Erik Erikson

1902 – 1994

Psychosocial
Development

Erik Homburger Erikson (born Erik Salomonsen) was a German-American

developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological
development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity
crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Despite lacking a
bachelor's degree, Erikson served as a professor at prominent institutions, including
Harvard, University of California, Berkeley, and Yale. A Review of General Psychology
survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the
20th century.
The development of identity seems to have been one of Erikson's greatest
concerns in his own life as well as being central to his theoretical work. As an older
adult, he wrote about his adolescent "identity confusion" in his European days. "My
identity confusion", he wrote "[was at times on] the borderline between neurosis and
adolescent psychosis." Erikson's daughter writes that her father's "real psychoanalytic
identity" was not established until he "replaced his stepfather's surname [Homburger]
with a name of his own invention [Erikson]." The change in last name occurred as he
started his job at Yale, and the "Erikson" name was accepted by Erik's family when they
became American citizens. It is said his children enjoyed the fact they would not be
called "Hamburger" any longer.
Erikson married Canadian-born American psychologist Joan in 1930 and they
remained together until his death. The Eriksons had four children, the eldest of whom is
the sociologist Kai T. Erikson. Jon Erikson. Their daughter, Sue Erikson Bloland, "an
integrative psychotherapist and psychoanalyst", described her father as plagued by
"lifelong feelings of personal inadequacy". He thought that by combining resources with
his wife, he could "achieve the recognition" that might produce a feeling of adequacy.
Their youngest son is Neil Erikson. Erikson died on 12 May 1994 in Harwich,
Massachusetts. He is buried in the First Congregational Church Cemetery in Harwich.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a
series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's
theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was
interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development
and growth of human beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way
for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience
a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts
are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that
quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the
potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the
stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives.3 If
they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills
needed for a strong sense of self.
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an
area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is
sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly,
the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between
birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is
utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult
caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and
nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to
feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.

Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the
world.2 Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute
to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result
in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
 During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of
trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson
believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two
opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as
an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place
during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control. At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making
simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain
control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a
sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a
vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of
Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining
more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial
development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and
doubt. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed
that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will,
which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool
years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power
and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children
who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children
need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage
leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative
and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known
as purpose emerges.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a
sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new
social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure
results in feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop
a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development
leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their
abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage
years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity
which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.
Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability
to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of
self.2 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs,
ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage
successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations. While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial
development was important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of
ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social
interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of
psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we
have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the
development of identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self
that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our
actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in the
virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships
with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement
in the world. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career
and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are
contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.2 Those who fail
to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
 Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud
of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a
sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting
back on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives
and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things
they did or didn't do. Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed
development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look
back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock.
Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to
face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel
regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things
they feel they should have.

Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense
of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets
and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when
confronting death.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of
experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a person
move from one stage to the next?

Criticism
One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for
resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or
developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at
each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.
Support
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework
from which to view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to
emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important influence that social
relationships have on development. Researchers have found evidence supporting
Erikson's ideas about identity and have further identified different sub-stages of identity
formation.