responds to a set of instructions in a well defined manner and executes a pre-recorded list of instructions
(program).

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes the data
under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for
future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations. The basic
components of a modern digital computer are: Input device, output device and central processor.
Charles Babbage is called the "Grand Father" of the computer. The first mechanical computer designed by
Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine. This computer used read-only memory in the form of punch
cards.

Basic Functions of a Computer

The four basic functions of a computer are:
1. Input
2. Processing
3. Output
4. Storage

Input: Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the collection of letters,
numbers, images, etc.

Processing: Processing is the operation of data as per given instructions. It is totally an internal process of
the computer system.

Output: Output is the processed data given by a computer after data processing. Output is also called as
result. We can save these results in the storage devices for future use.

Storage: A computer stores the result of processing operations for future use in a storage device like hard
disk or floppy disk.

Characteristic of a Computer

Speed: A computer is a very fast and accurate device. It takes only few seconds to process the instructions
for which we take hours to complete.

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 Computer Awareness
Top Careers & You™ Introduction to Computers
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Accuracy: The level of accuracy of a computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same
accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer.

Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without
creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation
with the same accuracy. Due to this capability, it overpowers human beings in accuracy of work.

Versatility: It means the capacity to perform completely different types of work. You may use your computer
to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
Computer is a multitasking device.

Power of Remembering: Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any
information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any number of years.

No Intelligence: Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from user. It
processes the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do
and in what sequence. So, a computer cannot take its own decision.

No Feeling: A computer does not have feelings, emotions, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus, it does
not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

Storage: Computer has in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also store data in
secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside the computer and can be carried to
other computers.

Computer Generations
First Generation – (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire room. A magnetic drum, also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated
with magnetic iron-oxide on which data and programs were stored.

The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channels located around the circumference of the drum,
forming adjacent circular bands that wind around the drum. A single drum can have up to 200 tracks. As the
drum rotates at a speed of up to 3,000 rpm, the device's read/write heads deposit magnetized spots on the
drum during the write operation and sense these spots during a read operation. This action is similar to that of
a magnetic tape or disk drive.

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Top Careers & You™ Introduction to Computers
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They were very expensive to operate and in addition used a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat,
which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform
operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Machine languages are the only languages
understood by computers. While easily understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible
for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers.

Second Generation – (1956-1963): Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation computer. Transistor is a device
composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947 at
Bell Labs, transistors have become the key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today's latest
microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic transistors.

The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The
transistor was far superior to vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still
generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage but still it was a vast improvement over
the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers were also relied on punch cards for input and print outs for
output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages
were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also
the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to
magnetic core technology.

Third Generation – (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors
were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed
and efficiency of computers.

Silicon as a basic material used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon diodes and other electronic
circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure makes the element an ideal semiconductor. Silicon
is commonly doped or mixed with other elements, such as boron, phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its
conductive properties.

A chip is a small piece of semi-conducting material (usually silicon) on which an integrated circuit is
embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and contains millions of electronic components
(transistors). Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards. There
are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also called microprocessors) contain an entire
processing unit whereas memory chips contain blank memory.
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Semiconductor is a material, i.e. neither a good conductor of electricity (like copper) nor a good insulator (like
rubber). The most common semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. So, these materials are
doped to create an excess or lack of electrons.

Fourth Generation – (1971-Present): Microprocessors

The development of microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers as thousands of integrated
circuits we rebuilt onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip contains an entire CPU. In the world of personal
computers, the terms ‘microprocessor’ and ‘CPU’ are used interchangeably. The microprocessor sits at the
heart of all personal computers and most workstations. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all
digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines the number of instructions executed by
a processor per second.

Higher the value of microprocessor, more powerful is the CPU. For example, a 32-bit microprocessor that runs
at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bitmicroprocessor that runs at 25MHz.

The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, contains all the components of the computer (from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output controls) on a single chip.

On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small
workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor.

Fifth Generation – (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are
some applications such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers, which behave like
humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Artificial intelligence includes:
• Games Playing: Programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers.
• Expert Systems: Programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations. (For example, some
expert systems help doctors to diagnose diseases based on symptoms).
• Natural Language: Programming computers to understand natural human languages.
• Neutral Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical
connections that occur in animal brains.
• Robotics: Programming computers to see, listen and react to sensory stimuli.

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Currently, no computer exhibits full artificial intelligence (i.e. able to simulate human behaviour). The greatest
advances have occurred in the field of games playing. The best computer chess programs are now capable of
beating humans. In May 1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion
Gary Kasparov in a chess match.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
There is computer in the car you drive; there could be a PC on your desk or on your study table at home. All
of them do not fall into the same category. They are different by means of hardware, software, built purpose
and everything.
Each and every computer must fall in one of the four categories described below:
1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe computer
3. Mini computer
4. Micro computer

Super Computers
Large scientific and research laboratories as well as the government organizations have extra ordinary
demand for processing data, which requires tremendous processing speed, memory and other services which
may not be provided with any other category to meet their needs. Therefore, very large computers called as
Super Computers are used. These computers are extremely expensive and the speed is measured in billions
of instructions per seconds.
A supercomputer is among the largest, fastest and the most powerful of the computers available.
Supercomputers are being improved all the time. Soon they will operate on the petaflop-scale (that's one
quadrillion operations per second!).

Main Frame Computers

One of the largest types of computer, which is commonly used, is mainframe computer. These computers
are used where many people in organization need frequent access to same information, which is usually
organized information of one or more large databases. The mainframe computers are the most expensive
computers. The mainframes are able to process 1 to 8 bits at a time. They have several hundreds of
megabytes of primary storage and operate at a speed measured in nanoseconds.

Mainframe computer history starts from 1950's. In those days, mainframe computers are the only computers
available in those days and only big organizations were able to afford them. IBM started its Mainframe selling
from 1952, by announcing IBM 700 series machines. After IBM 700 Mainframe series, it introduced IBM 1400
mainframe series between years 1959 - 62. IBM announced its first general purpose mainframe computers
IBM System/360 in 1964.

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Mini Computers
Mini computers are smaller than mainframes both in size and other facilities such as speed, storage capacity
and other services. They are versatile which can be fitted wherever they are needed. Their speeds are rated
between one and fifty million instructions per second (MIPS). They have primary storage in hundred to three
hundred megabytes range with direct access storage device.

Linux software synthesizer for creating experimental electronic sounds often used in minicomputers but not
limited to Industrial music, IDM, EBM, Glitch, sound design and minimal electronic. It is monophonic but can
produce up to 8 different sounds at the same time.

Micro Computers
These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the early 70’s having less storing space
and processing speed. Micro computers of today are equivalent to the mini computers of yesterday in terms of
performance and processing. They are also called “computer of a chip” because its entire circuitry is
contained in one tiny chip. The micro computers have a wide range of applications including portable
computer that can be plugged into any wall. These computers are also known as “Personal Computers (PC)”.
These computers are cheaper than other computers so they are mostly available in market. Micro computer is
also further categorized into following types:-
a. Workstations
b. Desktop
c. Laptops
d. PDAs

a. Workstations
Workstations are expensive, powerful machines used by engineers, scientist and other professionals
who process large amount of data. Person who needs to run complex programs and display both work
in progress and result graphically used workstations.
They have sophisticated display screen featuring high resolution, graphics and operating system such
as UNIX. Some examples are Sun Apollo, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, etc.

b. Desktops (Personal Computer)

PCs are desktops or portable machines. These machines are comparatively easy to use applications
software such as the word processor, spread sheet (excel), etc.
Examples: Dell Vostro, Compaq Presario, etc.

c. Laptops:
Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use.
Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that charges the computer batteries. They are
enabled with an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display (LCD) as
screen. Its portability and capacity to operate on battery power have served as a boon for mobile
users. Examples: HP, Dell, MSI, Apple, Asus etc.
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d. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs):

It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card
for storage of data. PDA s can also be used as portable audio players, web browsers and smart
phones. Most of them can access the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication.
Examples: RIM’s Blackberry.

Notebook Computers
As the name suggests, their size is about 8.5 by 11 inch and can easily fit inside a briefcase. They were
initially called laptops but gradually as the size decreased smaller ones were called notebooks. They can be
operated on batteries also. Notebook computer can also be run from an external AC/DC adapter which can
charge the battery while also supplying power to the computer itself.
Notebook computers are capable of the same tasks as a desktop computer. They contain components that
are similar to their desktop counterparts and perform the same functions, but are miniaturized and optimized
for mobile use and efficient power consumption. Laptops usually have liquid crystal displays and most of them
use different memory modules for their random access memory (RAM). In addition to a built-in keyboard, they
have touchpad (also known as a track pad) or a pointing stick for input.

Embedded Computers
Embedded computers are incorporated into other devices, rather than standing alone computers. Examples of
embedded computers are digital cameras, mobile phones, music players, specialist IT hardware (such as
networking hardware), and almost any kind of industrial or domestic control system.
Embedded computers are being incorporated into many devices of automotive electronics such as navigation
systems. They are also being used to affect the fundamental functioning of cars such as braking systems.

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