This article was downloaded by: [New York University]

On: 07 October 2014, At: 13:29

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer
House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Geodezija ir Kartografija
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgac19

Dam deformation measurements with GPS

a
Levent Taşçi
a
Assoc. Prof., Dr. Fýrat University , Elazýğ , 23119 , Turkey Phone:
+424–2370000–5404 E-mail:
Published online: 03 Aug 2012.

To cite this article: Levent Taşçi (2008) Dam deformation measurements with GPS, Geodezija ir Kartografija, 34:4,
116-121, DOI: 10.3846/1392-1541.2008.34.116-121

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/1392-1541.2008.34.116-121

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”)
contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors
make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any
purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views
of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor
and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses,
damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection
with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 GEODEZIJA IR KARTOGRAFIJA / GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY
2008
34(4): 116–121

UDK 528.482 doi: 10.3846/1392-1541.2008.34.116-121

DAM DEFORMATION MEASUREMENTS WITH GPS

Levent TAŞÇI

Fýrat University, 23119 Elazığ, Turkey

E-mail: [email protected]
Received 22 04 2008; accepted 22 09 2008

Abstract. The results of deformation measurements are related to direct safety of engineering structures and
human life. To avoid a wrong interpretation of displacements, an appropriate deformation monitoring network
must be established and the data obtained from deformation monitoring network must be carefully evaluated. De-
formation measurements and analysis require the use of very accurate surveying equipment and analysis methods.
Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:29 07 October 2014

The Global Positioning System (GPS) meets the requirements stated above and therefore GPS receivers were used
for this research. The purpose of this work was to monitor and analyze the deformation at the crest of the Altýnkaya
dam caused by the water load at different water levels combined with the dam’s weight. The secondary goal was to
determine whether GPS measurements could meet the accuracy requirements for dam deformation measurements.
As working area the Altýnkaya dam is selected it is rockfill. In order to monitor and examine the deformation, a
monitoring network consisting of 6 reference points and 11 object points was established. Measurements were made
4 times over 2 years using dual frequency GPS receivers with static methods. The measurements were performed
and point coordinates have been determined. Then differences were calculated between periods and analyzed by
iterative weighted transformation and Least Absolute Sum methods to determine the points stability.
Keywords: dam, Global Positioning System, deformation measurements, deformation analysis.

1. Introduction used in monitoring deformations. Conventional control

Deformation measurements are one of the most impor- surveying can be used to monitor the motion of points on
tant activities of engineering surveying. In the settlement a structure relative to stable monuments. Photogramme-
areas with a dense population engineering buildings as tric methods are also suitable for dam deformation surve-
dams, bridges, viaduct and skyscrapers have been built. ying. Techniques of digital photogrammetry depict a fast,
Thus, the importance of deformation measurements have economic and versatile tool for 3-D deformation measu-
been increased. These kinds of engineering buildings are ring. Terrestrial laser scanners have recently taken large
exposed to deformation due to different factors of changes steps in development and have the potential to become a
as tectonic movements, landslides, changings on ground useful survey tool.
water level etc. Dams are affected and deformed because The purpose of this work is to monitor and analy-
of internal and external loads. These loads are not cons- ze the deformations at the crest of the Altýnkaya dam
tant and can change over time. Deformation and seepa- which were caused by the water load at different levels
ge are functions of these loads. The effects of deformation combined with the dam’s weight. A secondary goal was
on rock-filled dams are altogether different from that of to determine whether GPS measurements could meet
concrete dams. However, the deformation of both types is the accuracy requirements for dam deformation mea-
largely characterised as permanent. The weight of a dam surements. Deformation analyses were made using both
and the hydrostatic pressure of reservoir back water yield an Iterative Weighted Similarity Transformation (IWST)
forces which result in vertical movements of structures. and the Least Absolute Sum (LAS) method which does
The hydrostatic pressure of a reservoir can also cause a not require previous information about deformation be-
permanent horizontal deformation that is perpendicular haviour. Then, the results of the two methods have been
to centreline of the dam. Elastic behaviour is smaller in compared and discussed.
a rock-fill dam (Engineer manual 1994). The electric po-
2. WGS 84 Cartesian coordinates transformed to
wer in Turkey is to a large extent generated from the water
local topocentric coordinate system
temporarily stored in reservoirs. Deformations of points
on dam crest have so far mainly been defined by geodetic The coordinates of GPS measurements is WGS-84 Car-
measurements. There is a variety of surveying instruments tesian coordinate system. Thus, in order to see the real
and methods with different capacities and features that are directions of the displacements, all WGS-84 Cartesian

ISSN 1392-1541 print / ISSN 1648-3502 online

116 http://www.gc.vgtu.lt
 Geodezija ir kartografija / Geodesy and Cartography, 2008, 34(4): 116–121 117

coordinates have been transformed to a local topocen- 3. Robust methods for analyzing displacements
tric coordinate system because the obtained directions in In this work, for determining the displacements of de-
this system are incompatible with directions on the phy- formation monitoring network IWST (Iterative Weigh-
sical ground. Thus, Cartesian coordinates in the WGS-84 ted Similarity Transformation) and LAS robust methods
coordinate system must transform the plane coordinate are used. Robust methods are used when there is no pre-
system. For this process, deformation network must be vious information about the movement of points within
connected at least at three points of known coordinates the network (Singh, Setan 1999). IWST, developed by
in the national coordinate system. This process requires Chen (Chen 1983) in the New Brunswick University, is
more time and additional process. In this work, Cartesian known as the robust method.
coordinates in the WGS-84 system are transformed to the Calculated displacement values could be affected
local topocentric coordinate system. Because this method from data selection or from defining two different data
is more useful and easier, no additional measurements are while adjusting the measurements taken at two different
required to obtain the local topocentric coordinates. periods (Chen 1983). Therefore, the weight matrix is
The origin of local topocentric coordinate system obtained iteratively (Singh, Sefan 1999; Chen 1983; Gö-
(Pi) is at the ground point. Because of this feature the to- kalp 1997). Adjusted coordinates of the points xˆ1 , xˆ2 in
pocentric system (u) coordinate axis is taken as the sur- the deformation network and their cofactor (covariance)
face normal of elipsoid passing from ground point (Pi) matrices Qxˆ1, Qxˆ 2 are calculated with two separate adjus-
that is selected as the origin point. Positive direction of tments. Displacement values (d) and the cofactor matrix
Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:29 07 October 2014

this axis is selected because it is directed towards the ze- of d Qd are calculated as
nith. Axis (n) surface normal of reference elipsoid on the
ground point (Pi) is taken as the origin point of system d = xˆ2 − xˆ1, (4)
and meridian plane including polar point (Fig. 1).
Qd = Qxˆ1 + Qxˆ 2 . (5)
At the beginning, weight matrix (W) are accepted
as W = I. This indicates that all the points in the network
have the same importance. Therefore solution is like hel-
mert transformation. If only some points are given unit
weight and the others zero weight, i.e. W = diag {I,0}
(Chen et al. 1990).
Then displacement values (d) are calculated from
Eq. 6.
d = S(W)d, (6)
here S(W) shows that S matrix, calculated with W = I,
Fig. 1. Local topocentric coordinate system
can be obtained as
(Wellenhof et al. 1992)
S = (I – H(HTWH)–1HTW). (7)
T transformation matrice Eq. (1):
H matrix for the 3D networks is written.
 − sin λ cos λ 0 
  e 0 0 0 z 0 − y0 x0 
T =  − sin ϕ cos λ − sin ϕ sin λ cos ϕ  . (1)  
H = 0 e 0 − z 0 0 x0 y0  , (8)
 cos ϕ cos λ cos ϕ sin λ sin ϕ 
  0 0 e y 0 − x 0 0 z 0 
  3m * 7
Horizontal plane (X0, Y0, Z0) is tangent in the point
where eT = (1,..........,1) and z0, y0, x0 are approximate co-
with Cartesian coordinate. e, n, u are components in the ordinate vectors with respect to centre of the network.
right-hand system and Cartesian coordinates are trans-
formed relative to Eq. (2): 1 m
X0i = Xi − ∑X ,
m 1 i0
ei    Xi   X 0  
      1 m
(2) Y0i = Yi − ∑ Yi 0 ,
ni  = T  Yi  − Y0   . m1
ui   Z  Z  
   i   0  1 m
Z0i = Zi − ∑ Zi 0 . (9)
m1
Variance-covariance matrice of Local Topocentric
i i i
Coordinate System is given in Eq. (3): Above, z0 , y0 , x0 are the ith elements of z0, y0, x0
VCVENH = T *VCVXYZ * TT, (3) respectively, and zi, yi, xi are approximate coordinates of
point Pi and m is the number of the points in the network
where VCVXYZ is Variance-covariance matrice of Carte- (Kuang 1996; Öztürk, Şerbetçi 1992; Singh, Setan 2001).
sian coordinate system. This equation is used for trans- The main difference between LAS and IWST method
formation to Local Topocentric Coordinate System from is in forming the weight matrix (Chen 1983). In the IWST
GPS coordinates. and LAS methods, some points in a reference network
 118 L. Tașçi. Dam deformation measurements with GPS

cannot be accepted as stable; in other words, not every σ20= (df1 σ201 + df2 σ202)/(df1 + df2), (15)
point has equal importance. Hence, in the beginning, the
where df1 and df2 are degrees of freedom used whi-
weight matrix (W) is accepted as W = I. While datum de-
le adjusting the first and second period measurements
termine, this indicates that all the points in the network
respectively. σ201 and σ202 are variance factors
have the same importance. Therefore the solution is simi-
lar to the Helmert transformation, if some points are given ci < F(1 – α, 1, df). (16)
unit weight and the others a zero weight, i.e. W = diag {I,
If the above equation is accepted, it may be said that
0} (Chen 1983; Chen et al. 1990). Hence the weight matrix the point is stable, otherwise it is unstable. In Eq. (16), α
can be obtained iteratively, as shown below. is significance level, df – the degree of freedom calculated
The weight matrix for IWST, from df = df1 + df2.
 1  4. Application
 
Wk = Diag  , (10/1)
 di(k )  4.1. Description of Altýnkaya dam
th th
where di(k) is the i component of the vector dk after k The Altýnkaya dam is located in 35 km southwest from
iteration. Bafra city of Samsun. It is the second largest embankment
The weight matrix for LAS, dam in Turkey. Fig. 2 shows a view of dam’s main struc-
ture and also a big part of the reservoir. The dam is built
Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:29 07 October 2014

  on the Kýzýlýrmak River as rock fill with clay having se-

 1 
Wk = Diag  , (10/2) eds. Reservoir volume at normal water surface elevation
k 2 k 2
 (dxi ) + (dyi )  is 5.76 × 109 m3. Annual generation is 1632 GWh. Height
of the dam (from the river bed) is 195 m, crest length
where dxi and dyi are displacements in the direction of x 634 m. Reservoir area at normal water surface elevation
and y axis respectively. dk+1 is calculated as is 118.31 km2. Volume of the dam is 16 × 106 m3. The
dam is convex towards the water.
dk+1 = S(Wk). (11)
The iterative procedure continues until the user de-
fines threshold (ε):
dik + 1– dik < ε. (12)
If the difference is greater than ε, Wk is calcula-
ted again using the value obtained from Eq. (11). Then,
Qd(k+1) is calculated:
Qd(k+1) = S(Wk)Qd1ST(Wk). (13)
Note that during the iterative procedure, some dik
may be close to 0. In that case, Wk becomes very large.
This could cause numerical instabilities in calculation of
Wk. Therefore, in order to avoid this problem, when the
Wk is calculated, the tolerance value (c) is only added to
those displacement components (di) for LAS method (Eq.
10/1) and also the tolerance value (c) is only added to those Number of
displacement components (dxi and dyi) for LAS method 1 2 3 4 5
session
(Eq. 10/2), where tolerance value “c” is a small constant. 1003- 1003- 1003- 1003- 1001-
In this procedure, LAS method minimizes the sum Receiver 1005- 1004- 1004- 1001- 1004-
locations
of the length of displacement 1006 1006 1002 1002 1005
Fig. 2. Reference network of Altýnkaya dam and
 
 ∑ (dxi ) + (dyi )
2 2
⇒ minimum ,

measurement plan

4.2. Description of Altýnkaya dam geodetic

while the IWST method minimizes the total sum deformation monitoring network
of absolute values of the displacement components The deformation measurements of the dam involved
( )
∑ di ⇒ minimum (Singh, Sefan 1999). In order to four measurement campaigns and two separate measu-
determine unstable reference and object points in the rements were made at the Altýnkaya dam: one between
deformation network, the following procedure could be reference points and the other within the object points.
used. Values of ci are determined using calculated para- The deformation measurements related to the reference
meters in Eqs (11) and (13) for each point as in Eq. (14). and object network were made with 3 Ashtech Z surveyor
di2 /qdi σ20 = ci. (14) GPS receivers and 700700B_Mar.III_L1/L2 GPS anten-
nas. Monitoring network consists of 6 reference stations
2
Here, σ 0 is determined as (1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1005, 1006), built as pillars on
 Geodezija ir kartografija / Geodesy and Cartography, 2008, 34(4): 116–121 119
Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:29 07 October 2014

Fig. 3. Object network of Altýnkaya dam

stable ground surrounding the dam. Fig. 2 shows a view depends on the accuracy of the instruments used. Thus,
of reference point and the deformation measurement in- the Minimum Norm Quadratic Unbiased Estimation
formation related to the reference network. For the mea- (MINQUE) method was used to determine the accuracy
surement plan on the reference network, the observation of the baseline measurements instead of taking the va-
period was selected 45 minutes with a sampling rate of lues that are given for the GPS receiver and by software
10 seconds. The satellite elevation mask was selected at manufacturers as above (Gökalp 1991). The accuracy of
15° in order to avoid multi-path effect and cycle slip er- baselines were calculated 4 mm horizontally and 6 mm
ror. Measurements at reference points were made on pil- vertically by MINQUE (TaŞçi, Gökalp 2002). There was
lars, therefore forced centering was achieved.
little difference between the given and calculated values.
In order to monitor and measure possible displa-
Therefore, the default values were used. A 2-dimensional
cements at the crest, 10 object points were established at
deformation analysis in the Altýnkaya dam was made
the crest, when the dam was built. Since that time only
one object point (numbered 0023) was added to the de- because of a lower accuracy of the Z components with
formation network (Fig. 3). This point was built becau- respect to the X and Y components. It was also assumed
se of the physical changes that had been observed in the that the vertical deformation caused by the weight of the
surrounding area. Two different measurement plans were dam did not exist. Therefore, only horizontal displace-
applied to the survey object points. Receiver locations and ments were determined and analyzed in this study. In
sessions related to the measurements are given in Fig. 2. order to see the real directions of the displacements, all
In the first plan, two receivers were set over points 1003 WGS 84 Cartesian coordinates were transformed to a lo-
and 1004. Then, the third receiver was set over each object cal topocentric coordinate system. For the transformati-
point about 30 minutes. In the second plan, a receiver was on, 0003 point has been accepted as the fix and the other
set over point 0003 during the all observation periods, and points has reduced the datum of this point. Variance-Co-
the other points were measured using a leapfrog method. variance matrice obtained from GeoGenius GPS softwa-
The main goal of this measurement plan was to correla- re is transformed to Variance-Covariance matrice of Lo-
te the observations and make loop closures. The object cal Topocentric Coordinate system. In the deformation
point measurements were taken using tripods with opti- analysis this Variance-Covariance matrice is used and
cal plummets and string plumb-bobs used for centring. displacements are determined.
Before commencing deformation measurements, all the
equipment was calibrated. In order to avoid or diminish 4.4. Determination of stable and unstable points in
any equipment errors, the same GPS receivers and anten- the deformation network using robust methods
nas were used at the same points in all periods.
In the process determining the movement points in the
4.3. Evaluation of GPS measurements network with IWST and LAS methods for each period
The measurements were processed with GeoGenius 2000 are tested according to α = 0,95. The first period is taken
software. The deformation network showed a maximum as the reference period. Therefore, according to reference
value of 0,9 mm horizontally and 1,7 mm vertically for period, as the periods 1–2, 1–3, 1–4 are formed. Point co-
the 4 observational periods. The adjusted coordinates ordinates E, N and their cofactor matrices Qx1, Qx2 were
and their covariances were obtained from a free network calculated with two separate free network adjustments.
adjustment. The accuracy of the measurements of the The IWST and LAS determined the displacement values
horizantal deformations and the vertical displacements (d) with two iterations (appendix 1).
 120 L. Tașçi. Dam deformation measurements with GPS

4.5. Interpretation of the results A 2-dimensional deformation analysis was made

Water levels were 170.34 m in first period, 167,53 m – in because of a lower accuracy of the Z component with
the second period, 164,20 m – in the third period, and respect to the X and Y components. Therefore, for furt-
177,23 m – in the final period. In between 3 epochs obser- her work, in order to determine the movement in the
ved, because of a larger electric production and no rainfall, vertical dimension, the use of a precise levelling or anot-
water level has decreased. The reduction of water level in her method that has the potential to provide a vertical
between the 3 epochs is 6,14 m. This reduction caused the accuracy equal to or greater than the horizontal accuracy
movement of points on the dam’s crest. These horizontal of GPS is recommended.
movements on the crest could occur in the middle of the In conclusion, in regard to a magnitude of the dis-
dam crest in arch dams was proved by the GPS measure- placements, there is neither threat to the structural and
ments and deformation analysis methods (Fig. 4). functional security of the dam nor to the lives and pro-
perty of people living in the vicinity.

References
Chen, Y. Q. 1983. Analysis of deformation surveys. A genera-
lized method. Technical Report No. 94, University of New
Brunswick Surveying Engineering. Fredericton, N. B.,
Canada.
Chen, Y. Q.; Chrzanowski A.; Secord, J. M. 1990. A Strategy for
Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:29 07 October 2014

the Analysis of the Stability of Reference Points in Defor-

mation Surveys, CISM / JOURNAL ACSGC 44(2).
Chrzanowski, A. 1992. Interdisciplinary approach to deforma-
tion monitoring and analysis. IUSM of the Working Group
Sessions, Washington, D. C. U. S. A.
Fig. 4. The deformation elipses drawing between periods ENGINEER MANUAL, EM-1110-2-1004, 1994. Deformation
Monitoring and Control Surveying. U.S. Army Corps of
5. Conclusions Engineers. Washington, DC.
In order to monitor and measure possible displacements at Gökalp, E. 1991. Evaluation of GPS measurements by MINQUE
and integration of GPS and levelling in subsidence monitoring.
the crest, an extensive deformation network has been set up
M. Eng. Report. Department of Surveying Engineering. Uni-
in the Altýnkaya dam and surrounding region to carry out
versity of New Brunswick. Fredericton, N.B., Canada.
deformation studies. The study was undertaken to determi-
ne whether GPS measurements could reach the accuracy Gökalp, E. 1997. Estimation of movements of the reference and
requirements for dam deformation measurements. object points in the deformation networks (Deformasyon
Ağlarýndaki Referans ve Obje Noktalarýnýn Hareketli
GPS is an effective method for static deformation
Olup Olmadýğýnýn Belirlenmesi), Harita Dergisi, Harita
monitoring. There is a direct correlation between fall in Genel Komutanlýğý Matbaasý, Ankara, Türkiye.
the reservoir water level and dam deformation. As the
water level of reservoir falls, points on the dam’s crest Kuang, S. 1996. Geodetic networks analysis and optimal design
concepts and applications. Ann Arbor Press. Inc. Chelsea,
tend to shift towards upstream. In inverse action, the
Michigan.
points on the axis of dam tend to shift towards downs-
tream (Fig. 4). Singh, R.; Setan, H. 1999. Comparison of different datum de-
In this study, the most significant movements have finitions in detection of deformation of a geodetic monito-
ring networks, in Presented at Research Seminar on Cons-
been seen in the middle of the dam’s crest and at the
truction, Materials and Environmental Technology. 3–4
ends. These phenomena observed from the GPS obser- February, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Bahru.
vation have also been provided by the results of deforma-
tion analysis (Fig. 4). The movement of the points on the Singh, R.; Setan, H. 2001. Deformation analysis of a geodetic
monitoring network, Geomatica 55(3): 333–346.
dam’s crest is insufficient to interpretation with respect
to water load. Strang, G.; Borre, K. 1997. Linear algebra, geodesy and GPS.
Deformation parameters obtained from the results Wellesley-Cambridge Press, USA.
of two independent techniques indicate a very high cor- Taşçi, L.; Gökalp, E. 2002. Evaluation of the accuracy of
relation. Besides, both methods have the capability of de- Altýnkaya dam GPS measurements by minimum norm qu-
termination of the single point displacements free from adratic unbiased estimation (MINQUE). International Sym-
the choice of the datum in the reference networks. When posium on GIS. September 23-26, Istanbul, Turkey.
comparing the LAS method with the IWST method, the Wellenhof, B. H.; Lichtenegger, H.; Collins, J. 1992. GPS theory
capability of determinating the single point displace- and practice. Springer-Verlag and Environment.
ments of the LAS method is more effective with respect Öztürk, E.; Şerbetçi, M. 1992. Adjustment Vol III (Dengeleme
to IWST method. Because, when examining the displa- Hesabý Cilt III), K.T.U, TURKEY, Trabzon.
cement vectors, obtained by the LAS method, the points
with a displacement greater than or equal to 4 mm were Levent TAŞÇI, Assoc. Prof., Dr. Fýrat University, Elazýğ, Tur-
accepted as unstable. This coincides with the horizon- key, Ph +424-2370000-5404.
tal accuracy of the observations calculated by MINQUE Research interest: Global Positioning System, deformati-
(Gökalp 1991; TaŞçi, Gökalp 2002). on measurements and analysis.
 Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:29 07 October 2014

Appendix 1. Stable and unstable points determined by IWST and LAS

Stable and unstable points determined by IWST and LAS

Between 1–2 periods Between 1–3 periods Between 1–4 periods
IWST LAS IWST LAS IWST LAS
dN dE dN dE dN dE dN dE dN dE dN dE
mm mm mm mm IWST LAS mm mm mm mm IWST LAS mm mm mm mm IWST LAS
1001 –4,9 1,0 –4,8 1,6 stable unstable 2,9 9,7 2,9 10,5 unstable unstable –5,0 –0,2 –5,7 –0,6 stable unstable
1002 0,0 4,8 0,3 5,5 unstable unstable –10,3 5,2 –10,3 6,1 unstable unstable –1,0 –0,9 –1,3 –1,1 stable stable
1003 0,1 0,0 1,1 0,9 stable stable 2,1 0,0 2,3 0,7 stable unstable –0,9 3,4 –0,9 2,3 stable stable
1004 –2,3 0,0 –2,1 1,5 stable stable –1,7 –0,7 –1,5 0,0 stable stable 0,9 –2,5 1,4 –2,8 stable stable

Reference points
1005 –3,5 0,0 –3,3 0,4 stable stable 2,4 –1,4 2,6 –0,8 stable stable –2,3 2,8 –1,8 1,4 stable stable
1006 –6,2 2,6 –5,9 3,2 unstable unstable –7,0 0,2 –6,8 1,0 unstable unstable –0,6 0,7 0,1 0,0 stable stable
3 3,9 –4,9 4,3 –4,3 unstable unstable 6,4 –5,0 6,6 –4,2 unstable unstable 7,4 –3,5 7,5 –4,2 unstable unstable
5 1,8 –1,2 2,2 –0,6 stable stable 4,6 1,5 4,8 2,3 stable unstable 4,5 –0,1 4,7 –0,7 stable unstable
7 4,6 0,0 4,9 1,0 unstable unstable 5,8 –2,9 6,1 –2,1 unstable unstable 4,1 2,5 4,2 1,8 unstable unstable
9 4,9 0,0 5,2 0,4 stable unstable 3,3 –1,7 3,6 –0,9 stable stable 7,5 3,2 7,6 2,6 unstable unstable
11 4,4 3,6 4,7 4,2 unstable unstable 7,5 0,3 7,7 1,2 stable unstable 3,0 0,6 3,1 10,0 unstable unstable
13 –2,4 4,7 –2,1 5,3 unstable unstable –1,8 3,1 –1,6 3,9 stable stable –3,5 7,7 –2,9 7,3 unstable unstable
Geodezija ir kartografija / Geodesy and Cartography, 2008, 34(4): 116–121

15 0,0 –2,7 0,6 –2,2 stable stable 0,0 –6,0 0,4 –5,3 unstable unstable 0,2 –4,4 1,0 –4,5 unstable unstable

Object points
17 0,0 –2,5 0,3 –1,9 stable stable –5,3 2,2 –5,2 3,0 unstable unstable –3,7 2,6 –2,8 1,9 stable unstable
19 –4,8 –4,3 –4,5 –3,8 unstable unstable –7,6 –1,0 –7,4 –0,2 unstable unstable –5,8 –2,4 –5,4 –3,0 unstable unstable
21 0,0 0,0 –0,3 0,9 stable stable –2,1 1,0 –1,9 1,9 stable stable 0,4 –2,7 –0,5 –3,3 stable stable
23 2,1 –4,5 2,4 –3,9 stable unstable –1,7 –4,5 –1,5 –3,8 stable stable –1,1 –1,9 –1,0 –2,2 stable stable
121