Robusta Coffee Handbook

Uganda Coffee
Development Authority
THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE,
ANIMAL INDUSTRY & FISHARIES
ROBUSTA COFFEE
HANDBOOK
A Sustainable Coffee Industry with High Stakeholder
Value for Social Economic Transformation
© 2019: Uganda Coffee Development Authority (UCDA)
Citation: Robusta Coffee Handbook. Uganda Coffee Development Authority
Uganda Coffee Development Authority

Coffee House,
Plot 35 Jinja Road,
P. O.Box 7267, Kampala, Uganda
Tel: (+256)-312-260470
Email: [email protected]
Website: www. ugandacoffee.go.ug
Twitter: @CoffeeUganda
Uganda
THE BIRTHPLACE OF
ROBUSTA COFFEE
Uganda Coffee
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 1
CHAPTER 1. ROBUSTA COFFEE GROWING IN UGANDA 3

1.0 Background 3
1.1 Government policy and strategy on the coffee sub-sector 3
1.2 Characteristics of Robusta Coffee and its importance 4
1.3 Robusta Coffee growing zones in Uganda 4
1.4 Robusta Coffee varieties in Uganda 4
1.5 Objectives of the Handbook 7
CHAPTER 2. ROBUSTA COFFEE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS AND PRODUCTION 9

SYSTEMS
2.0 Introduction 9
2.1 Soil and Land Requirements 9
2.2 Altitude 9
2.3 Temperature 9
2.4 Rainfall and Humidity 9
2.5 Wind Effects 10
2.6 Robusta Coffee Production Systems 10
2.6.1 Monocropping System 10
2.6.2 Intercropping System 11
CHAPTER 3. ROBUSTA COFFEE FARM ESTABLISHMENT 15

AND FIELD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
3.0 Introduction 15
3.1 Coffee Farm Establishment 15
3.1.1 Clear the Site 15
3.1.2 Plant windbreakers 16
3.1.3 Mark out the rows 17
3.1.4 Establishing Shade Trees 17
3.1.5 Set-up Water Delivery Systems 20
3.1.6 Dig holes and backfill 22
3.1.7 Select Planting Materials 23
3.1.8 Planting out 24
3.1.9 Water the Seedlings 25
3.1.10 Training or Bending of Coffee Stem 25
ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK i

3.2 Field Management Practices 27
3.2.1 Weed Control 27
3.2.2 Mulching 28
3.2.3 Water for Production and Irrigation 29
3.2.4 Soil and Water Conservation 33
3.2.5 Cover Crops 35
3.2.6 Pruning and De-suckering 36
CHAPTER 4. REHABILITATION AND RENOVATION OF OLD ROBUSTA COFFEE TREES 41

4.0 Introduction 41
4.1 Rationale for rehabilitating old coffee trees 42
4.2 Coffee Stumping Practices 42
4.2.1 Purpose of Coffee Stumping 42
4.2.2 The stumping/cycle conversion procedure 43
4.3 Management of Coffee after Stumping 46
4.3.1 Recommendations for 6-7 Year Coffee Pruning Cycle 46
CHAPTER 5. SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT FOR ROBUSTA COFFEE FARMING 49

5.0 Introduction 49
5.1 Soil Analysis 49
5.2 Leaf Analysis 50
5.3 Coffee Nutrition 51
5.3.1 Benefits of fertilizing coffee 51
5.3.2 Importance of Macronutrients 51
5.3.3 Visual Nutrient Deficiency Identification 54
5.3.4 Importance of Micronutrients 54
5.4 Organic Fertilizers 59
5.4.1 Crop Residues 59
5.4.2 Farmyard manure 60
5.4.3 Compost 60
5.4.4 Commercial Organic fertilizers 63
5.5 Inorganic fertilizers 64
5.5.1 Inorganic Fertilizer Blend for Coffee Trees up to 2 Years 66
5.5.2 Inorganic Fertilizer Blend for Coffee Trees above 3 Years 66
5.5.3 Foliar Fertilizers 67
5.6 Management and Effective use of Fertilizer Products 68
5.6.1 Right fertilizer product 68
5.6.2 Right fertilizer rate 69
5.6.3 Right fertilizer time 69
5.6.4 Right fertilizer placement 70
ii ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

5.6.5 Nutrient antagonism and competition 70
5.6.6 Soil nutrient availability and limitations to plant growth 71
CHAPTER 6. INSECT PESTS OF ROBUSTA COFFEE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 73

6.0 Introduction 73
6.1 Black Coffee Twig Borer 73
6.1.1 Description and alternative hosts 73
6.1.2 Damage symptoms 74
6.1.3 Control 74
6.2 Coffee Berry Borer 76
6.2.1 Description and alternative hosts 76
6.2.3 Control 77
6.3 Coffee Mealybug 78
6.3.1 Description 78
6.3.3 Control 79
6.4 Coffee Leaf miner 80
6.4.3 Control 80
6.5 Coffee leaf skeletonizer 80
6.5.3 Control 81
6.6 Tailed caterpillar 81
6.6.3 Control 81
6.7 Tailed Ant 81
6.7.3 Control 81
6.8 Biting Ant 82
6.8.3 Control 82
ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK iii

CHAPTER 7. DISEASES OF ROBUSTA COFFEE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 83
7.0 Introduction 83
7.1 Coffee Wilt Disease 83
7.1.3 Control 84
7.2 Coffee leaf rust 85
7.2.3 Control 86
7.3 Red Blister Disease 86
7.3.3 Control 86
7.4 Root Rot or Collar Crack 86
7.4.3 Control 87
CHAPTER 8. ROBUSTA COFFEE HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING PRACTICES 89

8.0 Introduction 89
8.1 Robusta Coffee harvest seasons 89
8.2 Robusta Coffee harvesting best practices 89
8.3 Robusta Coffee post harvest handling and processing 91
8.3.1 Wet Processing 91
8.3.2 Dry Processing 92
8.4 Robusta Coffee storage 94
CHAPTER 9. ROBUSTA COFFEE VALUE ADDITION 97

9.0 Introduction 97
9.1 Sorting Dry Parchment and Kiboko 97
9.2 Quality Testing of FAQ 98
9.3 Grading of green coffee beans 98
9.4 Transporting of green Robusta Coffee beans 101
CHAPTER 10. COFFEE FARMING AS A BUSINESS 103

10.0 Introduction 103
10.1 Objectives of Coffee farming as a business 103
10.2 Coffee farming best practices 103
10.3 Types of coffee farming businesses 103
10.3.1 Sole proprietor 103
10.3.2 Partnership 104
iv ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK v
10.3.3 Corporation 104
10.3.4 Cooperatives 104
10.4 Coffee farm records and accounts 105
10.4.1 Farm business records 105
10.4.2 Farm accounts 107
10.5 Profitability indicators 108
10.5.1 Gross margins 108
10.5.2 Return on investment 108
10.5.3 Payback period 109
10.6 Coffee Marketing 109
10.6.1 Trading Kiboko at farm gate 109
10.6.2 Selling FAQ at the local markets 109
10.6.3 Selling FAQ at national markets 110
10.6.4 Selling Graded Coffee for Export Markets 111
10.7 Access to Finance 112
10.8 Enterprise diversification to support coffee business 112
10.9 Family decision-making 113
CHAPTER 11. CLIMATE SMART ROBUSTA COFFEE PRODUCTION 115

11.1 Climate change models and projections for coffee production 116
11.2 Implications of climate change for Robusta Coffee production 116
11.3 Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies for Coffee growing 117
11.4 Stepwise Climate Smart Investment Pathways Tools 118
CHAPTER 12. ROBUSTA COFFEE SUSTAINABILITY FARMING PRACTICES 121

12.1 Economic Sustainability 121
12.2 Social sustainability 123
12.3 Environmental sustainability 123
12.4 Certification programs and processes for Coffee farmers 124
12.4.1 Organic Certification 125
12.4.2 Fairtrade certification 126
12.4.3 Rainforest Alliance certification 127
12.4.4 Smithsonian Bird Friendly Certification 128
12.4.5 4C Common trade certification 129
12.4.6 Starbucks C.A.F.E. Practices 130
Annexes
Annex 1: Healthy Benefits of Coffee 132
Annex 2: Robusta Coffee Gross Margin per Hectare 134
Annex 3: Coffee Farm Layout 136
vi ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

PREFACE
Uganda’s economy is agricultural-based accounting for 24% of GDP and employing over 70% of the population.
Coffee is one of the leading commodities where about five million people are engaged in production and other
coffee associated businesses. Among traded commodities, coffee is the largest contributor to exports, which for
Financial Year 2017/18 was valued at US$ 492 million, representing 16% of total exports. In terms of volumes,
Uganda is 1st Commonwealth producer, 2nd African producer and 8th world producer. For Robusta production,
it is the world’s 4th largest producer.
The market for coffee is assured, sustainable and the demand for good quality coffee is increasing. Currently,
global demand for coffee stands at about 150 million bags against 148 million bags in exports, signifying a deficit
of 3.3 million bags. Demand is slated to rise to 175.8 million bags by 2020. Given the untapped production
potential, Uganda has a rare opportunity to benefit from increasing both the volume and quality of its coffee
to supply this increasing demand.
At household level, coffee is an important cash provider. With appropriate investment, farmers can earn incomes
of over Ushs. 10 million per hectare per year. However, farmers must employ good agricultural practices such
as planting high yielding and disease resistant varieties, good field husbandry/management and post harvest
handling practices to improve quality, productivity and value in the coffee farming system.
To achieve these, coffee farmers and other value chain actors need relevant, timely and accurate technical,
market and other critical information to guide their operations.
This handbook has therefore been prepared to guide Robusta Coffee farmers and other value chain players
on best coffee production methods in respect to Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) including soil nutrient
management, pests and disease management and control, harvesting and post-harvest handling, coffee farming
as a business and coffee regulations.
Uganda Coffee Development Authority (UCDA) therefore strongly recommends this handbook to coffee
farmers, extension staff, coffee buyers, processors, exporters and anybody with interest in coffee.
We appreciate the efforts and resources of all those who contributed to the development of this handbook.
In particular, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Feed the Future Uganda
Enabling Environment for Agriculture Activity (EEA) for financial support and UCDA, Research and Academia
Institutions, Coffee Associations and other members of the working group for technical input.
Dr. Emmanuel Iyamulemye Niyibigira

Managing Director
UGANDA COFFEE DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY
ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 1

CHAPTER 1
ROBUSTA COFFEE GROWING

IN UGANDA
1.0 Background Coffee can grow in most districts of Uganda. In
Coffee is the second most traded tropical commodity fulfillment of the Government’s policy and strategy,
(in value) in the world after oil. Coffee is the major coffee production is being strengthened in old
cash crop of Uganda, both in terms of foreign traditional zones but also being encouraged in new
exchange earnings and employment creation. As a areas. Rapid replacement of the old low productive
producer of coffee, Uganda ranks second in Africa coffee with high yielding, quick maturing and disease
after Ethiopia and eighth in the world. Coffee as a tolerant improved Robusta varieties is encouraged.
commodity has continued to play a leading role in Farmers are being sensitized to grow the high yielding
the economy of Uganda (contributing between 20 clonal coffee, employ good husbandry practices and
– 30% of the foreign exchange earnings), despite participate in marketing through their Farm Level
the vigorous efforts by government to diversify the Organizations (FLOs) or cooperatives.
economy. Coffee is grown by 1.7 million households
in addition to the industry employing over 5 million The coffee roadmap targets a five-fold increase in
people through the coffee value chain related activities. production of quality coffee from the current figure
of about 4.6 million bags to 20 million bags by the
1.1 Government policy and strategy year 2025, making Uganda one of the top global
on the coffee sub-sector producers. It targets to increase yield by 3 to 4 times
and expand production area by 20% (5% in traditional
The coffee industry was liberalized in 1991 and, areas and 25% in new areas). The strategy also aims
since then, anyone is free to engage in business at at expanding the middle stratum of commercial
any level in the sub-sector, subject to conforming farmers from the current 10% to 65% while reducing
to the coffee regulations of 1994. Coffee research smallholders from 85% to 25% by 2040. An enabling
is centralized and done under National Agricultural environment through public-private partnership and
Research Organisation (NARO) through the collabouration is envisaged to drive this undertaking.
National Coffee Research Institute (NaCORI) at
Kituza, Mukono District. Coffee extension is also In order to reap the economic benefits from
centralized under the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal coffee production and attain the Government’s
Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) and offered through goal of middle-income status and Vision 2040, it
Uganda Coffee Development Authority (UCDA) in is recommended that good agronomic and post
collabouration with other agencies such as National harvest practices are employed by all categories of
Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS), Local value chain players and most particularly, the coffee
Governments, coffee associations, private sector, farmers, traders and processors. Therefore, acquiring
NGOs, farmer organizations/cooperatives and good planting material, employing proper husbandry
individual farmers. practices, ensuring that good pest and disease control

ROBUSTA COFFEE GROWING IN UGANDA
methods are undertaken, carrying out good post However, through research and extension, coffee
harvest handling and engaging in coffee production wilt disease resistant and high yielding varieties are
as a business is crucial. By joining and producing currently available and being distributed to farmers
through farmer organizations too would enhance thereby boosting production. Currently, out of 104
the achievement of economic benefits from coffee districts growing coffee, 60 growing only Robusta
production through pooling resources, commodity Coffee while 13 grow only Arabica. 38 districts grows
bulking, increasing bargaining power and chances of both Robusta and Arabica Coffee. Robusta Coffee
directly dealing with exporters. This Robusta Coffee production stands at about 3.3 million bags.
Production Handbook acts as a guide in all these
aspects. Benefits of growing Robusta Coffee include:
• Provides an assured income.
1.2 Characteristics of Robusta Coffee • Uganda’s high altitude Robusta is of a better cupping
and its importance quality and fetches a higher price (premium).
• Can be well integrated with other crops on the farm
Robusta Coffee (Coffea canephora) is grown in the hence increasing returns per unit area to the farmer.
low altitude areas of Uganda, ranging from about • It is a beverage with well-documented health benefits.
900 metres to 1,200 metres above sea level. It has • Source of employment.
a shallow root system and grows as a robust tree or • It is perennial, remaining productive for up to 40-
shrub to about 10 m tall. It flowers irregularly, taking 50 years without replanting.
about 10–11 months for cherries to ripen depending
on rainfall distribution, producing oval-shaped 1.3 Robusta Coffee growing zones in
beans. Robusta Coffee has a greater crop yield per Uganda
tree than that of Arabica, contains more caffeine
(2.7% compared to Arabica’s 1.5% and contains Robusta is the major type of coffee grown in Uganda,
less sugar (3–7% compared to Arabica’s 6–9%). It is accounting for about 80% of production. It grows in
less susceptible to pests and disease, thus, needs less most low altitude areas of Uganda, covering Central,
fungicides and pesticides than Arabica. Eastern, Mid North, West Nile, Western and South
Western Uganda that are within 900 - 1,500m above
Commercial production of Robusta Coffee began sea level. Robusta has Lake Victoria Crescent as its
in the early 1920’s and an extensive production native habitat. Wild Robusta still grows in natural
program was undertaken in the 1950s. By 1960, forests around the Lake Victoria Basin and in the
coffee production had risen to about 2 million Kibaale and Zooka-Adjumani forest reserves where
60Kg bags and reached its first peak of 3.7 million it is estimated that between 150-400 hectares are still
in the 1972/73 coffee year and 4.2 million bags in under wild Robusta Coffee as shown in Figure 1.
1996/97. However, due market imperfections, old
age of coffee trees and poor agronomic practices, 1.4 Robusta Coffee varieties in Uganda
production had again declined to as low as 2.1 million Since 2009, the National Agricultural Research
bags by 1991. After coffee liberalization in 1991, Organization (NARO) has released 10 varieties of
production has been improving despite the Coffee coffee that are high yielding and resistant to Coffee
Wilt Disease (CWD) that has destroyed about 56% Wilt Disease. These varieties with their description,
of Robusta trees since its detection in 1993, causing year of release and major attributes are presented in
a big constraint to Robusta Coffee production. Table 1.
4 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

Robusta Coffee Growing Districts
Sudan
Kobok.
Mrch.
Arua
Yumbe Moyo
Adjumani
Lamwo
Kitgum
Kaabong
Kotido
±
Amuru Gulu Pader
Agago
Moroto
Omoro Abim
Nwoya
Zombo Pkwch. Otuke Napak
Nebbi
Oyam Kole
Lira Alebtong Kapelebyong
Congo, Buliisa
Kiryandongo
Apac
Kwania
Dokolo
Amuria Nabilatuk
DRC
Katakwi
Kaberamaid o Soroti Nakapiripirit Amdt.
Hoima Masindi Amolatar Ngora
Nakasongola Serere Blmbl. Kween
Kumi Bukedea Kpc.
Kikuube Buyende Bukwo
Kyankwanzi Nakaseke Butebo Sirnk.
Kaliro
Ntoroko Kagadi Kakumiro Kibuku Budk. Mbale
Luwero Kamuli Manafwa
Kibaale Kiboga Iganga Namutmb. Butalj .
Bndbgy.
Kayng.
Kabarole Kyenjojo Luuka Bugweri Tororo
Bnyng. Kyegegwa
Mukono
Jinja Bugiri
Mubende Wakiso Busia
Kasanda Mityana Mayuge
Kamwenge Kampala Buikwe
Gomba
Kasese
Ib and.
Kiruhura
Ssembabule
Bkmn. Kalungu
Mpigi Kenya
Namayingo
Rubirizi Lyantond.
Buhweju
Lwengo Masaka Buvuma
Bushenyi Location of Uganda in Africa
Mbarara Kyotera Kalangala
Mitm. Shem.
Rukngr.
Kanungu Ntungamo Isingiro Rakai
Rubanda Rukiga Legend

Kisoro Kabale
Robusta_Districts
District Boundaries
Lakes
Rwanda Countries Ta n z a n i a
0 45 90 180 Kilometers
Burundi
Produced by UCDA M&E Department
Data Source: UCDA Seedling Database
Shape File Source: UBOS
May 2019
Figure 1. Map of Uganda showing Coffee growing zones

Table 1. Recommended Robusta Coffee varieties
6
Robusta Coffee Description Year of Current status Major attributes Remarks
Variety release
Elite Mixture of open First Yield 2000kg/ha/yr, susceptible to rust, Being phased out
pollinated seed above recommended red blister and CWD
Robusta clones in 1995
6 old clones Cuttings raised from Yield 2,500kg/ha/year, susceptible to Are susceptible to CWD.
(1s/2, 1s/3, 1s/6, bare roots initially cut leaf rust, red blister and CWD
223/32, 257/53, from a mother garden.
258s/24 (0))
KR1 (NARO- Ugandan clone 2009 Contemporary Yield 2200kg/ha/cc/yr; resistant to leaf Recommended
ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

Kituza variety rust, tolerant to RBD resistant to CWD,
Robusta1) has big beans, good cup quality
Kituza Robusta variety rust, tolerant to RBD, resistant to CWD,
2) has big beans, good cup quality
KR5 (NARO- Ugandan clone 2009 Contemporary Yield 2900kg/ha/cc/yr; resistant to leaf Recommended.
KR8 (NARO- Ugandan clone 2017 Contemporary Yield 3100kg/ha/cc/yr; resistant to leaf Recommended. NaCORI is
Kituza Robusta variety rust, tolerant to RBD, resistant to CWD, still building plant stock to
8) has big beans, good cup quality distribute to nursery operators
Kituza Robusta 9) variety rust, tolerant to RBD, resistant to CWD, still building plant stock to
has big beans, good cup quality distribute to nursery operators
Kituza Robusta variety rust, tolerant to RBD, resistant to CWD, still building plant stock to
10) has big beans, good cup quality distribute to nursery operators
1.5 Objectives of the Handbook therefore aims at achieving the following:

Coffee is a strategic commodity whose development
is being accelerated across the country to enable the • Provide up-to-date technical knowledge and skills
sector to continue playing a leading role to income to help build the human resource capacity.
generation for coffee value chain stakeholders. • Assist in building an efficient and effective public
To achieve this, it is critical that Ugandan coffee and private extension service for Robusta Coffee
farmers enhance their production and productivity production and marketing.
at farm level in a sustainable way that addresses • Increase awareness on the part of the general
social, ecological and economic dimensions. The public on benefits of growing Robusta Coffee.
Government approved and launched the National • Facilitate the growth of Robusta Coffee enterprises
Coffee Policy in 2013 and the National Agricultural especially at medium and large-scale levels in light
Extension Policy in 2017, both of which rely in part of the current coffee development strategy for
on a functioning public and private agricultural and propelling the country into middle-income status
coffee-specific extension service. This handbook in the medium term.

ROBUSTA COFFEE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2
ROBUSTA COFFEE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL

REQUIREMENTS AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
2.0 Introduction 2.3 Temperature
Robusta Coffee is more tolerant to pest infestation Robusta Coffee requires warmer temperatures
and is well adapted to warm and humid equatorial ranging from 22° - 28°C (71 - 82°F). It is much
climates. And when handled and processed properly, more tolerant to hot conditions compared to
it can be a product for specialty markets, fetching Arabica Coffee. Temperatures higher than 300C can
premium prices on the international market. cause a range of physiological problems, including
flower abortion poor fruit setting, development
2.1 Soil and Land Requirements and premature ripening. At this relatively high
Robusta Coffee can grow on different soil types. But temperature, photosynthesis is also reduced. On the
for best root establishment and high yields, it requires a other hand, frost damage can occur if temperatures
fertile, well aerated, free draining, slightly acidic, deep soil fall around 00C or below.
with reasonable humus content and a minimum depth
of 1-1.5m in well moist and 3m in drier areas. Robusta 2.4 Rainfall and Humidity
does not tolerate water logging or ‘wet feet’. The best or Robusta requires a rainfall range of 1,200 mm to
ideal soils are volcanic red earth or sandy loams with good 1,800 mm, which is well distributed over a period
structure and texture and rich in organic matter. Avoid of 9 months. Both the total amount and the
heavy clay or poor-draining soils, for good productivity. distribution pattern are important. Unless there is
In addition, the soil should be just slightly acidic, with regular rainfall, young newly planted coffee seedlings
a pH range of 5.5 – 6.5, within which it would be well should be irrigated (or hand watered) atleast twice
supplied with all the essential major plant nutrients. A pH a week to ensure that the seedlings get established.
level below 5.5 will limit crop performance and at this Also, where there is inadequate rainfall during
level, adequate liming must be done to correct the pH growth, supplementary watering/irrigation to sustain
levels back to a suitable range. continuous growth, induce uniform flowering and
good fruit formation should be carried out.
2.2 Altitude
Robusta Coffee production requires an altitude range A fairly regular/frequent rainfall pattern throughout
of 900-1500 metres above sea level. Different altitudes the cherry development stage is required. A good
produce different cup profiles. Robusta Coffee soaking of 25 mm every 14 days or approximately
grown at higher altitude tends to be more acidic and 20-litres (1 jerrycan) of water per plant is required
complex while that grown at lower elevation tends to stimulate flowering and sustain fruit formation.
to be more intensely flavored. Uganda is a classic Rainfall triggers the flowering and fruit filling
case showing differences in elevation. It produces process. Without adequate and sustained rainfall/
relatively high altitude Robusta Coffee at an average moisture, flowering may extend over many months
of 1200m above sea level. making harvesting uneven, more difficult to achieve

good quality of harvested berries and becomes costly and tree breakage and increase the demand for
to the farmer. irrigation. Therefore in especially windy areas it is
desirable to establish windbreakers along borders of
Excessive droughts can cause the coffee tree to the coffee plantation.
become dehydrated and thus lead to its defoliation
and or increased attacks of pests such as the red 2.6 Robusta Coffee Production
spider mite, leaf miner, twig borer and the coffee Systems
berry borer or even death through wilting.
The farmer needs to know the kind of system he/she
Excessive continuous rainfall can, on the other hand needs in order to plan for field activities accordingly.
cause excessive vegetative growth and inhibit the Two types exist i.e. mono cropping (pure stand) and
flowering of the coffee tree or destroying it altogether. intercropping (mixed stand).
Thus, locating coffee plantation near a water supply
2.6.1 Monocropping System
for possible irrigation as well as for processing of
cherry is desirable. Monocropping is an agricultural practice of growing
coffee as a single crop or pure stand on one piece
2.5 Wind Effects of farmland as shown in Figures 2(a) and 2(b).
Strong winds have an adverse effect on coffee growth The advantages and disadvantages of coffee
because they can cause excessive water evaporation monocropping are highlighted in Table 2.
Figure 2(a). An illustration of Robusta Coffee monocrop Figure 2(b). Robusta Coffee monocrop at a spacing of
at a spacing of 10 x 10ft 10 x 10ft

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of Coffee monocropping

Advantages Disadvantages
●● The coffee growing requirements, planting, ●● Food Insecurity: While increased coffee yields
maintenance including pest control and may be attained, it can potentially reduce the
harvesting are the same across the farmed food available to feed the households.
land. This lowers specific operational costs and ●● Growing the same coffee crop year-after-year
enhances optimization of those operations. depletes valuable soil nutrients that plants rely on
●● It is much easier to cultivate one kind of crop, in and hence this deficiency must be compensated
terms of the knowledge and experience needed for by using increasing amounts of appropriate
to do it successfully. fertilizers.
●● Requires less labour/not labour intensive. ●● High income risk in case of crop failure.
●● Monoculture is highly susceptible to pests and
diseases, requires intensive use of chemicals to
control pests, diseases and weeds.
●● Limits optimum utilization of land and the
resultant farm revenue.
2.6.2 Intercropping
avoided. Maize, millet, rice and root tubers such as
Intercropping also known as mixed cropping or potatoes and cassava are high nutrient demand crops
co-cultivation is a type of agriculture that involves and therefore not recommended.
planting coffee plus one or more different crops in
the same field. While the coffee is still young, there is The coffee-banana intercropping, as shown in
an area of land between the young coffee trees, which Figures 3(a) and 3(b), is a major type of coffee system
can be utilized to grow various crops, mainly food in Uganda. During the phase of early establishment,
crops. Recommended intercrops in young coffee bananas, which are a permanent crop commonly
include bananas, green pepper, cabbages, tomatoes, grown with coffee, may be established. The banana
soya-beans, groundnuts and the non-climbing will provide shade for the young coffee in the early
Phaseolus beans. However, these must be confined to years. However, if planted in large numbers, bananas
the central 2m of the inter-row, leaving a clear 0.5m may compete with coffee plants for nutrients. For this
between them and the coffee tree. reason, a banana/coffee ratio of 1:4 is recommended.
In this combination, each banana plant would shade
Two crops can be grown per year during the first four coffee bushes and each coffee bush would be
two years but it is important to note however, that shaded by only one banana plant. Advantages and
growing beans on the same plots continuously, disadvantages of the Robusta Coffee intercropping
particularly in the humid areas, may result in serious are highlighted in Table 3.
problems of aphids. This practice therefore, must be

Table 3. Advantages and disadvantages of the Coffee-Banana intercrop system

●● Growing bananas in a young coffee field ensures ●● It increases competition for water, nutrients and
that the farmer gets some return from the land light. Bananas generally suffer more.
before the coffee reaches the productive stage. ●● It is labour intensive and requires a lot of
●● Intercropping banana and coffee reduces management and care.
the risks faced by farmers when cultivating ●● If shade is too dense, the yield potential of
monocrops. coffee may be reduced due to competition of the
●● Return to labour is often higher in banana– coffee and the intercrop.
coffee systems. It increases total revenue/inflow
per unit area by over 50% compared to coffee
monocropping.
●● Improves coffee quality. In addition it provides
food to the household.
●● Increases yields by intensifying crop management
of both bananas and coffee.
●● The banana provides shade for coffee, which
reduces stress caused by extreme temperatures
and strong winds.
●● The banana crop residues provide mulch that
improves root development in both banana and
coffee and improves availability of potassium (K)
in the topsoil, due to the large biomass turnover.
●● The permanent canopy and root systems of
banana reduce soil losses due to erosion by
reducing the impact of rainfall drops and run
offs on the topsoil.
●● Reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by
increasing above and below-ground carbon
stocks.
“Coffee banana intercrop is a good multipurpose practice

that displays diversification and soil and water conservation
benefits. It is a climate change adaptation measure”

The following practices/requirements help farmers • Grow quick maturing annual crops such as
to attain maximum yields in intercropped coffee: tomatoes and bush beans between banana and
coffee for one to two years to obtain income
• Establish the production system where rainfall is before the bananas and coffee are ready for
more than 900 mm/year. harvesting. Coffee benefits when tomatoes are
• Establish production on fertile soil where sprayed with fungicides while legume crops such
Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium and as bush beans provide nitrogen–rich crop residues
Magnesium are not limiting nutrients. Poor soil that benefit coffee and banana plants.
fertility limits production of banana and coffee in • Establish proper spacing for both banana and
most cases. coffee. Spacing of 10x10ft. (Coffee) and 20x20ft
• Select deep, well-drained fertile soil with good (Banana) is appropriate. However, do not
water holding capacity and a pH that is between intercrop young banana and coffee plants with
5.5 and 6.5. Deeper soils (1 m or more) allow climbing crops e.g. climbing beans.
plants to develop a taproot and a more extensive • Use carefully selected good quality and disease
root system. free materials for coffee and all the intercrops.
• Apply mineral fertilizers to supply the right • Carry out proper mulching by using crop residues.
nutrients. Do not add fertilizers to coffee that is Mulch from banana pseudo-stems and leaves and
heavily shaded because the increase in coffee yield coffee pruning residues, is particularly valuable in
may not be sufficient to cover the extra investment areas with marginal rainfall.
in fertilizers. • Carry out good pest and disease control measures,
• Carry out proper canopy management to ensure practice proper weeding and establish proper
the required balance between banana and coffee drainage effectively.
plants which in turn maximises benefits from • Set up soil conservation measures, such as terraces
fertilizer application. This is achieved by properly and grass strips, on land with a slope.
pruning of coffee trees and also properly de-
suckering banana plants.
Figure 3(a). An illustration of Robusta Coffee-Banana Figure 3(b). Coffee-Banana intercrop spaced at 10 x 10ft
intercrop paced at 10 x 10ft for coffee and 20 x 20ft for for coffee and 20 x 20ft for Banana
Banana

COFFEE FARM ESTABLISHMENT AND FIELD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

CHAPTER 3
ROBUSTA COFFEE FARM ESTABLISHMENT

AND FIELD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
3.0 Introduction removal of tree stumps and their roots. The roots of old
Robusta Coffee farm establishment starts with land tree stumps are frequently a source of infection of the
preparation whose objectives is to facilitate maximum young coffee by the fungus Armillaria. This disease can
water infiltration and minimal soil movement, safe be avoided by ring-barking the forest trees atleast one
disposal of surplus water and simplification of irrigation year before they are felled and cleared. Some important
works. Land preparation also facilitates the establishment practices for land preparation include:
of a good road system within the plantation. Once
land is cleared and coffee is planted, attention shifts to • Leave some mature trees for shade. Aim for a spacing
good management practices. Poor field management of 20x20m. This gives a good shade cover, while
significantly contributes to low productivity in coffee avoiding competition for water and nutrients.
and should be avoided. For maximum benefits, farmers • Fallow land in Uganda is commonly infested with
should therefore make adequate investments in the Coffee couch grass (Lumbugu), usually the worst enemy of
farm establishment and its field management practices. coffee. This must therefore be completely eradicated
either by digging and handpicking or use of herbicides
3.1 Coffee Farm Establishment such as Glyphosate (Roundup) prior to planting.
The area to be planted with coffee must be prepared • Arable land must be cleared of all previous crops in
atleast 1 year before the coffee seedlings are planted out. preparation for planting coffee.
There are 9 distinct steps to follow: • Carry out deep plough. It is a good way of rejuvenating
the soil.
1. Clear the site • Plant banana trees for extra shade if required.
2. Plant Windbreakers • Ground cover crops should be planted to avoid
3. Mark out the rows erosion.
4. Establish shade trees • For sloped terrain, establish terraces using a wooden
5. Set up water delivery systems frame tool, as shown in Figures 4(a) and 4(b).
6. Dig holes • With land up to 15% slope, run the rows across
7. Select good planting materials the slope making sure there is a fall of 1 to 2% for
8. Plant seedlings drainage.
9. Put temporary shade and water the seedlings • When land is greater than 15% slope, contour planting
must be undertaken.
3.1.1 Clear the Site • Practice water conservation measures such as contour
Coffee will establish properly only on clean, well prepared trenches, contour terraces, vegetative barriers, bands,
land. Prepare the land during the dry season. If the land grass strips and cut-off drains to avoid soil, water and
is under forest, it must be cleared thoroughly, including nutrient loss.

Mark of
Central
Point
5ft
10ft
Stone 10ft
Weight
10ft
Figure 4(a). An A- frame for establishing contours to Figure 4(b). Using an A- frame to find the contours and
mark terraces in the coffee garden mark out the planting holes in the garden
3.1.2. Plant Windbreakers are useful in many ways. They help to:
Windbreakers are usually located along boundaries
of the coffee plantation as shown in Figures 5(a) and • Accelerate the growth of young coffee trees
5(b). They should be established before planting the • Lower the maximum temperature or raise
coffee. Preferred trees include avocados, jackfruit the minimum temperatures within the coffee
and mangoes. Other useful trees used include Ficus especially at high altitudes
natalensis, which is preferably planted at a spacing • Conserve soil moisture and limits erosion
of 60ftx60ft. The spacing between windbreakers on • Increase biodiversity and may provide farmer
sloping land however should be closer. Windbreakers with alternative source of income.
Figure 5(a). Windbreakers planted at a spacing of 30m Figure 5(b). Windbreakers planted at a spacing of 15m
on flat gradient on a slope
“Windbreakers are a climate change

mitigation and adaptation measure”

3.1.3 Mark out the Rows compete with coffee for moisture and nutrients
Marking rows for planting coffee is important in addition to over-shading the coffee trees. It is
in establishing a coffee farm. The recommended recommended that the spacing of the shade trees
row-direction is east/west direction because it be approximately 20-40m apart depending on the
makes most use of sunlight. The recommended tree species and expected canopy profile. In warmer
spacing of Robusta Coffee by NaCORI is 10ft x10 and drier areas such as the mid-north of Uganda,
ft. (3mx3m). This should result in about 450 plants shade tree spacing should be planted at shorter
per acre. However, trials are being done at NaCORI, distances, but after recommendation from the field
Kituza, aiming at increasing tree density per acre. extension officer, while on site. Once shade trees
Results should be availed in the short to medium are established it is necessary to carry out proper
term, with attendant GAPs recommendations to pruning to allow for sufficient aeration as well as
guide farmers. sunlight in the field. This is important in order
to avoid high relative humidity that results from
3.1.4 Establish Shade Trees
too much shadow due to plant congestion in the
Given this era of climatic change (weather extremes), garden - a condition favorable to disease and pest
shade trees are very important in coffee farming as development such as coffee leaf rust and/or black
shown in Figures 6(a), 6(b) and 6(c). Farmers should coffee twig borer. Shade trees should be pruned at
establish shade trees atleast one year before coffee the beginning of the rainy season. Keep the trees
is planted out. Shade trees should be planted in at a maximum height of 4-5m to facilitate easier
rows throughout the coffee garden and care should management. Advantages and disadvantages of
be taken to avoid too many shade trees as they may shade trees are listed in Table 4.
Table 4. Advantages and disadvantages of Shade Trees

●● Shade trees protect the coffee bushes from heavy ●● Shade trees may compete with coffee for
rainstorms and hailstorms. nutrients and water.
●● Shade trees reduce the intensity of wind speeds and ●● Requires regular loping and thinning which is
soil erosion and act as windbreakers. labour intensive.
●● Shade trees protect coffee plants from high solar ●● Shade if poorly managed reduces
radiation and limit evapotranspiration photosynthetic activity and causes elongation
●● Shade trees limit weed growth. of internodes both of which result in lower
yields.
●● Reduces decay rate of organic matter in soil.
●● Risk of Coffee Leaf Rust is more rampant in
●● Increases biodiversity by promoting higher
coffee with shade trees.
populations of birds, predators of coffee pests and
pollinators of coffee plants thereby improving fruit
formation.
●● Reduces plant metabolism and encourages more
regular flowering.
●● Helps to stabilize the soil, reduce soil erosion and
water runoff.
●● Shade trees is a requirement for sustainable coffee
farming.

●● Shade trees slows down coffee cherry ripening,
thereby improving bean density and cup flavour.
●● Shade trees play a role in efficient utilization of
nutrients by taking up leached nutrients that are
outside the reach of the coffee tree root zone and
returning these nutrients to the top soil through litter
fall which acts as mulch.
●● When leguminous trees are used as shade trees, they
fix nitrogen from the air to restore soil fertility and
structure.
●● Shade trees provide diversified income from products
like firewood and also the pruned shade tree branches
provide fuel for farm activities like the drying furnace
and cooking
a c
Figure 6(a), (b) and (c). A Robusta Coffee plantation intercropped with shade trees

The following tree species are recommended for 5. West Nile Region
growing in different regions of Uganda as seen in • Ficus natalensis (Mutuba, Ubi, Laru),
Figure 7. • Albizia coriaria (Oyo)
• Ficus mucuso (Uwi)
1. Central Region
• Ficus natalensis (Mutuba); While planting shade trees, it is important to note
• Albizia coriaria (Mugavu, Musisiya) that tree species with the following characteristics
• Ficus mucuso (Mukunyu, Kabalira) need to be avoided
2. Mid-Northern Sub-Region • Trees that are alternate host to the black coffee
• Ficus natalensis (Annar, Ananga), twig borer e.g. Avocado and Albizia chinensis;
• Albizia coriaria (Litek, Ober, Bata, Latoligo, • Hardwood trees that attract pit sawyers e.g. Grevillea
Omogi, Ayekayek) Robusta and Maesopsis eminii (Musizi);
• Cordia africana (Akoiyi) • Trees that take very long to grow e.g. Milicia excelsa
• Ficus ovata (kwoyo, pwoyo) (Mvule);
• Trees that can only provide a conical shaped shade
3. South and Western Region e.g. Eucalyptus, Jack fruit trees.
• Ficus natalensis (Mutooma, Ekitooma), • Trees that have leaves, which take very long to
• Albizia coriaria (Musisa, Murongo, Muyenzayenze) decompose.
• Ficus mucuso (Mukunyu) • Trees that produce thorns as these are very
difficult to tame e.g. Erythrina abyssinica (Ejjiriki
4. Busoga Sub-Region • Poisonous trees.
• Ficus natalensis (Mugaire, Kiryanyonyi),
• Ficus mucuso (Mukunyu)
• Ficus ovata (Kookowe)
“Planting shade trees is a climate change

mitigation and adaptation measure”

West Nile:
. Ficus natalensis
. Albizia coriaria
. Ficus mucusa M I D- N OR T H
. Ficus natalensis
. Albizia coriaria
. Cordia africana
Ü 1
M T.E L GO N
. Ficus mucuso
. Albizia coriaria
. Cordia africana
CE N T R AL
. Ficus natalensis BU S O G A
WE S T E R N . Albizia coriaria . Ficus mucuso
. Ficus mucuso . Ficus natalensis
. Ficus ovata
. Ficus natalensis
. Albizia coriaria
. Ficus mucusa
0 25 50 100 Kilometers
Figure 7. Map of Uganda showing recommended shade trees by region
3.1.5 Set-up Water Delivery Systems • Control heads, valves, automation and emitters
Planning for water conservation and future (micro-sprinklers or drippers).
availability is important while preparing the coffee
field. The importance of water delivery systems Water sources may include underground water
cannot be over-emphasized today given climate sources, overhead water tanks/reservoirs or lakes,
change effects. Irrigation or water delivery systems rivers and springs. Pumping systems can be motorized,
should be installed prior to the planting of coffee. In solar powered or manual. Farmers can also use or
setting up water delivery systems, the following must dig water channels to distribute rainwater. There are
be considered: different options of setting up water delivery systems
depending on a farmer’s income and technical advice
• A reliable water source, from water experts and these may include surface,
• Pumping systems and filtering system, drip and/or overhead, as shown in Figure 8.
• Main distribution network,

Drip Irrigation Overhead irrigation
Overhead water reservoir Water dam
Hand pump Solar powered water pump panel
Figure 8. Options for water delivery systems

“Installing water delivery systems is a

climate change mitigation measure”
3.1.6 Dig holes and backfill Put a peg at the center of a half filled hole before
Preparing holes before the planting season helps the completing the backfilling. This helps to identify the
farmer to be ready for planting at the first rains. Hole center of the hole while planting. The steps taken to
preparation process, as shown in Figure 9, is as follows: prepare good coffee holes are illustrated in Figure 10.
• Marking of positions, with pegs, where the coffee

plants will be planted, arranged in regular patterns to
facilitate management, a processes known as pegging.
• This is followed by digging circular holes of
60cm (2ft) deep and 60cm (2ft) in diameter at
the marked points. This should be done atleast 3
months before planting. When digging the holes,
keep the fertile topsoil separate from the subsoil.
On sloping surfaces, the topsoil is placed on the
upper side of the slope to allow it get into the hole
first, in case it rains before backfilling. The sub soil
is placed on the lower side of the hole to prevent
it from getting back to the hole.
• Refill the holes with well manured soil about a month
before planting. Where possible, mix the topsoil with
a 20-litre basin of well-decomposed manure before
refilling each planting hole. The decomposed manure
should be placed in the top 20cm zone of the hole to
enable the tender plant with a shallow root system to
benefit from the manure. Figure 9. A newly dug planting hole
Step1 Step 2 Step 3
Figure 10. An illustrated process for preparing coffee-planting holes

3.1.7 Select Planting Materials • Check all seedlings for signs of pests and diseases,
It is important to buy good clean planting material especially root mealybugs, aphids, sucking insects
in order to expect a good yield. Start by seeking and brown eye leaf spot. This prevents introducing
guidance from Uganda Coffee Development pests and diseases into your garden.
Authority (UCDA), your district agricultural office, • Do not buy seedlings if the roots protrude far
the National Coffee Research Institute (NaCORI) beyond the polythene pots because the taproot
or your nearest local government extension officer may be damaged.
for guidance on certified nurseries. The process of • Avoid seedlings with twisted taproot (J root
selecting good clean planting materials is elabourated system) as shown in Figure 12.
below: • The choice of the coffee variety matters. Generally,
productivity of elite seed as shown in Figure 10 is
• Get coffee plants with 3 – 4 pairs of true leaves lower than that of the clones. Some clonal coffee
for clonal coffee cuttings or 4 – 5 pairs of true varieties can give an average yield of 3000kg of
leaves for elite Robusta seedlings at the onset of clean (FAQ) coffee per hectare. Clones are also
the rainy season as seen in Figure 11. suitable for areas with adequate rainfall but can
• Always use seedlings or cuttings from a certified also be planted in areas receiving marginal rainfall
nursery. if rains are supplemented with irrigation and good
field management.
Figure 12. Coffee seedling with unsuitable J- root system

Figure 11. Mature and ready to plant Robusta Seedlings
“Use of good clean planting material is a

climate mitigation measure”

3.1.8 Planting out within the root zone of the seedling but avoid the
• Prior to the actual planting of coffee plantlets in the fertilizer touching the stem. Phosphorus stimulates
prepared holes, wet the soil by irrigation to a depth of root growth.
60cm (2ft).
• In absence of irrigation, it is advisable to plant at the Maintain the roots of the seedling in the rooting zone of
beginning of the rainy season of March to May and the soil to avoid either deep or shallow planting. Fill in the
September to October for traditional coffee districts soil and press the soil firmly around the newly planted
in regions of Central, Western, Rwenzori, South seedling using your hands. Protect each seedling from
Western and Eastern (Busoga) or April to August for sunshine by providing temporary shade (tree branch/
Northern and Elgon Regions. Plant coffee plantlets split banana pseudo-stems) and also provide cover at the
within the first 2 to 3 weeks after the onset of the rainy base of the planted seedling. Mulching the entire row
season. Plant in the early morning or late afternoon reduces erosion and conserves moisture immediately
and cloudy days to minimize effect of sun damage at after planting. However, where mulch is not sufficient,
planting. place a ring of mulch around the plant and this mulch
• Use water buckets or basins to soak well the entire must not be in contact with the stem of the plant. Avoid
seedlings before planting. planting out coffee seedlings when conditions are windy
• Ensure that roots protruding beyond the polythene or hot and dry or during the hottest part of the day. The
pots are trimmed off before planting. Then open up quality of cuttings/seedling should conform to 3-4 pairs
the center of the back-filled holes sufficiently to fit of true leaves for clonal and 4-6 pairs of leaves for elite
the size of the potted plant (accommodate the taproot Robusta seedlings. Plantlets must be strong and healthy
and other roots). Remove the polybag/polythene pots with no sign of pests and diseases.
before planting by gently inverting the fully soaked
seedling in your hands and gently pull off the polybag. Regularly inspect the planted field to identify dead plants
Place the seedling in the hole with the collar at level and replace them as soon as possible to have a full-stand
with the surrounding soil or slightly higher to allow plantation as seen in Figure 13.
for some sinking when the soil settles. Ensure that no
depression or heap of soil is made around the plant. During dry period continuously water the young seedlings
If inorganic fertilizer is available, apply one handful until they get well established. Bottle drip irrigation have
of Triple super phosphate (TSP), Single Super been seen to be effective for survival of newly planted
Phosphate (SSP) or Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) seedlings.
Figure 13. A full planted Robusta Coffee garden with no gaps

3.1.9 Water the Seedlings

Coffee needs sufficient water to grow well right from
planting through to its initial establishment. Water the
seedling before and immediately after planting. Watering
of coffee trees should be intensified during drought
periods. If there is insufficient rainfall, both shade trees
and coffee will need irrigation or hand watering for a few
weeks until they get well established. Table 5 highlights
crop water requirements and irrigation frequency for
the different growth stages of Robusta Coffee. With
supplementary rains, the frequency may be reduced to
twice a week and once a week for occasional irrigation.
Resource constrained farmers are advised to use bottle Figure 14. A coffee seedling with a water bottle irrigation
irrigation as shown in Figure 14. and grass as mulch
Table 5. Coffee water requirement and irrigation frequency at different growth stages
Coffee growth stage Amount of water required Irrigation frequency per
(L) week (no. of times)
≤ 6 months 2 Litres 3
1 year 3 Litres 3
2 years 5 Litres 3
3 years (peak growth stage) 7 Litres 3
“Watering is an important climate change

mitigation measure”
3.1.10 Training or Bending of Coffee Stem selected and the weak mother stem cut in order to have
To maximise benefits from Robusta Coffee (especially a total of 3 stems per bush as future bearing stems. The
the tall varieties) it is recommended that production procedure for training coffee is outlined below:
be based on the multiple stem system (preferably 3
stems) through training/bending. Training/bending • Bend the original seedling in an East-West
is done 5-6 months after planting or when the coffee direction after it has attained about 2 ft height.
tree reaches a height of about 60cm (2ft). It involves • Select two suckers (where you prefer to maintain
bending the coffee trees along the tree line in an East the bent/trained stem) or three suckers (where
to West direction and pegged down at about 45 degrees you prefer cutting of the trained/bent stem later
to allow suckers to develop. Training/bending leads on). This is done in order to have 3 stems.
to breaking dormancy of multiple buds at the base • Suckers should be selected from as low as possible
resulting in growth of numerous suckers. If the older along the base of the trained coffee tree and
bent stem is vigorous, a farmer should select a total of 3 should be groomed/maintained to allow them
stems including the already existing one and where the develop/grow into full stems. These suckers form
older bent stem is weak, 3 vigorous suckers should be the future bearing stems.

• The selected suckers should be at about 15cm • Alternatively, newly planted coffee plants of 4-6
from the ground level and well positioned from months are capped at a height of 15–30 cm (6–16
each other. inches) above the ground. This is done by removing
• When the suckers are about 30cm tall, the peg the tips to encourage development of multiple
is removed and the end of the main stem turns stems, which are then selected as described above.
upwards once again. The training procedure is illustrated in Figure 15
• All the coffee plants are bent in the same direction while a trained Robusta Coffee plant is shown in
towards the west and along the row. Figure 16.
Figure 15. An illustration of the training procedure in coffee
Figure 16. A trained coffee plant

3.2 Field Management Practices rainy season as it increases the risk of soil erosion.
Robusta Coffee under recommended management Further more, use a regular hoe for weeding young
practices should produce atleast 1,500kg of clean coffee and a forked hoe for opening up hard soil pans
coffee (FAQ) per hectare per year, but clonal coffee in mature coffee to avoid injuring the root system of
can attain 3,000-4,000 kg FAQ per hectare per the coffee plants.
year under same good management. This can be
achieved with minimum maintenance cost, if the
farmer undertakes proper husbandry practices, such
as regular mulching with organic residues like bean
haulms, maize stalks, banana leaves, animal manure
and coffee husks, proper canopy management,
adequate soil and water conservation measures that
always ensure water and/or moisture availability in
the soil. The good coffee management practices
include among others:
• Weed control
• Mulching
• Irrigation Figure 17. Motorized weeding equipment
• Soil and water conservation Chemical weed control is the use of herbicides in the
• Use of cover crops management and control of weeds and should be used as
• Training or bending a last resort. It is advisable to slash the weeds first and then
• Pruning and De-suckering spray the re-growth with herbicides while they are still
tender and soft and before they flower and become hard.
3.2.1 Weed Control
Use recommended herbicides with active ingredient of
A weed is any undesired plant growing within the coffee glyphosate such as Round-up for grass weeds. Round-up
field. Control of weeds should be done before they works best on tender and soft weeds and most especially
produce seed (fourth leaf stage), applying fertilizers graminae family like couch grass (Lumbugu).
or mulching. Weeds compete with coffee plants for
water and nutrients and eventually lead to reduced crop Use the rates recommended by manufactures on the
growth, low yields, poor quality coffee beans and loss labels of the containers or consult your nearest extension
of income. At the end of rains, carry out clean weeding worker. Good timing of herbicide application where the
since weeds compete with the coffee for the diminishing weed re-growths are still very tender and soft (about two
moisture. Maintain clean weeding until the start of next or three pairs of leaves after their slashing and before
rains. It is important to keep the young coffee plantation flowering) enables effective herbicide performance
free of weeds. There are three basic methods of weed by killing all weeds at even lower application rates
control - cultural, mechanical and chemical. thus reducing chemical costs. In the case of difficult
grass, complete eradication requires blanket spraying.
Cultural weed control is done by hand weeding, However, in a field under good weed control, the
mulching, close spacing of crops or using cover crops. perennial grasses will usually appear in patches.
Mechanical weed control is done by hoeing, These should be spot sprayed. Care should be taken
slashing or using a simple engine driven weeding to avoid accidental spraying of the young coffee
implements such as motorized weeding equipment as with the chemical to avoid killing or damaging them.
shown in Figure 17. Do not weed using a hoe in the Cover the plants with non-suffocating materials like

boxes, ring weed half a metre radius around the base The marginal value of the mulch products arises
of the plantlets before application to avoid accidental from their decomposition to release nutrients. Any
spraying of the young coffee plants. organic material can be used as mulch and should be
well spread over the ground between coffee trees in
It is safer to avoid herbicide use until the coffee is the entire field. In young coffee, the most important
atleast two years old. During spraying, use of a set of area to mulch is within the spread of a canopy of
protective gear including overalls, helmets, eye goggles, the branches since the roots of the tree have not yet
gumboots, hand gloves, nose and mouth masks is spread out. Therefore, young coffee plants should be
recommended to protect workers against chemical ringed with mulch at planting time to suppress weed
exposure. Use of protective clothing prevents physical growth and also conserve moisture.
contact and inhaling of chemical mist or fumes, which
is a health hazard. Immediately after, the with water It is also essential that a good layer of mulch be
and soap to wash off any chemicals that might have maintained and made up to atleast 5 - 15 cm deep
come in contact with the body during spraying. each season. However, ensure that the mulch does
not touch the trunk of the coffee tree to avoid
3.2.2 Mulching
infections and rotting (the tree may develop collar
Mulching is the covering of the topsoil between crop rot and in some cases, ants and other pests may
rows and columns and around coffee trees with dried use it as a bridge to attack the tree). Mulch should
or rotten plant residues e.g. dried grass, maize stalks, be placed atleast 15 cm from the stem in case of a
bean haulms, coffee husks, straws and compost young plant and 30 cm (1ft) from stem in case of a
manure. Maize stalks (Figure 14) are recommended mature coffee tree. Mulching is very useful in many
because they contain a lot of Potassium, which is ways but it also has a few drawbacks as outlined in
important in coffee crop establishment. Table 6.
Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of mulching

●● Mulching improves the yield by facilitating better ●● May be a costly process especially with regard
regulation of moisture levels in the soil, thereby to the additional labour required.
increasing soil moisture retention and improving ●● May increase incidences of certain pests e.g.
surface water infiltration into the soil. leaf miner, termites and dusty surface beetle.
●● Mulching reduces the watering requirements –thereby ●● Pesticides need to be applied to avoid spread
minimising costs of irrigation. of pests that have come in with mulch.
●● Protects the soil surface from erosion. ●● May increase the fire hazard. Some firebreaks,
●● Encourages more vigorous top growth and by not mulching certain rows, are advisable.
productivity through building the growth of additional ●● Mulches may lead to a deficiency in or total
surface roots. unavailability of zinc and magnesium.
●● Fertilizers applied to coffee are conserved by ●● Prolonged use of Elephant grass and swamp
mulching due to reduced surface run off and easier straw as mulching material can in the long run
access to roots than on dry land. cause yellowing and death of the coffee plants.
●● Mulch reduces temperature variation in the soil and Therefore, interchange mulching material
can protect young plants from frost damage. regularly.
●● When used for prolonged periods mulch controls ●● If mulch touches the stem of the young tree,
weeds thereby suppressing the cost of labour and the tree may develop collar rot or may attract
herbicides in managing weeds. ants and other pests.

●● Mulch builds up topsoil fertility and improves uptake
of nutrients through the general amelioration of soil
structure and improved microbial activity.
●● Mulching limits the excessive uptake of manganese,
which may build up rapidly to high levels in acid soils.
It also increases the potassium level in the soil.
“Mulching is an important climate

adaptation and mitigation measure”
3.2.3 Water for Production and Irrigation

• Induces flowering.
Water is the backbone of agricultural production. • Protects the tree from damage arising from
Therefore, all effort must be put in place to ensure overbearing when there is drought.
that the planted coffee has access to adequate water • Allows effective fertilizer application.
to sustain it during establishment and productive • Enables continuous vegetative growth during
stages. In one of the biggest coffee producing drought.
country in the world, Vietnam, it is revealed that in
priority, the following are the most required for good At planning and design stages, it is important to
coffee production and productivity: determine clearly the crop water requirements so that
the source and quality of water can be put in place to
• Water adequately satisfy the peak demands for the coffee.
• Fertilizers Planning must therefore ensure adequate water for
• Variety the proposed acreage and consider the potential
for drought periods. To supply water through the
Water access to plants can be through different irrigation system, it is important to consider the
delivery mechanisms and irrigation is one of them. dam storage capacity and application rate (cubic
Irrigation is the artificial application of controlled meters water dispensed per hour) required during the
amounts of water to plants at specific intervals irrigation time frequency and replenishing time for
for the purpose of sustaining their survival and the utilized water. If the water supply comes from a
producing a crop during water stress periods such as bore hole, the sustainability of the water yield must
droughts. The main purpose of irrigation, therefore, be properly analyzed and its compatibility with the
is to supplement rainfall (in rain fed agriculture) so required irrigation rate confirmed.
that the growing season of the coffee crop can be
extended for increased yields. Benefits of irrigation The timing of irrigation is influenced by some
are as follows: prevailing physical considerations at the farm, but as
a rule of thumb, irrigation water should be applied
• Increases production by up to 50% or more, to the coffee crop when 50% of available moisture is
especially when rains are below normal. determined to have been depleted. The key months
• Increases the bean size hence the proportion of for irrigation is the dry period after the seasonal
premium grades and thus enhances quality. rains have receded until the next rainfall. However,

in hotter, drought prone areas, irrigation may be they may compete with the coffee plants for water.
required throughout the year. Coffee needs to be However, they also reduce the transpiration losses
irrigated when: from the coffee plants and a balance needs to be
established.
• A new garden has been prepared and ready for
planting but the rains are inadequate. Mulch: Mulching, especially in the first 3 seasons,
• The flower buds are fully formed and there are ensures efficient use of irrigation water, increases
no rains. crop yield and improves soil conservation. Failure to
• The pinheads are breaking dormancy (7th week mulch increases irrigation needs.
from fruit set) and the rains fail.
• The rains are insufficient during bean filling. Types of irrigation systems:
• The rains fail during the ripening stage. Farmers must be aware of the advantages and
• The trees are under stress due to drought. disadvantages of each system since the success of
any irrigation system is dependent on its attendant
Other considerations include: management costs. The common irrigation systems
Rainfall: Both the amount and the distribution include:
throughout the year are important. The requirement
for irrigation should be based on peak rainfall needs. 1. Drip Irrigation
2. Overhead Irrigation
Evaporation: This is influenced by amount of 3. Basin Irrigation
sunlight, temperature and humidity prevailing over 4. Under tree Irrigation
the respective time period and the moisture required 5. Bottle Irrigation
by the crop for optimum growth. The higher the
evaporation rate, the higher the frequency of Drip Irrigation
irrigation. This is a type of micro-irrigation system that allows
water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either
Evapotranspiration rate: The evaporation of water from above the soil surface or buried below the
from the undersides of the leaves from the crop surface. The goal is to place water directly into the
itself is influenced by temperature and humidity root zone and minimize evaporation. It is the most
conditions. The higher the evapotranspiration rate, preferred type of irrigation since it is economical
the higher the frequency of irrigation. in water usage. Water is delivered through the laid
out drip lines that have equal spaced openings. Drip
Conservation tillage: Some soil conservation irrigation on the other hand involves slow and low
practices such as deep tillage allows for the optimum volume application of water to the coffee. Use of
use of rainwater and irrigation water. micro jets is another version of the drip irrigation.
The benefits and disadvantages of drip irrigation are
Shade trees: The need for a good balance, because indicated in table 7.

Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation

●● Low evaporation and runoff water losses compared to ●● Requires high initial investment capital.
overhead and basin systems ●● Clogging of the emitters if the water is not
●● Increased efficiency of water use properly filtered and equipment not properly
●● Low energy and labour costs maintained.
●● Efficient fertilizer applications ●● Susceptibility of the PVC pipes to rodent
damage.
●● Cost of weed control is reduced
●● High risks of water salinity.
●● It is easier to use in fields with irregular levels and
shapes. ●● The system requires periodic back-flushing
and flushing out drip lines.
●● Avoids unnecessarily wetting of the inter-rows.
●● The sun affects the drip tubes thus shortening
●● Its labour costs are lower than other irrigation
their lifespan.
methods.
●● Levelling for uneven surfaces must be done.
●● It enables combining fertilizer application with
irrigation (fertigation) thereby saving fertilizer
application costs and increasing fertilizer efficiency.
●● It delivers highly uniform water distribution to coffee
trees.
●● Coffee foliage is not wetted thus no risks of washing
down protective fungicides.
Overhead/Sprinkler Irrigation more central locations within the field and distributed
This uses sprinklers or guns to apply water from a by high pressure sprinklers or guns. Advantages and
central place and distribute above the coffee bushes, disadvantages of overhead irrigation are indicated in
thus the name overhead. Water is piped to one or table 8.
Table 8. Advantages and disadvantages of overhead irrigation

●● Suited to a range of topographies and field ●● It requires high initial investment capital.
dimensions. ●● It is the most uneconomical in water usage,
●● Land leveling is not essential for uneven surfaces. using almost two times the water used with
●● Foliar fertilizers and fungicides can be applied in the drip or basin irrigation systems.
irrigation water economically and with minimal extra ●● Predisposes the coffee trees to disease attacks
requirements. as it removes any protective chemicals that
●● It removes dust on the leaves, thereby improving have been applied.
photosynthesis ●● In case water used is from a saline bore hole/
●● It triggers flowering source, foliage is scorched by the salts.
●● Due to the high pressure and the more water
requirement compared to other systems, it
involves high costs of power/energy.
●● Wind distorts sprinkler patterns and causes
uneven distribution of water.

Basin Irrigation levelling and land grading enables construction of

This type of irrigation involves holes being dug in large rectangular basins that are more appropriate for
form of basins between coffee trees and water is fed mechanized farming. Basin Irrigation can be used for
into the dug basin-like holes and allowed to infiltrate coffee due to affordability of initial investment costs.
into the soil. Fields where basin irrigation is used are Advantages and disadvantages of basin irrigation are
set up to follow the natural contours of the land but in table 9.
Table 9. Advantages and disadvantages of basin irrigation

●● It requires little initial investment costs compared to drip ●● Not easy to determine or control amount
system or overhead systems. of water to the plants.
●● It uses less water (almost a half) compared to overhead ●● Rubber hose pipes used during filling the
system, thus enhances sustainable water use. basins are susceptible to damage during
●● No losses due to wind which are large on windy days with transfers from one place to another.
overhead ●● The basins easily get filled with eroded soil
●● Water infiltrates the soil from the basin and minimizes and require reopening regularly.
losses due to runoffs and evaporation. ●● It requires intense supervision to ensure
●● Basin pits help control soil erosion by checking the speed that labourers apply the right quantities of
of runoffs and collecting the washed soils, in addition to water.
storage and enhancing penetration of running water. ●● The water around the base of the trees can
●● In case water used is from a saline bore hole/source, exacerbate the Fusarium fungus leading to
foliage is not scorched by the salts. Coffee Wilt Disease (CWD).
●● It enables saving costs of energy required to pump water ●● Water usage efficiency might be
since it uses less water. compromised through water leaching from
the basins.
●● Coffee trees are not predisposed to disease attacks due
washing off any protective chemicals that have been
applied.
Under tree Irrigation

strategically placed to target large portions of each
This type of irrigation involves use of small sprinklers tree’s root zone. The advantages and disadvantages
to apply water under the trees without wetting of of under tree irrigation are given in Table 10.
foliage and fruit. It uses under tree sprinklers that are
Table 10. Advantages and disadvantages of under tree irrigation system

●● More efficient water use ●● The water around the base of the trees can
●● Greater uniformity of water application. exacerbate the Coffee Wilt Disease (CWD) in
coffee.
●● Enhances plant growth, crop yield and quality from
strategic irrigation ●● Operation and management requires more
consistent oversight than alternative irrigation
●● In case water used is from a saline bore hole/
systems.
source, foliage is not scorched by the salts.
●● Triggers weed growths on a wider area that is
●● Coffee trees are not predisposed to disease attacks
sprinkled with water
due washing off any protective chemicals that have
been applied.

Bottle Irrigation Farmers should frequently monitor the bottles to refill

This is ideal for small-scale farmers and most them with water when it is finished. Table 11 gives
particularly, for newly planted coffee. It involves the advantages and disadvantages of bottle irrigation.
use of bottles to apply water under the tree canopy.
Table 11. Advantages and disadvantages of bottle irrigation

●● It is affordable to low income farmers. ●● It may not be easy for rural farmers to get
●● It is simple to operate and manage. enough plastic bottles.
●● Coffee foliage is not wetted thus no risks of washing down ●● Plastic bottles may become an
protective chemicals. environmental pollutant if not properly
disposed of after use.
3.2.4 Soil and Water Conservation

Soil and water conservation measures are
important in minimising loss of soil fertility
through erosion and the retaining moisture for
the coffee, especially in the dry periods. The
following practices have been devised to conserve
soil and water:
• Rainwater harvesting pits

• Terracing along contours
• Construction of water retention bands
• Planting of cover crops and soil retention grass
• Planting shed trees
• Mulching
Rainwater harvesting pits

Rainwater-harvesting pits as shown in Figure
18 are constructed in the dry season with
recommended dimensions as guided by the Field
Extension Worker. The size of the pit should be
chosen in relation to the water requirements of
the farm, space availability, water catchment area,
construction material requirements/availability
and labour. Figure 18. A rainwater-harvesting pit
The pit can be constructed using bricks, which are

coated with cement or lined with polythene sheet.
The pit has a ‘one-way’ silt trap where water can
only enter.

Terracing along contours

Terracing along contours is effective in cases of steep
slopes to reduce soil erosion by minimising rainwater
runoff. A popular method known as “Fanya Juu”
involves placement of soil on the upslope side of
the contour trench (throw the soil up) and a “Fanya
Chini” involving the placement of soil on the lower
side of the contour trench. The terraces are laid in an
alternate order starting with a “Fanya Juu” structure
followed by a “Fanya chini”. The spacing of “Fanya
Juu” terrace depends on the slope of the land. On
a gentle sloping land spacing of 10m apart may be
used and on a steep slope spacing of 8m apart may Figure 20. An illustration of water/soil retention bands
be used (Figure 19).
Planting cover crops
Planting of cover crops such as Indigofera spicata,
Mucuna, Phaseolus spp, Lablab and Groundnuts can
help to prevent soil erosion and retain soil moisture.
Use of Indigofera spicata (Figure 21) plant spp in the
third year is recommended when intercropping of
the annual crops has stopped or from the first year
where monocropping is practiced.
Figure 19. An illustration of “Fanya juu” and “Fanya

chini” terrace
Figure 21. Indigofera spicata as a cover crop in a coffee
shamba
Construction of water retention bands
Construction of water retention bands such as Planting Grass and Vegetation
digging pits/troughs at some points of the terrace Grasses such as vetiver grass, Paspalum spp and
conserves rainwater and facilitates its availability to the leguminous plants such as Tithonia diversifolia should
neighbouring coffee trees by way of gravity flow thereby be done at the edges of the gardens and ridges of
nourishing the trees during the dry period as illustrated terraces/contour bands to reduce soil erosion.
in Figure 20. A small amount of oil may be added to the Besides controlling soil erosion, Tithonia spp has been
trapped water to prevent breeding of mosquitoes. known to enrich the soil with Nitrogen and Vetiver

grass has favourable qualities for animal feed and its beating effects of rainfall. Cover crops increase
pruning by products can be fed to domestic farm vegetative and residue cover during periods when
animals. erosion potential is high, especially when main
crops do not furnish adequate soil cover.
Planting shade trees
Shade trees are very effective in reducing soil erosion • Increase porosity of the soil, which increases
and leakage of soil nutrients to a deeper ground level the infiltration rate of rainwater thus reducing
beyond the reach of coffee roots. erosion. “Soil porosity” refers to the amount of
pore, or open space between soil particles.
Mulching
Mulching, as shown in Figure 22, is a proven way of • Directly contribute to increase in vegetative
conserving soil water and moisture and should be put biomass, which when it decomposes, releases
to good use by farmers. organic matter into the soil. Increase in organic
matter also increases microbial activity and
aggregation of the soil particles.
• Cover crop root channels and animal activities such

as those of earthworms form macro- pores that
increase aggregate stability and improve infiltration.
• Helps prevent nutrient loss. Decomposition of

increased biomass provides a slow release of
nutrients to the root zone. Legume cover crops
fix atmospheric nitrogen back to the soil that
becomes available to the crop.
• Reduces soil temperature and conserve soil

Figure 22. A well mulched Robusta Coffee garden as a
water conservation measure to reduce soil erosion moisture. Cover crops can lower soil temperatures
by as much as 400C or more at midday, especially
3.2.5 Cover Crops where there is no shade. They also increase water
Cover crops are crops intercropped/planted with infiltration and regulate soil temperature. For
coffee with the aim of providing soil cover during instance, Indigofera spicata keeps the surface of the
the growing season of the main crop. These crops soil moist and lowers the surface temperature.
are usually leguminous creeping plants that will not
compete for light with the main crop. They should • Cover crops have the ability to slow down the
have a special ability to fix nitrogen from the air development of weeds. Competition between
and return it back into the soil. The most common coffee and the cover crops can be minimized by
cover crop species include: Indigofera spicata, Mucuna cutting back the cover crop at the end of the rains
pruriens, Crotalaria, Lablab spp. Desmodium, Stylosanthes leaving the foliage on the soil surface as mulch.
gracilis and Flamingia spp. The planting of leguminous
groundcover crops below the coffee trees or between • Use of cover crops is a good climate change smart
the lines of the coffee trees are associated with the agricultural practice. Figure 23 show different
following benefits: crops that may be used as cover crops.
• Control erosion and protect the soil from the direct

Lablab planted as a cover crop in a coffee shamba Desmodium spp. as a cover crop in a coffee shamba
Figure 23. A cover crop to prevent soil erosion in a coffee shamba
“Coffee cover crops are a climate change

adaptation measure”
3.2.6 Pruning and De-suckering
tree foliage balance, which in turn considerably
Pruning is the removal of broken, dead, unproductive, reduces the amount of inputs such as fertilizers or
aged, diseased and pest damaged stems. It is an pesticides to be applied. The result of good pruning
essential task for maintaining strong and healthy is more light penetration, more strength and more
coffee trees. Pruning is done to create well- cherries on the coffee trees. A more open canopy
structured, healthy trees that give good cherry yields also allows more air circulation which in turn reduces
over the productive cycle. Pruning helps to get rid humidity and temperature within the tree bush. The
of uneconomic branches thereby helping to maintain benefits of pruning are illustrated in the box below.
Benefits of pruning coffee

• Maintain the correct balance of the leaf area for optimum crop yield and improve the quality of the
produce.
• Eliminates unnecessary competition for nutrients by removing unproductive wood, hence allowing the tree
to produce good crop yields year after year.
• Removes weak branches that will not yield, or that will yield minimal crop.
• Eliminates excessive humidity that would predispose fungal development through better air circulation.
• Improves tree tolerance to drought and prolonged crop survival against water stress during prolonged
drought.
• Creates better access to the canopy of the tree when spraying pesticides.
• Reduces the die-back caused by over-production and keeps the tree in a state of vigorous and productive
growth.
• Controls the height of the tree thereby making harvesting easier.
• Creates conditions that are less favourable to pests and diseases infestation

Pruning is best carried out at the end of the main crop strong or vibrant to enough give good crop yields.
harvest every year. For pruning to achieve its desired • When there are many suckers, the coffee plant will not
benefits, it is important to follow the following procedures. be able to feed all of them sufficiently. Remove the
weaker and senescent lower primaries and keep the
• After harvesting the coffee, look out for any trees that vigorous upper primaries.
will not bear again or only produce minimal and small • Removing suckers (de-suckering) can be done several
coffee cherries. This is the right time to remove such times during the year depending on the amount and
branches. distribution of rainfall. Keep only the good branches
• Use a pruning bow saw, sharp secateurs or a pruning so that they will optimize nutrients from the soil and
saw for removing unwanted shoots of coffee trees. receive enough light to give good yields and quality
The pruning tools are illustrated in Figure 24. Ensure cherry.
that the tools are cleaned using 75% ethanol, spirit or • Branches that are close to the ground must also
25% dilution of Jik before, during and after use to be removed as they can be a conduit for pests and
prevent spreading disease from tree to tree. Keep the diseases infection. Prune off any affected branches at
metallic tools oiled to prevent rusting. the site (in-situ) and not dragged through the farm as
• The number of stems should be kept to the optimal this can easily lead to the spread of diseases such as
3 stems or a maximum of 4 to maintain optimum Coffee Wilt Disease (CWD). Figure 25 shows well-
productivity. pruned coffee trees.
• Remove all suckers that are not well positioned,
secondary and tertiary branches that are not healthy/ De-suckering is a type of pruning where numerous
Figure 24. Pruning tools( pruning saw, bow saw and secateurs)

A properly pruned coffee tree changed Benefits of proper pruning – a heavily bearing branch of
coffee
Effect of proper pruning after 6 to 9 months showing a heavily bearing branch

Figure 25. An illustration of well-pruned coffee

shoots that grow from the laterals, verticals and of coffee. De-suckering is done to check excessive
tertiaries are removed from coffee trees. These growth to avoid competition from many suckers,
“suckers” (water shoots) should be removed using open up the canopy, enhance productivity and to
secateurs when they are still very young, tender and achieve less disease and pest incidences.
succulent so that the tree is not “wasting” food and
energy on shoots that are not required for production
“Proper pruning/good canopy management

is a climate change adaptation measure”

REHABILITATION AND RENOVATION OF OLD ROBUSTA COFFEE TREES

CHAPTER 4
REHABILITATION AND RENOVATION OF

OLD ROBUSTA COFFEE TREES
4.0 Introduction Rehabilitation, therefore, refers to pruning or
The majority of coffee farms in Uganda are well over stumping of coffee trees to rejuvenate and improve
50 years and are producing coffee below their potential. their productivity by increasing the amount of coffee
The yield potentials of such farms are far below average. produced by each tree because of bringing it back
Poor agricultural practices can lead to the deterioration of to its youthful, productive cycle. It involves cutting
coffee trees to the point where they require total stumping down very old and unproductive stems to enable new
to enable the rehabilitated tree rejuvenate itself. The coffee shoots to grow in order to renew their production
tree in Figure 26 is such an example of a coffee tree that cycle. It is therefore an extremely important activity
urgently needs rehabilitation and/or renovation (R & for the farmer to enable maintaining a good income
R). It is important that rehabilitation be accompanied by stream from coffee.
good agricultural practices to prevent the same decline
from happening on the selected shoots again. Old coffee On the other hand, renovation refers to complete
trees if totally ignored would continue to produce less uprooting of old unproductive trees and re-planting
and less coffee up to a point when they can no longer the field afresh with new and high yielding coffee
be rehabilitated to produce profitable yields and at this seedlings and introducing shade trees in the coffee
point, they can only be replanted through a plantation farm. Therefore, renovation implies the replacement
renovation programme, where young high yielding of old coffee trees with new, young high yielding
seedlings are planted to replace the old unproductive and/or disease tolerant varieties. Renovation with
coffee trees. new disease resistant and climate tolerant varieties
can help farmers adapt to the changing climate. Apart
from when farmers use poor agricultural practices,
rehabilitation and renovation of coffee trees can be
mitigating approaches in cases of sporadic attacks
by pests and diseases. Renovation may be done in
situations where:
• Pests or diseases have irreversibly affected trees

and renovation is the only option.
• Superior varieties are availed and yields and
resultant incomes associated with such new
varieties warrants the renovation investment and
compensates for the associated implementation
Figure 26. An old coffee tree that is over-due for risk;
stumping • Climate forecast models suggest that there will be

significant change to the suitability of already existing whereas another area of the plot requires rehabilitation
varieties, even when good agricultural practices are only.
applied.
• Old tree age: Over a long period of time (40 years 4.2 Coffee Stumping Practices
or above), trees produce less and small coffee berries Stumping coffee is a practice of selecting and cutting
and it is not economical to rehabilitate them but down elderly and unproductive stems existing on a bush.
better to have fresh replanting of the coffee field. It is done to rejuvenate/renew the stem cycle by enabling
the entire tree stump develop young vigorous shoots
4.1 Rationale for rehabilitating old which make the coffee tree produce more cherries once
coffee trees again. When the coffee tree has reached 10 years old
from initial planting, its bearing heads are less than one
Coffee rehabilitation could benefit many smallholder metre, produce less than 2kgs of cherries and its stems
coffee farms in Uganda as most of them have trees become too tall for coffee pickers, the coffee bush is due
that have already surpassed the 40-50 year age bracket for stumping or “change of cycle”. After initial stumping,
and are grossly unproductive. The underlying need for the subsequent production cycles should be renewed
rehabilitation should start with understanding some (converted) after every 7 years. Current Robusta varieties
agronomic fundamentals, including soil analysis, root can sustain good yields up to 40-50 years during which
and stem analysis and the variety that is already planted productivity is sustained by renewing cropping cycles
and how well it is intrinsically suited to future needs (e.g. through stumping. Stumping involves pruning off/
climate change). It is also important to note that the cutting back all the unproductive stems from the coffee
need for rehabilitation may be pre-determined by several bush, leaving only one vigorous stem (the breather) for
other factors, which may include: assisting the stumped tree to remain alive and nurse the
developing suckers until they are mature enough to be
• Age of trees - trees which are younger(less than on their own as seen in Figure 27.
40 years) typically do not need to be replanted but
rehabilitated through several cycles.
• Disease - where by stems of coffee trees are badly
damaged/affected by diseases or pests
• Poor agricultural practices – such as abandoning
coffee under weedy conditions, poor fertility
management leading to poor quality trees which must
be rejuvenated by making use of stumping.
• Climate change - with an increasing level of extreme
droughts which requires farmers to adapt by reducing
the number of stems per coffee bush to save the
trees from complete drying. In this case, farmers can
reduce the total number of bearing stems per bush
to save some fraction of the expected crop yield to Figure 27. Rejuvenation process using a sucker
prevent total yield losses.
4.2.1 Purpose of Coffee Stumping
Once the underlying needs are analysed, the next step is • Remove unproductive branches.
to decide which option delivers best results. There may be • To guide the nutrient flow directly to productive areas
scenarios where a mix of renovation and rehabilitation is of the coffee tree, such as flowers and fruit bearing
the best way forward, especially where some parts of the branches.
plot may be completely damaged and require renovation, • Stops development of none fruit-bearing branches

that would unproductively consume water, energy, previous tree before moving to the next tree and at
nutrients and other inputs without meaningful the end of the day’s pruning activity to prevent spread
production. of pathogenic agents from tree to another. Used tools
• Remove branches infected with pests and diseases. passed over hot burning charcoal also can be used to
• To prevent pests and diseases from spreading. disinfect the tools. Always keep the pruning saw, bow
• Bring back flowering heads to reachable height while saw and secateurs oiled to prevent rusting resulting
harvesting. from disinfectants and tree sap.
• Prevent nutrient transport towards the far ends of vi. Select and leave well positioned suckers that will
the branches which is slower and less efficient in facilitate growth of the tree into the ultimate shape
wider canopy; it requires more energy from the plant and will allow good room for growth. Suckers arising
and thus more fertilizer inputs. from the side of the prevailing wind are usually less
• Open up the canopy for sunlight and increase likely to be broken off by wind.
photosynthesis as the trees will have better access to vii. When suckers are approximately 20cm (8inches),
light. select 3 or at most 4 healthiest stems and groom them
• To reduce pests and disease and facilitate their control for the next cropping cycle. Suckers that grow at the
because the plantation will be better aerated. top of the stump should be removed as these will
• To facilitate coffee harvesting. have weak support in the third year and may easily
• To enhance other farm management activities. break off with heavy crop.
• Enhance stem and crop survival during drought
periods. Note: Stumping in which all the stems are cut off
without leaving a breather is not recommended because
4.2.2 The stumping/cycle conversion procedure
this may result in drying and death of the entire tree
i. It is advisable that the farmer stumps the entire stump. In such a case of one tree stem, the stem should
garden if it is due. However, he/she may divide be cut 3 quarter way and bent off but left to continue
the garden into parts and sequence the stumping at feeding the stump till shoots sprout as seen in Figure 29.
different periods to enable continuous income from
the coffee farm.
ii. The stems should be cut at a height of 6 inches (0.5ft)
from the ground, at 450 (degrees) slanting slope to
allow water to run off and prevent stump rotting
(Figure 28). The cut should be smooth to prevent
mould and disease attach.
iii. Cut down other stems and retain one single stem
breather. The stem left works as breather and
continues feeding the stump until dormant buds
open up into grown shoots (suckers).
iv. The stem to be left should be the most out bending (if
possible in the direction of the sun set) stem to avoid
growing of etiolated and weak suckers. It should also
not be in the middle of the stump to enable removing
it without damaging the developed suckers at a later
stage.
Figure 28. Angle at which the pruning saw is set on the
v. Always disinfect the pruning tools using 90% stem to be stumped
ethanol, 25% diluted jik or genuine methylated spirit
before starting the stumping process, after cutting the

into two parts around year 7 of the stems on the trees

and in the first phase, 50% of the field is systematically
stumped. After the first year when the stumped portion
starts to bear crop, the second 50% of the farm is also
systematically stumped. The advantages of this system
over non phased stumping is that the labour costs are
spread over a long period of time hence increasing
affordability and the farmer is able to sustain production
hence revenue from the coffee farm.
2. Non Phased Stumping

This is where the farmer systematically stumps the
entire garden. The advantage of this system is that the
garden stand is kept uniform and generates a bigger
cash flow when the suckers mature and start bearing
crop. However, stumping costs are not spread over
a period of time thus becoming expensive to do at
once and the field will be out of production and zero
Figure 29. Stumped old coffee tree (full stumping) revenue from coffee for one year. During this period,
showing re-growth of suckers the coffee can be intercropped with the recommended
In a good coffee management system, it is annual crops, such as leguminous beans for the
recommended that stumping, also referred to as farmer to continue earning income and also control
a “change of cycle/cycle conversion” takes place dominance of weeds due to surface exposure.
initially at 9 or 10 years after planting and thereafter,
it should occur every 6-7 years to enable the coffee 3. Staggered Stumping
bush be brought back to a fresh productive stage. The This involves cutting down only some of the non-
vigor and physical appearance of the coffee trees at productive bushes in the coffee garden at the end
the end of the periods recommended above is also of every harvesting season. The farmer only stumps
influenced by the fertility of the soils and intensity of a few randomly selected bushes (coffee trees) out
farm management practices by the farmer. of the whole garden and leaves others intact. This
approach also has got advantages of spreading labour
There are 3 approaches to stumping and 3 types of costs over a long period of time hence increasing
stumping and these are as explained in table 12. affordability and the farmer is able to sustain revenue
Stumping Approaches include; from the farm. However, the biggest disadvantage is
that the unstumped coffee bushes compromise the
1. Phased Stumping quality of suckers on the stumped bushes due to
Farmers may not want to lose all their income by over-shading them, which leads to etiolation, scanty
stumping the entire garden at once. In this case, it is vegetative growth and poor production of those
advisable for the farmer to phase the stumping and aim suckers. The stems on the coffee trees will always
at completing the entire garden over a period of 1-4 years be of varying stages/age which makes objective
(depending on the size of the garden). Phased stumping planning for fertilizer requirements very difficult.
involves dividing the coffee farm into different parts
and then systematically stumping completely the chosen The different types of stumping are summarized in
one at a time. For example a farmer may divide the farm Table 13

Table 13: Different types of stumping

Multiple Breather Stumping
●● This involves cutting down only selected non-productive stems on the coffee trees in the coffee garden at the
end of every season/year. For instance, 1 out of 3 stems on the coffee trees is stumped each year, implying the
entire garden will have multiple stems on the coffee bushes at the end of the stumping period.
●● A major drawback of this system is that the stems on the coffee trees will always have an age difference that
results in objective planning for fertilizer requirements difficult.
●● The resultant suckers (shoots) grow under a lot of shade. This forces them to etiolate in the process of fighting
to get sufficient exposure to sun light, thus develop scanty (very few) bearing vegetative branches and very poor
crop production. Also as a result of thin stems and tall height, they bend and break easily from wind forces.
Single breather stumping
●● This involves cutting down all the other stems of all coffee trees in the shamba after 10 or 7 years but leaving
only one stem per tree, which would act as a breather/mother stem.
●● The maintained breather stem keeps supporting the coffee bush through complete physiological processes and
also produces some crop which brings revenue for the farm.
●● Later this breather stem is also cut off/removed after 1 – 2 years (after harvesting the main season crop carried
on the breather), by which time the suckers that were induced will have fully matured to support themselves and
will already be giving a crop to the farmer.
●● Single breather stumping can be carried out at once in an entire coffee garden if the farmer has alternative
income. Stumped coffee fields can be intercropped with cover crops like beans, groundnuts and peas to earn
alternative income, control weed growths resulting from surface exposure and to add nitrogen to the soil and
hence improve productivity.
●● This type is highly recommended for use by farmers because of its ability to develop good quality and highly
productive suckers. It also has minimal risks of stump drying.
Full/Complete Stumping
●● This is where all the stems on each coffee tree are cut back without leaving a breather.
●● With this type of stumping, the entire stems are removed in one instance or at once. Again the stem should
be cut at an angle of 450 for the reasons mentioned in the previous section. The cut should be made around
15cm/0.5ft above the soil.
●● The advantage of this system over others is that the developing suckers are fully exposed to sunlight and
vegetative growth is intact on the stems, resulting in highly productive future stems. The disadvantages are
that the field will be out of production for one or two years, hence no revenue from the coffee farm and
there is also a high risk of stumps drying due to a period of incomplete physiological activity before the
shoots re-develop on the stumps.
Stumping in which all the stems are cut without leaving a breather is not recommended because it may result in
death of the entire tree.

4.3 Management of Coffee after

Stumping
After stumping, a light tillage (preferably using
forked hoes) of the soil (not deeper than 10 cm) is
recommended to re-instate the balance between roots
and above ground matter. Furthermore, it stimulates
the formation of new hair roots and loosens the soil
that has been compacted over the years, allowing for
a leguminous intercrop. After stumping, an abundant
number of suckers will grow from the stump as seen
in Figure 30. The majority of these suckers should be
quickly removed with secateurs before they grow big
and hard. Three or a maximum of four vigorous suckers Figure 31. A stumped coffee tree with new (rejuvenating)
should be selected and left on the stump depending suckers after 9 months
on the objective by the farmer as seen in Figure 31.
The suckers selected for future-bearing stems should
be well spaced from one another at the base of the
stump to enable appropriate vegetative expansion as
they grow and also minimize competition for space
and light between them. Ensure that the branches on
the breather stem do not shade the underneath suckers
to avoid etiolated and poor quality suckers as seen in
Figure 32.
Figure 32. A stumped coffee tree with bearing suckers

after 2 years
4.3.1 Recommendations for 6-7 Year Coffee

Pruning Cycle
This is the period when stems are reduced down from

three or four to one single stem. Have the coffee farm
properly weeded before cutting down the mature stems.
Figure 30. A stumped coffee tree with rejuvenating
suckers maintained for multiple stem system after 3-6 This will allow some time for the suckers to grow before
months any disturbances related to weed control. The one stem
left is known as a breather or mother stem. It keeps
the stump alive and also allows the farmer to continue
harvesting some coffee. Ensure proper disinfection of

tools used for stumping. This is to avoid the transfer does not shade the suckers and inhibit their growth,
of live fusarium spores from one tree to the next. The resulting in etiolated/poor quality suckers.
selected stem to be left (the breather) should be well
positioned on the stump to give space/room for suckers
(shoots) to develop and grow without direct shading.
The choice should be for the most out positioned stem
at the base of the tree, which will also be removed with
ease later without damaging the developed suckers. The
breathers’ must be stripped of all primary branches
anticipated to shade the suckers by cut lifting, an
operation commonly known as skirt lifting. A number
of suckers will develop on each of the cut stems within
2-3 months. When these suckers develop, carry out a
frequent and vigorous sucker selection operation for the
next six months to 1 year as illustrated in Figure 33.
Figure 34. Appearance of stumped trees after cutting off

the two stems
The “breather” stem is also pruned off/cut back after
harvesting the crop at the end of year 2 from the
time of stumping as illustrated in Figure 35. Suckers
will thereafter stand-alone reaching a height of more
than 1.5m.
At the end of year three, the lower-most twigs have

exhausted more than 90% of their production area
moving from the main stems and should be cut off.
The lower primaries continuously become weak and
unproductive and should be progressively striped off
(cut) from the stems as they become unproductive.
These Robusta primaries have already given a crop
Figure 33. A coffee tree with 2 stems removed leaving 1 and have no future bearing potential. Most of them
“breather” stem are drying up and only struggling to bear at the tips.
The energy that would be wasted in sustaining the
After 1 year, you should have selected 3 vigorous struggling lower primary branches is diverted to
suckers of the same height, good health and those more productive branches for optimum utilization
that are well positioned around the stump to act as and improved yields.
your future bearing stems as illustrated in Figure 34.
During this period the production is mainly from the
breather stem. During this period, great attention
should be paid to ensure that the breather stem

important to select three suckers of the same height,

good health and those that are well positioned around
the stump to act as your next future bearing stems as
illustrated in Figure 36.
Figure 35. Status and appearance at the end of year 2

after cutting off the two stems
At the end of 4 years, the stems have reached full

maturity and it is recommended to maintain them in
that state for about 3 more years after which change of
cycle is re-started and the numerous suckers that will Figure 36. Status and appearance of the coffee plant
develop on each of the cut stems are trimmed. It is during year 3 – 4 after stumping
Summary
• Stumping involves cutting/sawing off all the unproductive stems, leaving only one stem breather to assist
each of the stump to remain alive and support the suckers to develop.
• Stumping should be done carefully at an angle of about 45 degrees slanting downwards and facing outside
the stump with a smooth cut, slopping away from the breather stem to prevent water from collecting and
causing disease attack. Smoothening off the stump is therefore a must do.
• Stumping is carried out on older trees, which are not producing well, or have too many long branches and
not producing enough large cherries.
• The initial change of cycle in a coffee plantation is recommended to take place every 9-10 years after
planting and 6-7 years thereafter to enable the coffee bush to be brought back to a fresh productive stage.
• Single stem stumping ensures that there will be some little crop from the single stem (breather) for the first
year after stumping for the farmer to generate income from.
• To avoid loss of income in the first year after stumping, it is advisable not to stump more than 1/3rd of
your trees at one time. Look at all coffee bushes and identify those, which are giving less than 1 kg per tree/
bush. These are old and it is time to stump them.
• After stumping, there will be renewed/fresh growth and many more leaves, leading to many more big
cherries that are easier to pick.
• After stumping, the critical time is between 3-6 months from the time of stumping and by end of year
1, the farmer should have decided on the preferred future bearing stems by continuously removing the
re-growths that continue appearing in favour of the preferred suckers. This minimizes competition and
enables the farmer to grow only the 3 vigorous future productive stems.

CHAPTER 5
SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT FOR

ROBUSTA COFFEE FARMING
5.0 Introduction
Magnesium, Calcium, Boron, Iron, Manganese,
For high coffee yields, there is need for adequate Molybdenum, Sulphur and Chlorine.
and timely supply of both macro and micronutrients
to the plant. The nutrients can be supplied from There are 16 natural elements (nutrients) that are
various sources s1ch as inorganic fertilizers or essential for plant growth. Three elements (Carbon,
organic fertilizers such as compost manure from Hydrogen and Oxygen) make up 94% of the plant
plant materials. A fertilization program needs to be tissues and are obtained from air and water. The
developed based on inherent soil characteristics and other 13 elements are obtained from the soil and
expected production level. are divided into two broad categories - ‘macro’ and
‘micro’ nutrients. These terms do not refer to the
In a ‘closed’ environment such as a rainforest, importance but the quantity requirements of the
nutrients are recycled on their own and plants are elements by the plants. Quantities of macro and
more or less self-sufficient. However, where plants micronutrients in the soil and plants are determined
are grown in a commercial environment like coffee through the soil and leaf analysis procedures.
growing, it is necessary to replenish the nutrients that
are removed from the system through the harvested 5.1 Soil Analysis
crop. Without additional nutrients in some form of Sampling and analysis of both coffee leaf and soil
fertilizer, coffee yields will continue to decline as should be done atleast once every year to determine
nutrients are removed through the harvested coffee the current nutrient and pH status of the coffee
beans. garden. The results together with expected yield on
the trees are then used to determine the fertilizer
For sustained productivity, coffee requires a high quantities required for the next application schedule.
level of fertility and an intensive fertilizer program This is essential for proper and cost effective use
is therefore essential. Fertilization can be a means of fertilizers as opposed to a blanket application.
of providing and maintaining optimal quantities and Farmers are advised to approach extension workers
combinations of ingredients into the soil to ensure for advice on how to conduct and access soil and leaf
that the plant is continually nourished. The coffee testing services.
tree requires certain elements in large quantities such
as Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium and these To help farmers determine the best coffee nutrition
occur in many chemical forms, including organic practices, soil and leaf analyses are recommended. The
and inorganic. These elements are referred to as objective of soil sampling is to get a representative
macronutrients. Other elements are required in very sample of soil in the plantation block for mineral
small (micro) quantities but are essential for plant analysis. Three samples per two to four hectare
growth. These micro nutrients include Zinc, Copper, block is adequate, provided the three samples are

SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT FOR ROBUSTA COFFEE FARMING
composites from the 20 sites sampled. Soil sampling • Sample in the morning where possible when leaves
services are currently available at a fee from the plant, are the most turgid (full of water). Do not sample
soil and water analytical labouratories at Makerere after any application of foliar fertilizer sprays.
University and Kawanda Agricultural Research • Using clean hands, remove the 3rd or 4th pair of
Institute. The following practices are suggested for leaves from the tip of an actively growing branch
soil analysis. of average size trees only as shown in Figure 37.
Do not sample from obviously sick, excessively
• Soil sampling should preferably be done once healthy or odd/unusual coffee trees. Do not pick
a year, before flowering. Do not sample after diseased, injured and insect damaged leaves.
fertilizer application. Do not sample next to shade • Sample a minimum of 16 trees per acre diagonally
trees. across the block and properly label them.
• Without scrapping away soil, remove surface litter • Areas of different tree size, age, soil types, fertilizer
such as leaves before sampling. or other major differences should be treated as
• Using a clean auger, take samples from both the separate samples.
top and sub soil with soil auger or hand hoe and • Samples need to be dried at room temperature or
place top-soil and sub soil separately in clean under shade and well spread on clean sheets of paper
buckets and label them. Clean the auger or hand or nylon bags if they are not sent for analysis within
hoe after sampling each of the sites. one to two days. If sent to the labouratory with in
• Sample from a minimum of 20 sites in the middle 2 days, leaf sample drying is normally done at the
of coffee rows away from drip lines per hectare labouratory at 60 to 65°C until they become dry and
block. brittle.
• Do not pick samples under shade trees, below • Store samples at room temperature in paper (not
coffee tree drip lines, valleys on the farm and from plastic) bags, away from direct sunshine, rains and
with in a range of 10 metres from animal sleeping contamination.
places and domestic waste composting pits.
Spread out each sample on a paper bag or plain paper

and dry slowly on raised benches under shade and
protected from rain. Well aerated rooms can also be
used to air dry soil and leaf samples. Samples are
usually air dry in four to five days. Once dry, take
samples to your nearest soil analysis labouratory.
5.2 Leaf Analysis

The objective of leaf sampling is to get a
representative sample of trees for macro and micro
nutrient analysis in the plant tissue. Pre-flowering
period is preferred sampling time if only one sample
is taken each year. More frequent sampling (every
four months) is highly desirable for large plantations,
especially if nutritional problems occur. Leaf samples
from 16 trees per acre can constitute one composite
sample made for analysis. A minimum of 100 leaves
is needed for each composite sample.
Figure 37. The position of coffee leaves for sampling

two categories as macronutrients and micronutrients.

In addition to soil and leaf testing, nutrient deficiency
5.4.2 Importance of Macronutrients
can be diagnosed by visual appearance of the coffee
plant. However, some symptoms such as tip burns, Macronutrients are nutrients required by the plant
chlorosis or necrosis, which are characteristic of in large quantities. They mainly include Nitrogen,
some nutrient deficiencies, may also be as a result of Phosphorus and Potassium.
other stress factors such as herbicide scotch, weeds,
diseases and pest damage. For proper diagnosis, a Nitrogen is necessary for vegetative growth. It
farmer is advised to consult an extension worker. increases tree-bearing capacity and enhances coffee
bean size.
5.3 Coffee Nutrition
5.3.1 Benefits of fertilizing coffee Phosphorus is necessary for root development,
promotion of early berry maturity and increases bean
Coffee quantity produced per unit area improves density.
significantly when soils are well managed for optimum
fertility. Fertilizer application can increase yields of Potassium is necessary for berry development and
Robusta Coffee from the average current of 1 Metric ripening, enhanced mucilage formation, promotion
Tonne up to 3 Metric Tonnes of FAQ per hectare per of healing injured tissue especially after picking,
year. In addition, fertilizer application improves plant’s pruning and hailstorm damage and regulation of
resistance to diseases, tolerance to drought and leads to water uptake from the soil.
better quality of coffee beans. Therefore continuous soil
management for high levels of fertility is key to achieving A summary of the importance of each macronutrient
the best, particularly when combined with other good and their respective deficiency symptoms is given in
management practices. Plant nutrients are classified into Table 12.

Table 12. Macronutrients, their functions and Deficiency Symptoms in coffee

Macronutrient Use Deficiency symptoms
Nitrogen (N) ●● Plant growth ●● Slow development of new leaves and shoots
●● Photosynthesis ●● A uniform yellowing over whole leaf or faint
●● Formation of chlorophyll yellowing between the leaf veins
(green colour) ●● Leaves rapidly becoming pale yellow with a dull
●● Water uptake green sheen
●● Formation of enzymes ●● Entire plant becoming pale yellow with sparse
vegetative growth
●● Formation of hormones
●● Leaves becoming yellow green at advanced stages
●● Whitish veins may be present in lower-leaves
●● Leaf drop (often on dense fruiting branches first)
●● Discolouration (yellowing) and rolling up of leaves,
starting with older ones
●● Die-back of tips
Symptoms are shown below:
Healthy (left) and deficient (right) plants.

Phosphorus (P) ●● Root development ●● A uniform yellowing over the whole leaf or light
●● Flowering yellowing between the leaf veins
●● Ripening ●● Young leaves remain dark green
●● Photosynthesis ●● Faint yellowing between the veins of older leaves at
advanced stages
●● Respiration
●● Dead spots may be present
●● Formation of Energy
compounds ●● Stunted growth due to retarded root growth
●● Pale leaves (starting with younger ones)
Early signs (left), advanced signs (right)

Macronutrient Use Deficiency symptoms

Potassium (K) ●● Fruit quality ●● Discolouring starts from the leaf tips inwards
●● Water balance (H2O gradient towards the main vein
pressure) ●● Localized dead tissue or yellowing between the veins
●● Disease resistance of older leaves
●● Photosynthesis ●● Initial yellowing on the leaf edges followed by
development of dead spots
●● Berry filling
●● Dead tissue increases until the whole leaf edge is
●● Ripening
covered
●● The veins and the midrib remain green.
●● Discolouration
●● Leaves turn dark black with crooked, necrotic stripes
along the leaf margins
●● Less noticeable in young leaves
●● Under extreme deficiency, berries and leaves are shed
off
Top; Early signs (left), advanced signs (right) Below; Signs on a

whole plant

5.3.3 Visual Nutrient Deficiency Sulphur is an important nutrient for plant growth,
Identification disease resistance, seed production and protein
In addition to soil and leaf testing, nutrient deficiency synthesis.
can be diagnosed by visual appearance of the coffee
plant. However, some symptoms such as tip burns, Manganese helps in photosynthesis and
chlorosis or necrosis, which are characteristic of some manufacturing enzymes.
nutrient deficiencies, may also be as a result of other
stresses such as herbicide scotch, weeds, diseases Molybdenum helps in nitrogen metabolism.
and pest damage. For proper diagnosis, farmers are
advised to consult their extension workers. Chlorine works in form of a chloride, it helps in
photosynthesis, gas exchange and water balance.
5.3.4 Importance of Micronutrients
These are nutrients required by the plant in small A generalized diagram showing the portion of the
quantities. Plant micronutrients include Zinc, plant where nutrient deficiency symptoms are first
Boron, Iron, Sulphur, Magnesium, calcium Copper, observed are shown in Figure 38.
Manganese, Molybdenum and Chlorine
Zinc is re-known for boosting flower initiation and

formation, enhanced fruit set and leaf size and sets
the inter-nodal spacing on the branch and the stem.
Boron promotes shoot and root growth, facilitates

flower fertilization by facilitating pollen germination
through the stigma to the ovary. Consequently, it
facilitates optimal flowering and fruit set, facilitates
protein production and regulates uptake of water
from the soil together with potassium.
Iron helps in the production of chlorophyll, which

is required in food formation, promotes bean colour
and together with copper, iron facilitates energy
transfer during food manufacture.
Magnesium is major constituent of chlorophyll,

which facilitates the making of plant food, which Figure 38. Diagram showing levels at which nutrient
enhances bean colour (the bluish green colour of the deficiencies manifest in coffee trees
beans) and initiation of root formation.
The above deficiencies can be corrected by application
Calcium is necessary for growth of terminal buds of fertilizers. Depending on the fertilizer source
and flower formation and plays a key role in bark by which the plant nutrients are extracted, they are
formation. It also facilitates root and apical growth, classified as either organic or inorganic. A summary
while directing the overall movements of nutrients of the importance of each macronutrient and their
uptake. respective deficiency symptoms is given in Tables 13.

Table 13. Micronutrients, their functions and deficiency symptoms in coffee

Micronutrient Use Deficiency symptoms
Calcium (Ca) ●● Root and leaf development ●● Bronzing, mottling or death of youngest leaves
●● Fruit ripening and quality ●● Die-back of terminal buds
●● Facilitates uptake of other ●● Leaves bronzed along edges, cupped downward.
nutrients ●● Eventual die-back of shoots
●● Formation of cell walls ●● Yellowing of leaves gradually from the center
●● Plant detoxification and outwards
Magnesium (Mg) ●● Chlorophyll (green-colour) ●● Faint yellowing on leaf edges with sunken, yellow
●● Seed germination brown to light brown dead spots developing in a
wide band along leaf edges
●● Photosynthesis
●● Yellowing between veins evident in affected
●● Produces energy for the plant
leaves, particularly along midrib
●● The main vein turns yellow whereas the leaf
veins keep their normal green colour
●● Brown, bronze discolouration of leaf sections
from the center to the edges


Iron (Fe) ●● Catalyst for chlorophyll ●● Leaves initially develop sharp yellowing between
(green colour) formation veins of youngest leaves; older leaves unaffected
●● Leaves expanding normally, ●● Background nearly becoming creamy white in
with vein network remaining acute stages
green and clearly visible ●● Severe cases show yellow to bleached white
against the light green to discolouration of green veins.
yellow green back ground
Zinc (Zn) ●● Plant height ●● Leaf deformation starting with young leaves and
●● Necessary for chlorophyll remain small
(green colour) formation. ●● Leaves become curly and have the form of a
●● Production of sugars knife blade
●● Component for manufacture ●● Leaves turn entirely yellow or have yellow stripes
of hormones/enzymes along the main vein
●● Shoots and growing tips develop slowly
●● Abnormally short internodes especially in shoots
and growing tips
●● Yellowing/discolouration


Boron (B) ●● Development/growth of new ●● Light green discolouration of youngest leaves,
shoots and roots mottled with uneven edges and asymmetric shape
●● Flowering, fruit set and ●● New leaves with dead spots or tips
development ●● Stunted growth
●● Germination of pollen ●● Reduced flowering
●● Transport of sugar Symptoms are shown below:


Manganese (Mn) ●● Photosynthesis. ●● Yellowing in older and middle leaves.
●● Component for manufacture ●● Mottling, striping between veins
of enzymes ●● Necrotic spotting along main veins
Sulphur (S) ●● Chlorophyll (green colour) ●● Leaves become light green to yellow green with
●● Disease resistance faint yellowing between veins
●● Seed production ●● Leaves become thin; both veins and leave
surfaces become yellow. Deficient leaves retaining
●● Required to produce energy
shiny luster. Whole plant may show symptoms
for the plant
under severe deficiency
●● Supports plant transpiration
Copper (Cu) ●● Chlorophyll (green colour) ●● Young leaves die back

●● Protein formation ●● Chlorosis sets in, leaves curl and roll
●● Shoots are weak and restricted; may be rosseted.
(Not common if copper sprays are used in the
nursery for controlling Cercospora and leaf rust in
coffee fields)
Symptoms are shown below;


Molybdenum ●● Nitrogen metabolism ●● Bright yellow mottling between veins, leaves
(Mo) wither, curl and margins collapse
●● Leaves get distorted and narrow
●● Older leaves get affected first.
●● Rare deficiency though
Symptoms are shown below;
5.4 Organic Fertilizers

from inorganic fertilizers. This slow-release method
Organic fertilizers are derived from organic matter, reduces the risk of nutrient leaching, but it takes time
which comprises of items such as animal droppings to supply nutrients to plants. The following organic
e.g. cow dung, chicken droppings/litter, kitchen fertilizers are produced and used by smallholder
compost and plant debris (leaves, grass clippings, farmers;
vegetable peels). In nature, decomposition of
5.4.1 Crop Residues
organic matter creates a natural fertilizer. Applying
organic compost animal manure adds nutrient-rich Farmers can use crop residues for conserving nutrient
organic material to the soil, improving its quality and stocks by retaining or incorporating crop residues
texture and reduces dependence on artificial fertilizer in the field or to use them as livestock fodder and
products as it improves the physical, chemical and recycle animal manure or to make compost for use
biological composition characteristics of the soil. in the cropping system. Crop residues as shown in
Table 14 contain small amounts of nutrients and the
Organic fertilizers release nutrients only when the soil importance of recycling crop residues is to replenish
is warm and moist, which tends to correspond with soil organic matter and provide mulch. Cycling crop
the plants’ times of greatest need. However, they residues through composting or animals improves
rely on soil organisms to break down organic matter, the availability of nutrients to the plant.
so nutrients are released more slowly than they are
Table 14. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium concentrations in common crop residues
Nutrient Dry weight (g/kg)*
Millet Sorghum Maize Rice Soybean Groundnuts
Nitrogen 4-10 4-9 5-8 4-9 8-13 12-20
Phosphorus 1-1 0-1 0-1 1-2 1-2 1-3
Potassium 15-27 7-15 7-17 13-27 9-18 8-12
*Values do not include leaves, which fall off and are mostly left in the field

5.4.2 Farmyard Manure lot of phosphate. Cattle manure is rich in nitrogen when
Animal or farmyard manures are one of the key sources it is fresh but when dry, the nitrogen evaporates. To
that increase soil fertility, as they are rich in nitrogen. avoid nitrogen evaporation, cow dung manure should
Chicken or other bird droppings are the best source of be decomposed under covered conditions.
stable nitrogen (Table 15). Additionally, they contain a
Table 15. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium values for common Farmyard Manure
Manure Nitrogen (N) % Phosphorus (P) % Potassium (K)
(Potash) %
Cow Manure 0.6 0.4 0.5
Horse Manure 0.7 0.3 0.6
Pig Manure 0.8 0.7 0.5
Chicken Manure 1.1 0.8 0.5
Sheep Manure 0.7 0.3 0.9
Rabbit Manure 2.4 1.4 0.6
5.4.3 Compost
Heap composting procedure is outlined below:
Compost is organic matter from plant and farm yard • Assemble the first layer of atleast 30cm of rough
remains that has been decomposed and recycled as vegetation such as dry maize stalks or hedge
a fertilizer. Compost is a key ingredient in organic cuttings. Organize the second layer of atleast
farming. There are several ways of making compost, 10cm thick comprising manure or old compost or
based on factors such as availability of organic slurry and sprinkle some topsoil on top of this
materials and weather conditions. The process of layer so that it just covers the material. The next
composting requires making a heap of wet organic layer of about 15 - 20 cm thick should be made
matter known as green waste (leaves or food waste) up of green vegetation such as green weeds, grass,
and waiting for the materials to break down into hedge cuttings or kitchen waste. If you have wood
humus after a period of weeks or months. Modern, ash, sprinkle some on top of the green vegetation.
methodical composting is a multi-step, closely If wood ash is not available, use topsoil and use a
monitored process with measured inputs of water, watering can or any other convenient container to
air and carbon and nitrogen-rich materials. make sure the pit is well watered.
The decomposition process is aided by shredding • Repeat the whole process again, starting with
the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper rough vegetation then manure or old compost,
aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Earth top soil, green vegetation, ash or soil and finally
worms, bacteria and fungi further break up the water again. Repeat this process until the pile is
material. Bacteria requiring oxygen to function 1-1.5m thick. A well-made pile has almost vertical
(aerobic bacteria) and fungi manage the chemical sides and a flat top. If you have a lot of material to
process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon compost, build several smaller piles (about 2m in
dioxide and ammonium. There are two methods length). To complete the pile, cover it with a 10cm
of making compost: Heap composting and pit layer of topsoil. This layer prevents fermentation
composting. gases escaping from the pile.

• Ensure enough air circulation, as that would promote take a long time to decompose. Three weeks after the
rotting rather than composting of the organic material second turning (six weeks from heaping), the compost
inside the pile. Finally, cover the whole pile with dry should be ready for use. If the planting season is still
vegetation to prevent loss of moisture through some time away, leave the pile where it is. Keep it well
evaporation. covered and moist, but not wet.
• Water the compost occasionally; atleast every 3 days Figure 39(a) shows the final heap composting
during dry weather conditions (If it is raining there product.
is no need to water). The compost should be kept
moist, but not too wet and use a stick to monitor the
moisture levels in the pile. To monitor the moisture
content, drive a long, pointed stick into the pile. The
stick, when removed, will be warm. The stick also
helps to check the condition of the pile from time
to time. It will show whether the pile is dry or wet.
• After two to three days, decomposition will have

started in the pile and this decomposition will start to
generate a lot of heat. Use the stick (‘thermometer’) to
ensure that the compost is hot, i.e. the decomposition Figure 39(a). A heap composting method
is in progress by pulling out the stick and checking Pit composting procedure on the other hand
the lower part for its humidity and warmth (feel with involves making compost in pits, which have been
your bare hands). Check the stick regularly, not only dug in the ground and outlined below:
for temperature, but also for the presence of a fungus
called fire fang. Fire fang destroys the compost pile 1. Dig 3 pits measuring 1.5-2m wide and 1m deep
once the compost becomes dry. Fire fang turns the next to each other as shown in Figure 31(b). The
stick white and if you detect it you should add water best depth for a pit varies according to local soil
immediately. Once there is no more heat generation, conditions and the depth of the water table.
the decomposition process is slowing down and it is 2. Compost materials should be placed in the first pit
time to turn the pile. in layers as described below:
• 10cm of material, which is difficult to
• Under normal circumstances, the pile should be decompose (twigs, stalks) at the bottom.
turned after three weeks. Do not add any fresh • Followed by 10cm of material, which is easy to
material during turning, except water if “fire fang” has decompose (green and fresh).
developed. Make sure that while turning, the bottom • Followed by 2cm of animal manure (if
part of the pile ends up on the top. This is necessary available).
because decomposition at the bottom goes slower
than at the top. After three more weeks the pile should 3. A thin layer of soil from the surface of arable
be turned a second time. The pile should always stay land to obtain the micro-organisms needed for the
moist but not wet. When the pile has been well looked composting process.
after and decomposition of all layers has taken place, 4. Repeat these layers until the heap reaches 1-1.5m
there is no need for further turning. By now the high.
compost should have a fresh earth smell and no grass, 5. Cover with grass or leaves (such as banana leaves)
leaves or animal droppings should be visible. Some to prevent water loss.
woody branches or stalks may still be present as they

6. After 2-3 weeks, all the contents of the pit should are banana leaves, intertwined palm leaves or a
be turned over into the second pit and 2 to 3 weeks sheet of plastic.
later, this should be turned into the third pit.
9. Spread the compost to surround the coffee tree
7. As the decomposing material from pit 1 is atleast 2ft from the plant as shown in Figure 32.
turned into pit 2, new material, which is ready for
composting, can be put into pit 1, thus creating a
process of continual compost making.
8. When the compost is ready, it cannot always

be used straight away. Care has to be taken
that the compost does not lose its fertility
during storage. Compost should never be left
uncovered in the rain or in the sun, otherwise
the rain can wash out the nutrients and the sun
can cause burning. The compost then loses
its fertility. To reduce this loss, the compost
Figure 31(b): An illustrated procedure for pit composting
should always be covered. Some useful covers
method.
Figure 32. Fertilizer application around each coffee tree

5.4.4 Commercial Organic Fertilizers elements is weak. Commercial organic fertilizers

A wide range of commercial organic fertilizers is currently differ widely in nutrient concentration as well as in
available to organic farmers. Their use has numerous nutrient spectrum, meaning large differences among
positive agronomic implications, including the supply of the fertilizers in their suitability to complement
plant macro and micronutrients and organic matter. the nutrient supply by base organic fertilizers
like composts, livestock manures or digestates.
However, for many available commercial organic Advantages and disadvantages of Organic Fertilizers
fertilizers, the database concerning constituent are highlighted in Table 16.
Table 16. Advantages and disadvantages of Organic Fertilizers

●● Can be obtained at a low cost and or easily made ●● In most organic fertilizers there is no indication
by farmers through composting processes and of the concentration of nutrient(s) and
domestic animal wastes available on their farms. concentrations may vary strongly with the origin
●● Organic fertilizers are less likely to burn tender, of the product and the way it was stored.
young plants as they are less concentrated than ●● Concentrations of nutrients in organic fertilizers
chemical fertilizers. This partly is because the are much less than inorganic fertilizers and do
organic matter contains a lot of water while not contain all nutrients required by the coffee
artificial fertilizers are almost completely dry. trees.
●● Organic fertilizers are chemical-free, hence safe. ●● The release of nutrients is highly variable
The food will be free of noxious chemicals. and reflects the number and degree of
●● Adding organic fertilizers to the soil increases its microbiological activity, which generally rises and
ability to hold water and reduces erosion from falls with soil temperature.
water and wind ●● Gathering natural materials, such as seaweed,
●● Nutrients in organic fertilizers are released slowly, grass clippings and leaves to add to the compost
which means it is difficult to over fertilize and harm pile is labour-intensive and time-consuming.
the plants. ●● Organic materials break down at different rates,
●● Decreases compaction and crusting of the soil. so the composition and content of organic
●● Increases aeration, infiltration, nutrient retention fertilizers is never consistent.
and supplies. ●● Organic fertilizers require very large quantities
●● Stablizes soil pH and buffers the soil against rapid and are cost prohibitive on a large-scale
changes in soil acidity/alkalinity operation.
●● Greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere is ●● Organic fertilizers can be messy, dirty to handle
lower in organic fertilizer production than it is in and may require more labour to apply.
inorganic fertilizer production.

5.5 Inorganic Fertilizers percent Potassium. Balanced fertilizers are those that
Inorganic fertilizer usage enables the differentiation contain equal nutrient amounts, such as a N.P.K 10-
between high input and low input coffee farming 10-10 formula.
systems. In a high input system, farmers use optimum
levels of inorganic fertilizers to manage soil fertility Balanced inorganic fertilizers, high in all three
of their coffee farms. macronutrients commonly appear in compound
fertilizer products of N.P.K 15-15-15. Other compound
Inorganic fertilizer, also referred to as fertilizer formulations that contain high quantities of
synthetic fertilizer, is manufactured artificially one macro nutrient and one micronutrient include
and contains minerals or synthetic chemicals. For ammonium nitrate (carrying N), ammonium sulfate
example, synthetic nitrogen fertilizers are typically (N and S), potassium chloride/Muriat of Potash
made from petroleum or natural gas. Phosphorus, (carrying K and Cl), triple super phosphate (Ca and
potassium, calcium, magnesium and other trace P) and magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) (Mg and S).
elements in inorganic fertilizers are often mined Compound N.P.K+TE with varying concentrations
from the earth. Inorganic fertilizers can be in form can also be applied in accordance with deficiency levels
of granular, powder and liquid packaging. to improve levels of both the macro-elements and
essential micro-nutrients in the soil. Single element
Inorganic fertilizers come in single-nutrient or multi- fertilizers contain a single element and include Urea (N),
nutrient formula’s. Multi-nutrient formula’s include Usually, the formulation is indicated on the package and
complete and balanced fertilizers, which contain sometimes reflected in the name. Inorganic fertilizers
basic nutrients, such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus and provide immediate release of nutrients to plants.
Potassium, as well as micronutrients such as calcium, However, the concentration of nutrients increases
magnesium, boron and manganese. The percentage the risk of burning the plant and the rapid release of
of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium contained nutrients may leach them deeply into the soil and water
in both complete and balanced fertilizers is indicated table where plants cannot access them. Advantages and
by three numbers on the package. For example, a disadvantages of chemical fertilizers are presented in
5-10-5 formula is a complete fertilizer, containing Table 17. The common inorganic fertilizers and their
5 percent Nitrogen, 10 percent Phosphorus and 5 formulations is presented in Table 18.

Table 17. Advantages and disadvantages of Inorganic Fertilizers

●● They are fast acting: The nutrients in them ●● Most Inorganic fertilizer formulations do not
dissolve quickly and are immediately available to the contain micronutrients
coffee plant ●● Inorganic fertilizers do not support
●● Predictability and reliability: Formulations are microbiological life in the soil
blended with accuracy and different blends are ●● Inorganic fertilizers do not add organic content
available for the different phase of the coffee plant to the soil
i.e. growth/vegetative and reproductive stages
●● Inorganic fertilizers are more expensive to access
●● The labeling: amounts of each of the three than natural fertilizers
main ingredients are listed in the order of N-P-K,
●● They may contain ingredients that may be
by percentage, on commercial fertilizer labels as
toxic to the skin or respiratory system. Always
the N-P-K ratio, for instance 12:10:10, 16:6:4, or
use protective wear while applying inorganic
10:10:10. Hence commercial formulated fertilizers
fertilizers
allow you to know exactly which nutrients you are
giving your plants, rather than guessing as the case ●● Inorganic fertilizers can build up in the soil,
is with the composition of organic formulae causing long-term imbalances in soil pH and
fertility
●● Inorganic fertilizers are less bulky, convenient and
require less labour to apply compared to organic ●● They are subject to leaching, a process that
fertilizers occurs when fertilizers are washed away by rain
or irrigation water below the level of plant roots
●● Inorganic fertilizers can easily be washed by
rain water down the valleys before coffee plants
assimilate them
Table 18. The common inorganic fertilizers and their formulations

Fertilizer name Formulation/content
Urea 46% Nitrogen (N
Sulphate of Ammonium 21% Nitrogen (N)
Phosphate 16.5% phosphorous (P2 05)
Kali 58% potassium (K2O)
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) It is water soluble, 18% Nitrogen, 46% P2O5(20% is P)
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) It is granular in form, 21-27% Nitrogen, Nitrate has 13.5% Nitrogen
and the Ammoniac group has 13.5 % Nitrogen and 8%Calcium
NPK complete fertilizer NPK exists in different formulations; 17:17:17, 20:5:5, 10:10:10 and
20:20:20
ASN Nitrogen (26%), Sulphur (13%)
ASN with Boron Nitrogen (26%), Sulphur (13%) and Boron (0.3%)
Single super phosphate (SSP) Phosphate (16%), Sulphur and other micronutrients all (12%)
Calcium super phosphate (CSP) Phosphate (16%), Calcium and other micronutrients all (12%)
Triple super phosphate (TSP) Di-Phosphorus pentoxide P2O5 (46%)

5.5.1 Inorganic Fertilizer Blend for Coffee rates are 90 kgs for 450 trees (an acre) for Robusta
Trees up to 2 Years Coffee (min. 200 grams per tree per rain season).
This fertilizer blend has been developed considering the This should be applied atleast in 2 splits during the
ratio in which the coffee crop takes up nutrients from the rainy season. For example, a 10kg bag will cover 50
soil and it works to replace the same nutrients after every coffee trees that are 3 years and older (producing
application to ensure the coffee crop receives its “balanced coffee) at application rate of minimum 200 grams
diet” of macro-nutrients of N, P & K a shown in Figure per tree. A complete fertilizer activity program for
33(a). This fertilizer blend (indicate the ratios and blend Robusta Coffee is presented in Table 19.
components) is recommended for nursery coffee trees
and coffee trees at planting time up to the first 2 years
after planting. In addition, farmers are encouraged to
apply one basin of organic manure per coffee tree atleast
once per year in order to continuously improve the soil
structure that will be an enabler for the easier uptake of
nutrients by crops. Recommended application rates for
this blend are 45 kg for 450 trees per acre for Robusta
(min. 100 grams per tree) per rain season for seedlings
in coffee nurseries, coffee trees at planting and up to the
first 2 years after planting. This can applied at once or in
2 splits during the rainy season. 10kg bag will cover 100
young trees or seedlings at planting at application rate of
minimum 100 grams per tree.
Figure 33(a). Appearance of inorganic fertilizer blend
The relevant information on constituent nutrients is
clearly label on the fertilizer pack as shown in Figure
33(b).
5.5.2 Inorganic Fertilizer Blend for Coffee
Trees above 3 Years
This fertilizer blend has been developed, by Grain
Pulse (U) Ltd, considering the ratio in which the coffee
crop takes up nutrients from the soil and it works to
replace the same nutrients after every application to
ensure the coffee crop receives its “balanced diet” of
macro-nutrients of N, P & K. This fertilizer blend
16:2:31 is recommended for coffee trees that are 3
years old and above that are productive. In addition,
farmers are encouraged to apply one basin of organic
manure atleast once per year in order to continuously
improve the soil structure that will be an enabler for
the easier uptake of nutrients by the coffee trees. It
contains the following basic/straight fertilizers that
are blended and packed in 50kg, 25kg & 10kg bags:
Urea (46%N); DAP (46% P2O5, 18%N) SOP (50%
Figure 33(b). Inorganic fertilizer blend label showing
K2O, 45% SO3). The recommended application formulation of inorganic fertilizers and the packaging

5.5.3 Foliar Fertilizers impeded during dry weather or cold spells.

These are formulations of soluble and liquid
fertilizers applied on the foliage of the coffee trees Apply foliar fertilizers when evaporation is low,
to supplement soil-applied fertilizers with the aim preferably in the mornings or evenings, when it is not
of correcting nutrient deficiency and supplementing hot.
nutrient availability where soil nutrient uptake is
Table 19. Fertilizer activity program for Robusta Coffee

Period of Fertilizer Application per tree Role Amount
application per acre
About a Lime (if soil pH is <5.5 100 g/hole Neutralizing acidity 45Kgs
month to
Organic manure 20L basin well Improving soil structure 450 basins
planting
decomposed cattle
manure (mix with soil)
At planting Single super phosphate 60 g/tree Enhances early root 27Kgs
(18-22% P2O5) formation and growth,
wood and fruit formation
Young coffee Compound fertilizer: If pH > 5.4 Increase vegetative growth 33.75Kgs
(Newly NPK (25:5:5) 75 g/tree/rain season
planted) Urea N- deficient Increase vegetative growth 34.2Kgs
76 g/tree/rain season
Young coffee Compound fertilizer: If pH > 5.4 Balance vegetative growth 67.5Kgs
(More than 2 NPK (25:5:5 150 g/tree/rain season and berry production
years) Calcium ammonium If Soil PH < 5.5, 1st season (April) for inducing 112.5Kgs
nitrate (26% N) 250 g/tree/rain season fruit formation & 2nd season
for enhancing fruit ripening
Ammonium sulphate Soil PH < 5.5, Increase vegetative growth 112.5Kgs
nitrate (26% N) Use ASN (26 %) at 250
g/tree/rain season
Urea 250 g/tree/rain season Increase vegetative growth 112.5Kgs
Cattle manure 10 Kg/tree/year Increase vegetative growth 4.5tons
Crop residues (maize
straw, beans, soya bean)

Period of Fertilizer Application per tree Role Amount

application per acre
Mature coffee Murate of potash (62% 200 g/tree/season For fruit maturation 90Kgs
(5 options) K2O Increased ability to
withstand pests & diseases,
drought, frost
Improves quality (aroma,
colour, taste, shelf-life)
NPK 15:2:31 250 g/tree/rain season Balances vegetative growth 115.2Kgs
and flowering
Calcium ammonium Soil PH < 5.5, 256g/ 1st season (April) for inducing 115.2Kgs
nitrate (26% N) tree/season fruit formation & 2nd season
for enhancing fruit ripening
Ammonium sulphate Soil PH < 5.5, Supplies nitrogen, reduces pH 115.2Kgs
nitrate (26% N) OR 250 g/tree/season ASN
Double Super P -deficient Supplies phosphate 90Kgs
phosphate (40-49% 200 g/tree/year Early maturity of berries
P2O5)s
Compound fertilizer 250 g/tree/rainy season Balance vegetative growth 115.2Kgs
(NPK 25:5:5) and berry production
5.6 Management and Effective use For example, the application of P and K fertilizer
of Fertilizer Products may be required in order to achieve a full response
to N fertilizer. Therefore, ‘balanced fertilization’
There are four best management practices, commonly is an important aspect in increasing fertilizer usage
referred to as the 4Rs or four ‘rights’ of fertilizer efficiency.
management. These are to apply the right source of
nutrient at the right rate, at the right time and in the The choice of fertilizer will depend on the current
right place to meet crop demand. These 4Rs help to and past use of manure, as well as soil properties and
improve the recovery ratio of fertilizer and therefore climate conditions. For example, where soils have
contribute to improved agronomic efficiency. a low buffering capacity (e.g. sandy soils), it would
be unwise to use ammonium sulfate as a source of
5.6.1 Right fertilizer product
N due to its soil-acidifying potential, while for areas
The right fertilizer product means matching the with very heavy rainfall during the cropping season,
fertilizer source and product to the crop’s needs and it is better to avoid nitrate-based fertilizers because
the properties of the soil. Fertilizer can be applied they are more prone to leaching than ammonium-
as straight fertilizers that provide one nutrient or based fertilizers such as urea. Before application of
compound fertilizers that provide more than one any fertilizer, it is important that soil or leaf analysis
nutrient. It should be noted that compound fertilizers is undertaken to determine the level of nutrient
are often more costly than straight fertilizers. The deficiency.
farmer’s final choice will therefore be dependant
on the local availability and cost of the fertilizer. Not all fertilizer products available on the market are
It is important to be aware of effect of applying of good quality. If a farmer buys and uses adulterated
different nutrients to achieve maximum productivity. or poor-quality fertilizer, it will not increase yields

as expected because it does not contain the correct degraded soils where fertilizers must be applied
amounts of the active ingredients of the required in combination with large amounts of organic
nutrients. For fully soluble fertilizers such as urea, inputs (crop residues, animal manures) in order to
ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, KCl, TSP obtain satisfactory responses to mineral fertilizers.
and DAP, farmers can find out if the fertilizer has
been adulterated with sand or brick dust by adding Application of small amounts of fertilizer and/
100g fertilizer to 1 litre of water. Unadulterated or manure on fertile soils can sustain soil fertility.
fertilizers will dissolve in water, cause a decrease Resource poor farmers can invest limited cash
in water temperature and leave only a very small- most effectively by prioritizing fertilizer use in their
undissolved carrier residue. Farmers are therefore most responsive fields and using moderate amounts
advised to always buy fertilizers or other agricultural that achieve a large return in yield per kilogram of
inputs from dealers registered and certified by fertilizer applied. Application of organic resources
the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and may be required to rehabilitate non-responsive soils
Fisheries (MAAIF). before a response to mineral fertilizer is obtained. In
some non-responsive soils the application of organic
5.6.2 Right fertilizer rate
resources may not result in a response to mineral
The right fertilizer rate means matching the amount fertilizers and other techniques may be required (e.g.
of fertilizer applied to the crop’s needs. Fertilizer rates tillage, application of micronutrients).
are site- and crop-system specific and are estimated
after considering: the nutrient requirements of the Extreme acidic soil pH (below pH5.5) and alkaline
crop; the soil’s current capacity to supply the nutrients soil (above pH 7) can also inhibit the response of
(measured by carrying out a soil analysis). the soil to the applied inorganic fertilizers. For
extreme acidic soils, calcite or dolomite limes can be
A calibrated measure should always be used to apply used as indicated by the results of soil analysis. And
fertilizer. To apply fertilizers uniformly at the right for extreme alkaline soils, fertilizers with acidifying
rate in a large field, soft-drink-bottles and tops can elements such as Ammonia Sulphate, Calcium
be used to measure the amount of fertilizer applied Ammonium Nitrate should be used to correct the
to each plant. For example, a full, level soda-bottle alkalinity levels as recommended from the soil
top contains about 6 g of fertilizer, a small emptied analysis report.
water bottle can be cut to hold a range of grams of
5.6.3 Right fertilizer time
granular fertilizer. At planting time when using Single
Supper Phosphate (SSP) at a rate of 60g/tree, with a The right time for fertilizer application means
plant population of 450 plants, an application of ten making nutrients available when the crop needs
soda-bottle top of SSP/tree is equivalent to 27kg/ them. Nutrients are used most efficiently when their
acre. Fertilizer responses can be classified as follows: availability is synchronized with crop demand. Basal
fertilizer application is done at or just after planting
• Poor responses on fertile soils with large nutrient to supply N, P, K and other nutrients required for
reserves (often the fields lying close by the farmer’s early crop growth. Nutrient N is highly mobile and
house where fertilizers, animal manures and crop easily lost from the soil due to leaching, therefore
residues have been applied regularly in the past); some fertilizers with N should be applied as a ‘top
• Large responses to fertilizer on nutrient-deficient dressing’ at key stages during crop development,
but responsive soils (often the fields more usually when the crop is growing fastest.
distant from the farmer’s house where fertilizers,
manures and crop residues are not applied). Top-dressed fertilizer with N can be applied as several
Very poor responses to fertilizer application on split applications to improve fertilizer use efficiency.

Top dressings produce good agronomic results; fertilizers in soil at a specific place with reference to
• If the crop is developing well under favorable the position of the coffee trees and their root system.
climatic conditions and good economic results. Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended
• If high crop prices are expected. when the quantity of fertilizers to apply is small,
development of the root system is poor, soils have a
If the crop has developed poorly because of poor low level of fertility and when applying phosphates
rainfall and the price of crop outputs is expected and potash fertilizers. The most common methods
to be low, top dressings can be cancelled and the of placement include;
fertilizer set aside for the next planting season. i. Plough placement; In this method, fertilizer is
placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in a
5.6.4 Right fertilizer placement
continuous band during the process of ploughing.
The right placement of fertilizer means applying Every band is covered as the next furrow is
fertilizer where the crop can optimally access and turned. This method is suitable for areas where
absorb the nutrients contained in the fertilizer. The soil becomes quite dry up to few centimetres
choice of application method by the farmer will below the soil surface and soils having a heavy clay
depend on the estimation of root system area and pan just below the plough layer.
labour required. But common fertilizer placement ii. Deep placement; It is the placement of inorganic
methods depend on the form of the fertilizer and fertilizers in the reduction zone of soil where
they include; nutrients remain available to the coffee trees. This
method ensures better distribution of fertilizer in
Application of Solid Fertilizers the root zone and prevents loss of nutrients by
a). Broadcasting: It refers to spreading fertilizers run-off.
uniformly all over the coffee field. It is suitable for iii. Localized placement; It refers to the application of
mature coffee farms because of the dense stand, the fertilizers into the soil close to the coffee plants in
roots which permeate the whole volume of the soil. order to supply the nutrients in adequate amounts
Also suitable for applying large doses of fertilizers to the roots of growing plants.
and when insoluble phosphate fertilizers such as rock
phosphate are used. Broadcasting of fertilizers in Advantages of placement of fertilizers
coffee plantations is of two types; i. Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
i. Top dressing; It is the broadcasting of fertilizers ii. Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
on the soil surface with the objective of supplying iii. Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized
nutrients in readily available form to coffee plants. when placed.
ii. Banding of fertilizer around the drip line; It is the
broadcasting of the fertilizer in form of a circle 5.6.5 Nutrient antagonism and competition
on the soil surface below the drip line of the This is when excessive amount of one nutrient can
coffee trees. suppress the uptake of another leading to deficiency
symptoms of the suppressed nutrient in coffee. For
Disadvantages of broadcasting example, excess of potassium can interfere with the
i. The weed growth is stimulated all over the field. uptake of magnesium. Similarly, excess of manganese
ii. Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in or zinc can induce iron deficiency symptoms as
contact with a large mass of moist soil. presented in Table 20. Farmers therefore need to use
results and recommendations from soil analysis to
b). Placement: It refers to the placement of take appropriate corrective action.

Table 20. Nutrient Antagonisms and coffee production is dependent on the least
Element in Excess Nutrient usually affected available nutrient at a particular time which acts as
the immediate constraining factor. This is known as
Nitrogen Potassium, Calcium
the “Law of the Minimum” and it can be visually
Potassium Sodium, Calcium, explained by the Barrel Analogy shown in Figure
Magnesium 34. The barrel can only hold as much liquid as the
Phosphorus Zinc, Iron, Copper shortest plank will allow. In the picture, the shortest
plank is nitrogen showing that the low levels available
Magnesium Calcium, Potassium
of this nutrient constrain crop yield even though
Iron Manganese there are sufficient supplies of other elements such
Manganese Iron, Molybdenum, as Sulphur or magnesium. Should nitrogen be added,
Magnesium potassium would be the next most limiting factor for
Copper Molybdenum, Iron, production.
Manganese, Zinc
Zinc Iron, Manganese
Molybdenum Copper, Iron
Sodium Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium
Aluminum Phosphorus
Ammonium Calcium, Copper
Sulphur Molybdenum
5.6.6 Soil nutrient availability and

limitations to plant growth
It is beneficial for plant growth and health to have
all nutrients available in adequate quantities in the
soil. However, the overall rate of plant growth
Figure 34. Barrel analogy

INSECT PESTS OF ROBUSTA COFFEE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 6
INSECT PESTS OF ROBUSTA COFFEE

AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
6.0 Introduction infesting mainly the primary branches (twigs) but
Pests and diseases affect the health of the coffee also the soft stems (below 2cm diameter) of coffee.
plants, which further leads into quality deterioration, It causes them to wilt and die, thus causing crop
quantity loss and eventually reduced economic loss. Therefore, absence of a suitable host is not a
return to the farmer. Successful pest and disease limiting factor.
management encompasses all good agricultural
practices aimed at growing a healthy crop such Any woody material of suitable moisture content
as irrigation, fertilization, pruning, soil and water and size supports its survival. Some of the alternate
conservation, weed control, shade management. hosts in Uganda include Cocoa, Avocado and
Control strategies against pest and diseases should shade trees such as Musizi (Maesopsis eminii) and
be based on Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Musambya (Markhamia platycalyx). The life cycle of
BCTB is completed in about one month. The pest
IPM is the coordinated use of pest and environmental is distributed worldwide and attacks mainly Robusta
information with available pest control methods to Coffee. Highest infestation is found in Busoga
prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the region especially in Namayingo district.
most economical means and with the least possible
hazard to people, property and the environment.
6.1 Black Coffee Twig Borer (BCTB)

6.1.1 Description and alternative hosts
The black coffee twig borer, Xylosandrus compactus is
a very small, highly prolific dark and oval shaped
beetle also known as the Ambrosia beetle as seen
in Figure 35(a). It probably originated from South
Asia and was first reported in Uganda in 1993
in Bundibugyo. The beetle is now present in all
Robusta Coffee growing areas of Uganda but has a
very wide host range of more than 200 plant species.
The BCTB feeds on Ambrosia fungus and belongs Figure 35(a). Adult Beetle
to the ambrosia group of beetles. Once inside the
twigs, it does not feed on the host plant material
but uses it as a medium for growing the fungus,

6.1.2 Damage and symptoms

The BCTB beetle bores holes on the lower side of the
coffee twigs to access the inside of the twigs as seen
in Figure 35(b) and lays eggs inside those twigs as
seen in Figure 35(c). The hollow sections made inside
the twigs block translocation of water and nutrients
to the branches resulting in drying of infested twigs
as seen in Figure 35(d). The twigs which dry as a
result of infestation are the crop bearing branches,
thus yield of up to 50% can be lost if attention is
not paid to its control. The female beetles initiate
infestation but males spend entire life in galleries.
The beetle multiplies more under shade conditions
Figure 35(b). Beetle entry hole on coffee stem and resultant damage is higher during the dry season
especially in coffee trees under shade trees or closely
planted coffee trees or inadequately pruned or de-
suckered coffee. The males spend their entire lives
inside the brood gallery. The females, however, leave
the brood gallery after mating to infest other hosts/
branches to lay eggs. Adult females can be dispersed
atleast 200 meters and it is likely that dispersal over
several kilometers is possible, especially if wind-
aided. The transportation of infested plant parts is
of more importance for long distance dispersal of
BCTB and should be discouraged.
BCTB females can reproduce parthenogenetically

(without mating), in which case the offspring are all
Figure 35(c). Black coffee Twig borer beetle eggs males. As a result, the introduction of only a few
females may lead to the establishment of an active
population if suitable host plants can be found and
environmental conditions are conducive. Based on its
prolific reproductive potential and dispersal capacity,
BCTB is therefore a high risk quarantine pest in
areas not yet infested locally. Management of black
coffee twig borer should integrate cultural, biological,
physical and chemical measures for greater impact
and cost efficiency.
6.1.3 Control
Cultural control; These measures include;
• Use of phytosanitary measures like cutting,
chopping and burning affected plant parts (stems/
primaries). Good control results can be achieved
Figure 35(d). Beetle infestation first signs showing
by collective community action at village level
wilting

towards a landscape approach to acquire skills on • Use the NARO-Uganda Beetle Trap Technology/
managing black coffee twig borer and others. Brocca trap as shown in Figure 35(e). The trap
• Alternate host trees of the black coffee twig borer is composed of transparent (non-coloured) water
such as Musizi (Maesopsis eminii) and Musambya bottle, a smaller pharmaceutical bottle and a
(Markhamia platycalyx) should be avoided as wire or string. The transparent bottle is used to
intercrops/shade trees. hold water which drowns and kills the beetle, the
• Use of pest-free planting materials from only pharmaceutical bottle (dispenser vial) is used to
certified coffee nurseries should be promoted. hold an attractant for the beetle and the wire/
• Regular inspection of fields to identify any black string is used to hang the trap on the coffee
coffee twig borer infestation and trimming off tree. The traps are placed at two-thirds from the
and burning infested materials if found. bottom of the tree and filled with 75% ethanol
• Avoid bushiness by planting at recommended lure concentration held in dispenser vials. A trap
spacing and doing adequate de-suckering and density of 15-traps/ha is recommended. Traps
pruning of coffee and shade trees. are best used at beginning of the rainy season and
• Enhance plant nutrition through soil fertility and should be replenished (cleaned and refilled) every
moisture management (highest BCTB infestation 2 weeks.
occurs where phosphorus is limiting) • Plant coffee shade trees recommended by NaCORI
Figure 35(e). Beetle trap technology used to control Black Coffee Twig Borer Beetle infestation.

Chemical control; In cases of heavy infestation, 6.2 Coffee Berry Borer

chemical sprays by use of a pressure sprayer can 6.2.1 Description and alternative Hosts.
be done after cutting and burning already dry twigs
to enhance control of the beetle. Apply a mixture The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei
of systemic pesticide such as Immidacloprid (Ferrari), is the most devastating insect pest of coffee
(Kohinor, Confidor, Imax at 350g/l formulation throughout the world. The pest is monophagous,
to kill the pest. The pesticide is diluted at 4ml/L feeding exclusively on immature and mature coffee
of water. For more effectiveness, another chemical cherries and not damaging the vegetative parts of the
Tebuconazole should be added in the same tank at plant. The female adult tunnels into green cherries
6ml/L to kill the hatched larvae. about 8 weeks after flowering. It stays inside the
tunnel, until the bean hardens, to lay eggs. They are
Biological control agents for the black coffee twig small beetles that bore into coffee berries, damaging
borer include the fungal agents Beauveria bassiana the beans thus lowering quality. The adult is a small
(Figure 36(a), Metarhizium anisopliae (Figure 36(b), black beetle (about 2.5 mm long) and covered in thick
a braconid wasp Plagiolepsis spp (Figure 36(c) and hairs. The female beetle bores into cherries through
Predator ant (Figure 36(d). the navel region as shown in Figure 37. Most females
fly from infested cherries during mid to late afternoon
Beauveria bassiana is a fungus, which causes a disease to seek out new cherries to infest. Immature berries
known as the white muscadine disease in insects. can shed off when attacked. The beetles in cherries
When spores of the fungus come in contact with on the plant or ground can survive for less than 5
the skin of insect, they germinate and grow directly months.
through the cuticle to the inner body of their host
where they proliferate throughout the insect’s
body, producing toxins and draining the insect
of nutrients, eventually killing it. Another fungus
Metarhizium anisopliae infects insects that come in
contact with it. Once the fungus spores attach to
the outer surface of the insect, they germinate Figure 37. Coffee berry borer beetle on a bean (Left);
and begin to grow. After penetrating the outside damage to berries (centre); beetles (extreme right)
skeleton of the insect, they grow rapidly inside
the insect, causing the insect to die. Insects that The pest is known to use other plant species for
come in contact with infected insects too become feeding only, including Tephrosia, Crotalaria,
infected. Some ant’s spp. has also been known to Centrosema, Caesalpinia, Leucaena, Hibiscus,
feed on the eggs of black coffee twig borer. Rubus, Vitis, Ligustrum, Oxycanthus and Phaseolus.
a b c d
Beauveria bassiana Metarhizium anisopliae

Plagiolepsis spp. Predator ant
Figure 36. Biological control agents of the Black coffee twig borer beetle infestation and control

However, these plants cannot support the life cycle fallen berries in the ground to suffocate it or burn
of the insect. them. Old berries remaining on the trees too are a
source of new infestation and should be stripped and
burned. Shaded coffee trees attract a higher number
The damage to the bean is caused by adults tunneling of birds which reduce coffee berry borer levels by
into the distal end of cherries to lay eggs and the feeding on them.
resultant larvae tunneling around the hardened
beans inside the cherries to feed. Coffee cherries are Brocca trap. The trap is composed of transparent
attacked in various stages but tunneling only happens (non-coloured) water bottle, a smaller pharmaceutical
on young green cherries and laying of about 15 eggs bottle and a wire or string. The transparent bottle is
occurs only in harden beans. The female adult tunnels used to hold water which drowns and kills the adult
into green cherries about 8 weeks after flowering. It beetle, the pharmaceutical bottle is used to hold
stays inside the tunnel, until the bean hardens, to lay an attractant for the beetle and the wire/string is
eggs. The eggs hatch in about 10 days and the larvae used to hang the trap on the coffee tree. The traps
feed on the beans making small tunnels. are placed in an area located at two-thirds from
the bottom of the tree and filled with 75% ethanol
Economic damage occurs due to the damage on the lure concentration. A trap density of 15-traps/ha is
beans caused by CBB during its breeding cycle in recommended. Traps should be cleaned and refilled
both young and older cherries. It causes fruit drop every 2 weeks.
of young, green cherries and a small hole at the distal
end is evident in the infested cherry. Cherries that Chemical control; Good result is achieved through
do not drop often have defective, damaged beans. the use of Fenitrothion 50% EC at a rate of 6ml
Market quality requirements demand the removal of in 4.5L of water applied at early fruit set (2mm
damaged beans from FAQ (green beans) and if the cherry sizes) and later 120-150 days after fruit set
beans are further sorted, they are relegated to the low- if required. Farmers can also use Cypermethrin and
grade category that lower prices. It causes significant Deltamethrin, pyrethroids (0.01%) at 26ml in 15L of
damage ranging from 50% to 100 % yield loss. water, or Chlorpyrifos ethyl used at 5mls per litre of
water. Spraying infested coffee with a combination
6.2.3 Control
of an insecticide like Immidacloprid (4mls/litre of
An integrated pest management strategy is used water) and a fungicide Tebbuconazole targets both
against the coffee berry borer. The principal tactics the beetle and the Ambrosia fungus (food for the
are cultural control, biological control, use of traps beetle) thus reducing its population through starving
baited with attractants and chemical control with as well. While handling chemicals, farmers are advised
synthetic insecticides. to strictly follow safe chemical use procedures.
Cultural Control; Pruning of coffee and shade trees Biological control; Agents include parasitoids,
to reduce shade exposes the pest so that the natural predators, nematodes and fungal entomopathogens
enemies can contain it. Regular picking of ripe cherries such as the Cephalonomia stephanoderis, Prorops nasutu,
(atleast every 2 weeks) can be effective in controlling Phymastichus coffea, Beuveria bassianaand parasitoid
the pest. Hygiene (Sanitation) through keeping the braconid Heterospilus coffeicola (Schmiedeknecht). The
coffee field clean and removing dropped cherries are first two parasitoids enter tunnels made by CBB and
a source of new infestation is very important. Fallen lays eggs on its larvae and pre-pupae. The emerging
berries on the ground can inhabit the CBB during parasitoid larvae feed on all the borer stages and
the period when trees have no cherries until the next kill them. The adult parasitoid also feeds on all
blossom, therefore, farmers are advised to bury all life stages of CBB. P. coffea parasitoid lays eggs on

borer beetles when it enters the berry. The White

Muscardine fungus, B. bassiana infects and kills the
beetle under favorable environmental conditions of
high humidity (relative humidity above 80%) and
optimum temperature between 25-30oC.
The Black thrip Karnyothrips flavipes (Jones) is another

predator of egg and larvae of the coffee berry
borer (reported to exist in Kenya). Another beetle
Leptophloeus sp. near punctatus is known to prey on
larvae. Spraying the field with molasses and or Figure 38. Large white mealybug
mulch attracts BCTB predators Plagiolespis sp into 6.3.2 Damage and symptoms
the coffee thus enhancing its biological control.
Spiders have also been observed to prey on the On the trees, they usually form a mass of many insects
coffee berry borer, although their preference for identifiable by a white mealy wax cover as seen in
this insect is low. Figure 39. White waxy colonies are usually found on
the underside of tender leaves and in soft stem areas
6.3 Coffee Mealybug around cherries as seen in Figures 40 and 41. Also, they
6.3.1 Description are found on young roots near the main root, especially
where soil is loose around the trunk as seen in Figures
Mealybugs (Planococcus spp.) are small sucking insects 42. Heavy infestations are manifested by sooty mould as
(about 3mm long) found mainly in Arabica Coffee seen in Figure 43.
but also of economic importance in Robusta. There
are several species similar in appearance to the
naked eye as seen in Figure 38.
They are generally more of a problem in the

dry season when water is lacking and trees are
experiencing water stress. They feed by sucking sap
from young shoots, leaves, flower buds, berries and
roots resulting into yellowing and defoliation of
the plants. While sucking, they produce honeydew
(excreta), which attracts attendant ants that protect
them from natural enemies.
One of these is these natural enemies is the ladybird

beetle whose adults are reddish brown with black
wings and about 4mm long. Severe damage causes
ultimately death of the plant. Serious infestations
of mealybugs are often found where there has
been use of insecticide sprays, especially highly
toxic organo phosphate sprays which kill almost all
insects, including natural enemies of mealybugs.
Figure 39. Early white waxy mealybug infestation in
coffee on leaves

Figure 40. Ripe cherry infestation and damage Figure 43. Heavy mealybug infestation causing black
sooty mould on leaves
6.3.3 Control
Complete removal and replacing of badly damaged or
dead trees may be the only solution to this pest menace.
Remove suckers and branches that touch the ground
to prevent ants has in some cases been effective.
Chemical control is fairly effective through tree banding

with 20cm wide plastic bands covered with a sticky
Figure 41. Green cherry infestation and damage substance (e.g. warmed up and then cooled oils) mixed
with insecticides (e.g. products containing Chlorpyrifos)
can prevent ants assessing the bugs and allow natural
enemies to control the mealybugs. Spray Chlorpyrifos on
the soil around the tree to kill ants as they disrupt the
natural enemies of the mealybugs. Fenithrothion and
Carbaryl sprays can also be effective. Farmers may also
apply oils (such as vegetable oils, neem oil or mineral
oils) or soapy solutions (1 to 2%) to kill mealy bugs by
suffocation. Use soapy water or oils only during non-
hot and non-sunny periods to prevent discolouration of
leaves. Apply according to label recommendations and
strictly follow safe use procedures.
Biological control is normally sufficient. The most

important predator is the mealy bug ladybird
(Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) which feeds on the mealybugs
as shown in Figure 44. Another biological control is a
parasitic wasp Leptmastix dactylopii) and lacewings such
as Oligochrysa lutea are also effective predators of mealy
bug. If no chemicals are sprayed, the mealy bugs are
Figure 42. Mealybug attack on coffee roots often naturally controlled by parasitic wasps (Anagyrus
kivuensis) that eat up the insides of the bug.

6.4.3 Control
Control is usually achieved by spraying when the
caterpillars are still small and are in large numbers,
using Fenitrothion 50% E.C. 70ml in 20litres of
water or Pyrinex 1ml per litre of water. Spray when
population of 30 moths per tree is sited. Strictly
follow safe chemical use procedures.
6.5 Coffee Leaf Skeletonizer

6.5.1 Description
Leaf skeletonizer (Leucoplema dohertyi warr) is a minor
pest in both Robusta and Arabica Coffee. Attacks are
Figure 44. Ladybird adult feeding on mealybug minor in the field but serious outbreaks in nurseries
may occur. Can be managed by spraying with a
6.4 Coffee Leaf Miner recommended insecticide.
6.4.1 Description 6.5.2 Damage and symptoms
Coffee Leaf miner Leucoptera caffeina (Washbour) larvae Larvae feed on leaf upper surface leaving veins and
bore into the leaf and feed on the leaf tissues between upper epidermis to create a ‘window’ as seen in
the lower and upper surfaces. If the mines are open, Figure 46. The caterpillars feed on the under surfaces
the caterpillars can be seen. Feeding causes brown of leaves, usually close to the mid-rib. They eat up all
irregular blotches on the leaf leading to premature the leaf tissues leaving only the main veins and upper
shedding of leaves. Can be managed by spraying with epidermis, resulting in irregular patches on the leaves.
a recommended insecticide.
Coffee leaves infested with coffee leaf minor is
recognized by the presence of large, irregular, brown
spots on the upper surface of the leaf as seen in Figure
45. Rubbing the spot, or bending the leaf across the spot,
results in the separation of the upper epidermis and the
exposure, in fresh mines, of small white caterpillars.
Mined leaves are usually shed prematurely.
Figure 46. Symptoms of coffee leaf skeletoniser
Figure 45. Symptoms of the coffee leaf miner

6.5.3 Control
Spraying can be done when the caterpillars are still
small and are in large numbers, using Fenitrothion
50% E.C. with 70 ml in 20 litres of water or Pyrinex
with 1 ml per litre of water. Strictly follow safe use
procedures.
6.6 Tailed caterpillar

6.6.1 Description
Figure 48. Tailed caterpillar damage symptoms on coffee
Tailed caterpillar Epicampoptera andersoni (Figure 47) leaves
occurs occasionally in large numbers and can cause
defoliation of coffee in the nursery. Larvae feed on 6.6.3 Control
leaf lamina, sometimes causing serious defoliation. In a small number of plants, the pupae can be collected
Recorded on other plant species – Markhamia lutea by hand and destroyed. Spraying with insecticide can
(Musambya), guava and Albizia coriaria (Mugavu). be done when the caterpillars are still small and are
in large numbers, using Fenitrothion 50% E.C. with
70 ml in 20litres of water or Pyrinex, 1ml per litre of
water. Strictly follow safe chemical use procedures.
6.7 Tailed Ant

6.7.1 Description
Tailed ant Oecophylla longinoda don’t affect coffee directly,
but affect labourers working on coffee. Less common
than the biting ant but more troublesome in some
Robusta areas than the biting ant. They nest mainly in
Robusta Coffee but can be found on other trees such
as cashew, citrus and mango where they are extremely
aggressive. Can prevent picking, pruning or other
Figure 47. Tailed caterpillar larvae
management activities.
6.7.2 Symptoms
The caterpillars feed on the under surface of the leaf,
about half way between the mid-rib and the edge, The tailed ant is a yellowish red insect about 10 mm
leaving the upper surface intact as seen in Figure long (adult) (Figure 49(a) which form colonies of
48. The older caterpillars, however, feed at the leaf multiple nests (Figure 49(b). They also attend some
margin, sometimes devouring everything except the scales. Workers construct nests by weaving together
mid-rib. leaves using larval silk as seen in Figure 49(c).
6.7.3 Control
Spot spraying with an insecticide as in the case
of biting ants. If the ants are attending scales an
insecticide band should be applied to the stem. e.g.
700ml Dursban 48% E.C. in 20 litres of water with
15gm methylene blue added.

6.7.2 Symptoms
a
Tailed ants form colonies (Figure 50(b) with multiple
nests in coffee trees, each nest being made of leaves
stitched together using the silk produced by the
ant larvae. Workers construct nests (Figure 50(c) by
weaving together leaves using larval silk.
6.7.3 Control
Spot spraying with an insecticide as in the case
of biting ants. If the ants are attending scales an
insecticide band should be applied to the stem. e.g.
700ml Dursban 48% E.C. in 20 litres of water with
15 gm methylene blue added.
b
6.8 Biting Ants

6.8.1 Description
Biting ants Macromischoides aculeatu don’t affect coffee
directly, but affect labourers working on coffee.
Commonly found in most Robusta Coffee areas
and mainly found in Robusta Coffee. Can prevent
picking, pruning or other management activities.
They are small black and extremely aggressive ants,
c which makes papery nests between leaves.
6.8.3 Control
Biting ants can be managed by spraying with a
recommended insecticide. It does not, however,
generally encourage infestation by scales and mealy
bugs. Spot treatment of the nest with 40ml of
Fenitrothion 50 % EC in 20 litres of water can
contain the infestation.
Figure 49(a). Tailed adult ant, (b) Ant colony and (c) Ant
nest

CHAPTER 7
DISEASES OF ROBUSTA COFFEE AND

THEIR MANAGEMENT
7.0 Introduction coffee husks (as mulch) and carrying dried plants (as
A number of fungal diseases are found on Robusta firewood) and use of unsterilized garden tools. Has
Coffee, which under favourable conditions may no chemical remedy.
cause damage to the crop. Presence of a disease
7.1.2 Disease symptoms
may result in reduced growth, yield and quality. In
some cases diseases may lead to death of plants The affected coffee tree may start by yellowing
on a large scale or few plants within the field. The and/or curling of leaves, wilting and rapid leaf
common diseases affecting Robusta Coffee in defoliation as shown in Figure 50. This is followed
Uganda include Coffee Wilt, Coffee Leaf Rust, the by progressive die back of whole tree starting
Red Blister Disease and Root Rot Disease. from the apex (tips) of the stem and progressively
spreading downwards to all branches and eventually
7.1 Coffee Wilt Disease the whole plant as shown in Figure 51.
7.1.1 Description
Once the back is chipped, a dark strip running all
The coffee wilt disease (CWD) also known as the way from bottom to top of wilting stem can
“Fusarium wilt” or “Tracheomycosis spp” is caused be noticed. Sometimes black sporulation may be
by the fungus Fusarium xylarioides or Gibberella seen on the back. On a multi-stemmed coffee plant,
Xylarioides and is seen as the most important biological stems die in sequence (one after the other) until
threat to coffee production in Uganda. Attacks the whole plant completely dries up. At advanced
only Robusta Coffee in Uganda, occurrence can be stages, cracks (or cankers) usually occur around the
sporadic leading to epidemics. The fungus attacks collar region of the stems of affected plant.
the vascular system of the coffee plant, causing
blockage of water and nutrient transportation from Coffee berries on the affected tree ripen prematurely,
roots to other parts of the plant. dry up, but remain attached to the primary branches.
An infected and dried up coffee plant remains firmly
This causes wilting and eventual death of the rooted in the ground unlike one that is infected
affected plant. The disease is soil borne. Its spores by other fungi like Armillaria mellea, which easily
enter through the plant tissue/wounds/cracks on topples over when pushed. Infected plants do not
the stems (collar region) and the root system. The recover even after pruning and/or stumping. When
spores from infected plants are spread within the pruned or stumped, any suckers that may sprout
coffee field by wind, running water and human later wilt and dry up.
activities such as movement of infected soil or
planting material, movement and/or use of infected

DISEASES OF ROBUSTA COFFEE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
7.1.3 Control
The ultimate control starts with good planting
materials purchased from reputable coffee nurseries
and planting in a freshly opened field. Planting material
should be obtained from official distributors or from
areas that are known to be free of the disease. Trees that
have been attacked by the disease must be destroyed
where they are uprooted and not dragged through
healthy trees as this will spread the disease. Following
destruction of diseased trees the land should be left
fallow or an alternative crop grown. Coffee branches
that dry due to coffee wilt disease should not be used
for firewood. This is because collection from the field,
tools used and transportation would aid in spread of
the disease. Any wounding of the tree, especially in
the stem near soil level or in the roots, will allow the
fungus to gain entry. Treat wounds with disinfectant or
a suitable fungicide soon after the wounds are made.
Great care should be taken, therefore, to minimize
damage when weeding and pruning with a machete,
hoe or other implement.
Figure 50. Early symptoms of coffee wilt
A coffee field that has been infected by coffee wilt
disease and trees uprooted should not be replanted
with coffee for atleast 11/2 years. In the meantime,
it is recommended that a fresh field, away from the
infected one be prepared and planted with clean
planting material such as clonal coffee. Even if a coffee
bush with Tracheomycosis already has berries, farmers
should not harvest these berries from infected trees.
Such berries should be destroyed with the infected
plant, as they are a channel for further disease spread.
Coffee husks from infected berries can be a source
of coffee wilt disease. Until the disease is completely
eradicated from the country, farmers are advised not
to use coffee husks for mulching their coffee fields;
Garden tools in infected fields must be sterilized or

with disinfectant (e.g. ‘JIK’) before moving from one
tree to another and before use in a fresh field. Do
not use cutting tools between infected and healthy
plants. If possible, all tools should be sterilized in a
fire. Reduce run off using e.g. mulching, banding etc.
Unless planted with a resistant cultivar, replanting with
coffee should not be carried out for atleast two years
Figure 51. Wilted coffee due to coffee wilt
to allow inoculum of the fungus in soil to decline.

7.2 Coffee Leaf Rust

7.2.1 Description
Coffee leaf rust is a leaf disease caused by the fungus

Hemileia vastatrix. The disease occurs in all Robusta
districts in Uganda, which are found between 1000–
1500m above sea level. Some Robusta cultivars are
more susceptible than others. Severe attack of the
disease results in premature leaf fall and reduced yield.
The first symptoms are pale yellow spots on the lower
leaf surfaces. The spots enlarge and produce spores,
which are orange (rust) in colour as shown in Figures Figure 52(b). A lower side of coffee leaf heavily attacked
52(a) and 52(b). Old parts of the lesions become by coffee leaf rust
necrotic and turn brown. Wind, rain splash, insects
and humans are the main agents of spread of spores.
Infected seedlings/cuttings can also spread the disease
in new fields or locations. Rust causes premature
defoliation and loss of photosynthetic surfaces.
Consequently, the plant resorts to stored carbohydrates
in the roots to sustain developing berries. This leads to
loss of fine feeder roots. Repeated attacks of rust lead
to slow decline of the coffee bush as well as reduced
yield. Expanding berries fail to fill up due to lack of
required nutrients and young berries are shed as shown
in Figure 53. Infected leaves, which remain, on the trees
provide sources of infection when the rains begin and
the fungus also becomes active. New leaves, which
are formed, become infected and the disease cycle is
repeated.
Figure 53. A heavily defoliated coffee tree as a result of

coffee leaf rust
Figure 52(a). Coffee leaf rust symptoms on coffee leaves

“Insect pest and disease control is a climate

smart adaptation and mitigation measure”
7.1.3 Control management is employed.

Good field management practices starting with
proper field preparation, clean planting materials
from recommended nurseries, cultural practices such
as proper pruning, weeding etc. The use of resistant/
tolerant varieties if available is effective. Chemical
control is not economical and is not recommended
in the case of Robusta Coffee but rather in Arabica
where it can be very destructive.
7.3 Red Blister Disease

7.3.1 Description
Red blister disease, Cercospora caffeicola is a serious
and widespread berry disease on the old traditional
seedling of both Robusta Coffee occurring mostly
in the East African region. The disease has been
recorded only in Uganda and Bukoba area in
Tanzania. It occurs in both Robusta and Arabica
Coffee grown in the low land areas.
Small red and slightly raised spots appear on both
green and ripening cherries. The spots enlarge and join
forming unsightly red blisters as seen in Figure 54. The
centres of the lesions dry up and turn black. Infected Figure 54. Green and red Robusta Coffee berries infected
dry cherries do not pulp properly which lead to loss of with red blister disease
quality.
7.4 Root rot or Collar crack disease
7.3.3 Control
7.4.1 Description
Effective control is achieved through the use of
tolerant/resistant varieties and use of good soil Root rot or Collar crack -Armillaria mellea can be a
fertility management plan by adding NPK or organic serious disease in various localities, especially in
manure. Also maintain proper pruning, proper plant coffee planted on land cleared from forest. The
spacing and destroy infected coffee debris. It helps to fungus attacks many forest trees and other tree crops
grow coffee under shade, (atleast 50% shade cover) besides coffee. The disease is spread from one tree to
to discourage the disease. Finally, ensure proper another by root contact.
drainage. Chemical control is not necessary if good

7.4.2 Disease Symptoms prior to felling which is the removal of the bark of the
Infection of a root system does not immediately coffee tree 1- 2 meters around and 2 meters from the
result in the appearance of symptoms on the aerial tree. This has the effect of depleting the carbohydrate
part. These only begin to show when the collar is reserves in the root system. The fungus (Armillaria)
attacked or when several large roots are destroyed. cannot grow in roots deprived of carbohydrates.
In the case of slow decline, the main symptoms Ring barking should be done correctly by removing
are a reduction of shoot growth, changes in foliage the bark, but leaving the tissue of the wood alive.
characteristics (foliage becomes stunted, chlorotic The removal of the bark prevents downward
and sparse). The leaves can wilt (on fruit trees), fall movement of carbohydrates to the root system. The
prematurely or show abnormal colourations. (All tree continues to live using the reserves in the roots,
foliage can turn yellow or sometimes brown). which get exhausted - and the tree dies, together with
the fungus. The aim of ring barking is to exhaust the
Affected trees slowly decline in production. Leaves reserves in the roots, which may take two to three
turn yellow, followed by wilting and eventual death years. By this time the top of the tree would be dead
of leaves, branches and the whole tree. The root, and felling of the trees can be done. The stump and
white mycelial growth of the fungus can be seen. At as much as possible the whole root system should be
an advanced stage of the disease, the wood of the removed and burnt after the trees have been felled.
affected tree is decomposed into a white wet mass Replanting on the site should be delayed for atleast 2
with characteristic black lines running through the years. Chemical control is achieved by drenching with
tissue. Vertical cracks may occur at the base of the fungicides. The area can be drenched with copper
stem, hence the name collar crack. fungicide to reduce infection of future transplants.
Copper oxychloride in a mixture of 150gm in 20litres
7.4.3 Control
of water may be applied.
Control can be achieved through ring barking trees

ROBUSTA COFFEE HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING PRACTICES

CHAPTER 8
ROBUSTA COFFEE HARVEST AND POST-

HARVEST HANDLING PRACTICES
8.0 Introduction
the tree is transferred to the cup. This harvesting
Harvesting is one of the critical steps within the method maximises the amount of ripe coffee
coffee value chain where quality of coffee can be harvested, as the unripe green beans are left to
either compromised or maintained. Harvesting is the mature and harvested after 6 to 8 days after. In
process of picking the ripened fruit (berries) from order to harvest properly farmers must stick to
the coffee trees. Coffee berries ripen progressively the following harvesting quality controls:
and may be picked at intervals of 10-15 days over
a period of several months. Good post harvest
practices are critical in maintaining quality.
8.1 Robusta Coffee harvest seasons

Two harvest seasons exist in Uganda. They include
the main harvest season and the minor season
(fly). The coffee harvest seasons in various regions
of Uganda are shown in Table 21.
8.2 Robusta Coffee harvesting best

practices
The best quality coffee is obtained from “selective
picking of red ripe cherries” and this is recommended
for all farmers as shown in Figure 55. Selective Figure 55. Selective harvesting of Robusta Coffee by
picking is the best way to ensure that quality in hand
Table 21. Robusta Coffee harvest seasons

Region Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sep
Central X Main Crop Season Robusta x x Fly Crop Robusta x x

Masaka X Fly Crop Season Robusta x x Main Crop Robusta x x
Eastern X Main crop Robusta x x x Fly Crop Robusta x x
Western & S. X Fly crop Robusta x x Main crop Robusta x x
Western
Mid-North X Main crop x x x

• Ripe red cherries should be selectively picked by

hand as shown in Figure 56. Well-harvested coffee
maintains quality and attracts better prices on the
market. Picking green cherries leads to quality
deterioration and loss of income due to a lot of
unripe or underdeveloped beans and poor cup
quality of the final product – hence poor prices.
Figure 57. Well-picked bright red Robusta Coffee cherries
The Robusta Coffee varieties grown in Uganda do

not ripen uniformly, necessitating farmers not to
harvest it by strip picking as shown in Figure 58.
Farmers must avoid strip picking of coffee at all
costs. Despite poor quality due to immature cherry
harvested through stripping, the practice also destroys
leaves, coffee bearing loci and parts of the primary
Figure 56. Ripe Robusta cherry ready for harvesting branches are damaged leading to reduced yields in
the subsequent season. Strip picking of coffee must
• Use clean containers while harvesting in order be avoided due to following reasons:
to avoid development of mould. Have a clean
tarpaulin or hessian square under the tree while • It introduces cherries, that are green and immature,
harvesting. This will help the farmer to separate insect damaged and overripe into a coffee sample.
qualities, coffee found fallen on the ground After drying, all cherries turn black as shown in
from that freshly harvested. Secondly, in case Figure 59 making it impossible to differentiate
of rain, our farmers can gather the harvested between qualities of coffee except by cup tasting.
coffee quickly.
• Harvesting cherries picked from the ground
must be avoided. They are frequently highly
contaminated with Ochratoxin A that may be
from mould growths.
• Immediately after harvesting, remove leaves, twigs
and start drying the coffee.
• Avoid harvesting overripe and immature cherries.
The best cherries are usually of a bright red
colour as seen in Figure 57. The delay to harvest
is normally done intentionally to have most of the
coffee ripen. However in the process some coffee
becomes overripe and this may result in poor cup
taste in addition to possibility of mould growth
Figure 58. Appearance of strip picked coffee
(OTA) risk.

8.3.1 Wet processing

Wet processing is more complex than dry processing,
requiring specific equipment and the availability
of large quantities of clean water. Green coffee
produced in this way is usually of better quality and
commands higher prices. Two methods exist and
they include (a) Full wash and (b) Semi-wash process
as shown in Figure 60.
Figure 59. Coffee colour turns black after drying due to

strip picking
• Over-ripe cherries have a negative impact on the

cup quality due to fermentation while unripe and
diseased cherries are one of the causes of black
beans. Black beans also have a negative impact on
cup quality and price.
• Stripping introduces green immature cherries,
which would otherwise be left to mature and
increase the yields and income to the farmer.
• Stripping interferes with the development of
intrinsic factors of the coffee beans, which affects
the coffee quality/density/weight and ultimately,
the final price.
8.3 Robusta Coffee Processing

Proper coffee processing is important because it
sustains bean quality and thus ensures better prices
to growers. Two methods for coffee processing exist. Figure 60. Diagrammatic presentation of the wet
These are dry processing and wet processing. The processing methods
major difference between dry and wet processing is
how the fresh cherry is treated. In the full wash process the skin of fresh cherry
is physically removed using a manual or powered
Dry processing involves direct drying, after picking pulping machine with addition of water (pulping).
the coffee cherry. Dry processing is a natural process The sugar coating (mucilage) is allowed to ferment
and is simple. The cherries are dried with the seeds over one to two days and then the parchment is
still in the fruit or in their entirety and mostly using washed thoroughly to remove all traces of fermented
the sun to produce dried coffee locally known as mucilage. The parchment is dried until the bean
Kiboko. inside reaches 12-13% moisture content. This
process can produce high quality coffee, but requires

large quantities of water - between 2 -10 L/kg) water The drying of parchment coffee takes between
of fresh cherry and requires very good management 10 to 15 days. Parchment coffee must be properly
of the fermentation and washing process to ensure dried to avoid mould growth and contamination in
the coffee flavor is not compromised in the process. order to achieve/maintain good quality.
In the semi-wash process, the skin of the fresh cherry It is advisable to dry parchment coffee on raised
is physically removed by a pulping machine (Figure 61) wire mesh platforms under moderate sun to avoid
with addition of water, as with full-wash processing. cracking of the parchment skin. Coffee should
The mucilage is then removed immediately after pulping not be dried directly on the ground/soil or dirty
using a mucilage remover. Notably, this process does surface as this may lead to dirty coffee or earthy
not ferment the mucilage as it is mechanically removed flavors in the finished coffee. Coffee should not be
by a mucilage remover. Immediately after removing spread out too thick on the drying surface/areas.
the mucilage, the clean parchment is ready for drying The coffee should be continuously dried until the
until the bean inside reaches 12-13% moisture content. moisture content has reached 12-13% moisture
Recent technological advancements have shown that content. Good storage of parchment coffee, in
pulper/mucilage remover units are a cost efficient and clean sisal/jute bags and on pallets in clean stores
an effective way to consistently produce high quality is essential.
coffee without the need for fermentation and washing.
8.3.2 Dry processing
These units typically use less water (about 0.5L of water
per kg of fresh cherry) and reduce the risk of over- The process of drying Kiboko coffee takes 14
fermentation and quality problems in the final coffee -30 days depending on weather conditions. Dried
product. While there is an initial capital cost to purchase Kiboko coffee must have moisture content of
the pulper and mucilage remover units, there is no need 13-14% prior to sale or processing. It should be
for fermentation tanks and washing systems. Pulper/ black in colour and must have no smell and free
mucilage remover units are recommended for semi- of extraneous matters such as stones, dust and
washed wet coffee processing. mould with a minimum out-turn of 50 %. Kiboko
must be properly dried to avoid growth of mould
including OTA. Proper drying of coffee leads to
maintaining good quality of the coffee. Always dry
coffee on cemented floor, tarpaulins, raised tables
and raised wire mesh as shown in Figures 62, 63,
64 and 65 respectively.
To quicken the drying time, farmers are now shifting

to the use of large or small scale solar dryers as
shown in Figures 66(a) and 66(b) respectively.
Cherry must be turned with a rake to allow uniform

drying and should be covered at night and during
rainfall to avoid re-wetting. During the first two or
three days of drying ensure that the layer is as thin
as possible (not more than 4 cm or 1.5 ‘’thick) to
speed the drying process and avoid mould growth.
Figure 61. A manual coffee pulper

Figure 62. Drying of Kiboko Coffee on cemented Figure 63. Drying coffee on tarpaulin or mat
concrete slab
Figure 64. Drying of Kiboko Coffee on raised tables Figure 65. Coffee drying on raised mesh

Figure 66(a). Large scale solar drier
Figure 66(b). Small scale solar drier
8.4 Robusta Coffee storage and grow mould due condensation. The coffee bags
Even when parchment or Kiboko is dried well before should be placed on pallets, as seen in Figure 69, that
storage, to avoid mould growth, it can still grow mould are raised to atleast 15cm to avoid wetting by ground
during storage if good care is not taken into account. moisture and stacked bags should be placed atleast
Therefore, a store or warehouse for coffee should be 30cm away from the walls and ceiling.
isolated from strong smelling liquids such as petrol
or paraffin or diesel, or agricultural fertilizers and The coffee store should have cemented floor,
chemicals to avoid contamination of the final cup. plastered wall and must be well ventilated. Proper
Parchment or dry cherry (Kiboko) should be stored procedure for receiving coffee into storage should
silos or in either clean sisal bags as shown in Figure be developed. The first in first out (FIFO) system
67. Do not store parchment or Kiboko in polybags should be followed.
bags (Figure 68) as the coffee will absorb moisture

Figure 67. Sisal gunny bags Figure 68. Woven polybags should not be used for
holding green beans
Figure 69. Coffee bags placed on pallets in a warehouse

ROBUSTA COFFEE VALUE ADDITION

CHAPTER 9
9.0 Introduction 9.1 Sorting Dry Parchment and

Various value addition activities exist within the Kiboko
coffee value chain. Value addition starts with selective A machine may be used to clean and sort hulled
picking of the cherry, the wet processing or hulling coffee by size, density and aerodynamic shape.
process and grading of the green bean Fair Average However, ultimately, the human hand is needed to
Quality (FAQ) into various screen sizes prior to sale. carefully “hand-sort” coffee ready for export as seen
in Figure 70.
Figure 70. Hand-sorting coffee before export

practices recommended in this handbook should be

carried out.
9.3 Grading of green coffee beans

Coffee beans, like any other agricultural product, have
variance in the size, colour and shape. Assessing the
quality of green beans and finding out its attributes
is important in coffee export business. This process
involves (a) Grading and (b) Cupping. The first part
in the assessment of green beans is grading the beans.
“Grading” is a way of analyzing the physical quality

of green beans or coffee clean popularly known as
FAQ. Before grading a sample is first obtained, to
check for:
Figure 71. Appearance of sorted coffee beans
• The size of the bean
9.2 Quality Testing of FAQ • Moisture content
Once coffee beans have been sorted (Figure 71), the • The quantity of defects
out-turn test should be used as a method of quality • Foreign matter
testing of the FAQ. Out–turn % is a percentage
or ratio that expresses the amount of desirable The size of the bean/coffee is measured using
product (green coffee beans- FAQ) out of a known screen (SCR) size as shown in Figure 72. These are
raw quantity of Kiboko or parchment coffee. The replaceable metal sheets that have round holes that
equipment used to establish out-turn of a sample retain beans over a certain size and allow smaller
include a sample weighing scale and a hand huller. beans to pass through. Screen sizes are expressed in
Using the sample scale, weigh a certain quantity of numbers (10 to 20). Table 22 below shows standard
the coffee, e.g. 1 kg (of Kiboko or parchment). Then coffee round screens descriptions and table 23 shows
–hull the measured quantity of the coffee. Winnow Ugandan export grades for Robusta Coffee.
the discharged coffee beans that are mixed with husk
to remain with clean FAQ. Weigh the FAQ in the “Cupping” is the term for tasting in the coffee
polythene bag and subtract the weight of the husks. industry. It is the way of assessing the flavors and
Using this formula below, establish the percentage taints of a coffee cup.
out-turns. Table 22. Screen sizes
Screen Number ISO dimensions (in mm)
Weight of FAQ/1000 X100=Percentage Out-turn 10 4.00
12 4.75
If for example 540gm of FAQ are hulled from 1 kg 13 5.00
of Kiboko, the out-turn will be as follows: 14 5.60
15 6.00
16 6.30
540/1,000 x 100 = 54%
17 6.70
18 7.10
A higher out-turn is more preferred since it leads a 19 7.50
farmer to obtaining more incomes. In order to obtain 20 8.00
the highest outturn possible, all good agricultural

Figure 72. Screen size trays for grading green coffee beans
In order to obtain a better SCR size i.e. 16 or 1600 and

above, farmers need to carry out proper field management
practices and proper plant nutrition. The moisture level
of green coffee is very important. All the above coffee
grades should comply with moisture content up to 13-
14%. This is done with a moisture measuring instrument
as shown in Figure 73. But, since the moisture level is
constantly changing, the amount and speed of change
depends on the conditions of your coffee store.
Figure 73. Coffee moisture meter

Table 23. Ugandan export grades for Robusta Coffee

Grade Screen retention Total defects
Screen 18 18- 92%
15- 7% 7%
12- 1%
Screen 17 18- 7%
17- 90% 7%
15- 3%
Screen 15 17- 7%
15- 90% 12%
12- 3%
Screen 14 15- 10%
14- 85% 10%
12 - 5%
Screen 13 15- 13%

13- 85% 12%
12- 2%
Screen 12 14-13%
12-85% 15%
>12-2%
bhp 1899 18-minimum 80% Sound bean tolerance = 15%
Extraneous matter = 2%
Stones & metals = 0%
Dust free
BHP 1599 >18-10% Sound bean tolerance = 15%.
15 = minimum 70% Extraneous matter = 2%
Stones & metals =0%
Dust free
BHP 1299 >15-10% Sound bean tolerance = 15%.
Retained above screen 12 = Extraneous matter = 2%
min 80% Stones & metals =0%
Dust free
BHP1199 Below screen 12 Sound bean tolerance = 10%.
Extraneous matter = 2%
Stones & metals =0%
Dust free
BHP10.13 Light & broken beans Sound bean tolerance = 10%.
rejected at primary Extraneous matter = 2%
processing level Stones & metals =0%
Dust free
Black beans Black and discoloured beans Sound bean tolerance = 3%.
sorted from export grades Extraneous matter = 2%
by hand or colour sorter. Stones & metals =0%

Grade Screen retention Total defects

Certified coffees Process certified coffees. Maximum defects 12%
(organic, UTZ, Certified by other bodies
Rainforest Alliance, Cleaned and screened above
Fair-trade, 4C verified) screen 1400 (>14-90%)
Washed Robusta Screened above screen 1400. Maximum defects 10%
ungraded
9.4 Transporting of green Robusta should be packed well and transported intact to avoid
Coffee beans of any re-wetting or damage. The mode of transport
Storage and transportation pose similar risks to coffee must be reliable and in good mechanical condition.
quality. Re-wetting of beans due to leaky tarpaulins, The transportation trucks must have sound tarpaulins
or high humidity inside hot containers standing to avoid re-wetting of coffee. Transport coffee alone,
for long periods in tropical ports, can result in the covered with tarpaulin and avoid carrying other
coffee developing mould or musty flavors. Special substances which may contaminate the coffee e.g.
techniques for handling bulk or bagged green beans fuels, agrochemicals. Ensure that transit time is as
for container shipping are now well known. Coffee short as possible.

COFFEE FARMING AS A BUSINESS

CHAPTER 10
COFFEE FARMING AS A
BUSINESS
10.0 Introduction • Making savings and investments for growth.
Coffee is the second most traded tropical commodity in • Enhancing quality of coffee.
the world after oil. In Uganda, it is one of the most traded • Maximizing coffee output.
due to availability of a fully functional marketing system.
In order to obtain full benefits from coffee, growers must 10.2 Coffee Farming Best Practices
carry out coffee farming as a business in order to maximise The following principles must be followed in doing
profit. It should be driven by standard production and coffee as business
manufacturing practices aimed at sustaining economic
output and product quality in order to maximise profit. • Proper registration of the business
The practices should be timely, accurate and efficient in • Good management practices
resource utilization. Routine maintenance of financial • Proper record keeping to track all expenditures and
and operational records is therefore crucial in monitoring incomes
of the performance of the business. Factors that affect • Proper financial management
profitability of coffee farming include: • Regular monitoring of the coffee fields to assess
performance and detect any problems
• Productivity –in terms of Kg per tree/acre/hectare • Seeking expert advice
• Market price – influenced by quality, supply and • Using weather forecast data for proper planning
demand • Using market information
• Exchange rate- fluctuates depending on market forces • Proper planning
• Milling loss depends on quality of Kiboko or • Diversification of enterprises to increase returns
parchment. For example, parchment type P1 has a • Understanding the needs of the consumer or your
milling loss of 20%. Parchment 2 has milling loss of client
32%. Parchment 3 has a milling loss of 38% and Buni • Testing and choosing best options that maximise
has a milling loss of 50%. return per unit area, including bargaining for the
minimum costs for inputs and maximum prices for
10.1 Objectives of Coffee Farming as sales depending on quality of your coffee
Business
10.3 Types of coffee farming
The coffee farming community should aim at the businesses
following objectives in undertaking coffee farming as
10.3.1 Sole Proprietor
a business:
• Maximizing profits by reducing costs and increasing A sole Business/proprietorship is a type of business
revenue. where one individual or married couple is in business
• Maximizing sales. alone. The owners have day-to-day responsibility for

running the coffee farm as a business. They own all 10.3.4 Cooperatives
the assets and the profits generated. The advantage Cooperative is a type of business entity owned,
of this type of business is that it is the easiest and controlled and operated by a group of users for
least expensive form of ownership to organize. their own benefit and common good. Each member
Secondly, the owners are in complete control and contributes equity capital and shares in the control
within the parameters of the law, may make decisions of the cooperative on the basis of one-member, one-
as they see fit. vote. It is a business of true equals -- an organization
owned and operated democratically by its members.
10.3.2 Partnership
These grassroots business organizers often refer to
A general partnership is a type of business where two their businesses as a “group,” “collective,” or “co-
or more persons (usually not a married couple) agree operative”
to contribute money, labour, or skill to a business
through formal process usually contained in a written There are specific laws dealing with the set-up
partnership agreement where each partner shares of cooperatives. Farmers may contact Uganda
the profits, losses and management of the business Cooperative Alliance or Ministry of Trade and
and is personally and equally liable for debts of the Cooperatives, or the local district cooperative officer
partnership. The advantages of partnerships are that for more information. The following principles are
they are relatively easy to establish however time important for successful producer organizations:
should be invested in developing the partnership
agreement. Also with more than one owner, the 1. Voluntary and Open Membership - Co-
ability to raise funds may be increased. The profits operatives are voluntary organizations, open to
from the business flow directly through to the all persons able to use their services and willing
partners’ personal tax returns. Prospective employees to accept the responsibilities of membership,
may be attracted to the business if given the incentive without gender, social, racial, political or religious
to become a partner. The business usually will benefit discrimination.
from partners who have complementary skills.
2. Democratic Member Control - Co-operatives
10.3.3 Corporation
are democratic organizations controlled by their
Forming a corporation (for-profit) or Limited members, who actively participate in setting their
Liability Company (LLC) is a bit more complicated policies and making decisions. Men and women
and costly, but well worth the trouble for some small serving as elected representatives are accountable
businesses. Corporations and LLCs make sense for to the membership. In primary co-operatives
business owners who either, (1) run a risk of being members have equal voting rights (one member,
sued by customers or of piling up a lot of business one vote) and co-operatives at other levels are also
debts, or (2) have substantial personal assets they organized in a democratic manner.
want to protect from business creditors. What sets the
corporation apart from all other types of businesses 3. Member Economic Participation - Members
is that a corporation is an independent legal and tax contribute equitably to the capital of their co-
entity, separate from the people who own, control and operative. Atleast part of that capital is usually the
manage it. Because of this separate status, the owners common property of the co-operative. Members
of a corporation don’t use their personal tax returns usually receive limited compensation, if any, on
to pay tax on corporate profits - the corporation itself capital subscribed as a condition of membership.
pays these taxes. Owners pay personal income tax only Members allocate surpluses for any or all of the
on money they draw from the corporation in the form following purposes:
of salaries and/or bonuses.

• Developing their co-operative, possibly by setting policies approved by their members.

up reserves, part of which atleast would be
indivisible; 7. Horizontal and vertical integration - Producer
• Benefiting members in proportion to their groups need to integrate both horizontally (many
transactions with the co-operative; and producer groups operating at the same level) and
• Supporting other activities approved by the vertically (carrying out value addition processes)
membership.
10.4 Coffee Farm Records and
4. Autonomy and Independence - Co-operatives Accounts
are autonomous, self-help organizations controlled
by their members. If they enter to agreements A commercial/business farmer needs both farm
with other organizations, including governments, records and accounts for proper management. A
or raise capital from external sources, they do farm record is a document (in most cases a book)
so on terms that ensure democratic control by that is used to keep account of different activities,
their members and maintain their co-operative events, materials etc. regarding the farm operations.
autonomy.
10.4.1 Farm Business Records
5. Education, Training and Information - Co- Some of the common farm business records include:
operatives provide education and training for their • Income and expenditure or receipts and payment
members, elected representatives, managers and or cash record
employees so they can contribute effectively to the • Farm inventory or tools and properties
development of their co-operatives. They inform • Profit and loss account
the general public - particularly young people and • Yield or production record
opinion leaders - about the nature and benefits of • Labour records
co-operation. • Farm input utilization record
• Sales record
6. Concern for Community - Co-operatives serve • Purchase record
their members most effectively and strengthen • Crop record book
the co-operative movement by working together
through local, national, regional and international Type of record by description and use and its use is
structures. Co-operatives work for the sustainable given in samples Tables 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30.
development of their communities through
Table 24. Sample income and expenditure (Receipts and payment/cash record)
Receipts Amount Payment Amount
Total Total

Table 25. Sample farm inventory (Tools and Properties) record

Serial # Description Purchase Date Purchase Cost Repairs Current Worth Sale Price
Table 26. Sample profit and loss record

Revenue 2017 2016
Sales revenue
Service revenue
Interest Revenue
Other revenue
Total Revenues
Expenses
Advertising
Bad debt
Commissions
Cost of goods sold
Depreciation
etc
Total Expenses
Net Income Before Taxes
Income Tax Expense
Net Income
Table 27. Sample yield (Production record)

Date Kg/Debes of Cherry Cumulative Total Comments
Table 28. Sample labour record

Start Activity/ Man days Cost/Man day Total Cost (UGX) Cumulative
Date operation Total (UGX)

Table 29. Sample stores record

Date Received Taken out Balance Comments
(Quantity) (Quantity) (Quantity)
Table 30. Sample sales record

Date Coffee Product Retail Price/Kg Amount sold Total Sales
(UGX) (Kg) (UGX)
10.4.2 Farm accounts

Farm accounts, on the other hand, deal only with the financial aspects of all farm operations that mainly include
farm expenditures and income in order to help the farmer calculate how the business is doing as shown in
Tables 31 and 32.
Table 31. Differences between farm records and farm accounts

Farm Accounts Farm Records
1 Farmers can monitor the changes in price of It gives the history of what happens in the farm
product bought or sold by the farm. from beginning to the end of the farm business
2 It enables the farmers to carry out the necessary Provides the necessary facts and figures for farm
planning required for the smooth running of the planning and budgeting
farm
3 It shows the financial weakness/strength of the It helps to determine the level of profit or loss
farm made by the farm
4 It helps to show the value of assets and liabilities It enables the farmer to obtain loans from the
of the farm bank
5 Fraudulent practices on the farm can be detected Creates room for farm evaluation in order to
determine the farmers management skill
6 Certain management decision like whether to
continue or discontinue with a section of the
farm can be made
7 Shows credit worthiness of the business
8 Helps the business in tax assessment

Table 32. Type of record by description and use

Type of Record Description Use
Farm Inventory records ●● Type of asset/equipment, ●● Complete listing of all assets, verifying
quantity, date of purchase. their weighed values, measurements and
numbers, including valuing of physical
assets e.g. tractors and farm implements;
and calculation of depreciation due to
wear and tear.
Production records ●● There is a weekly, a monthly ●● They help the farmer to keep track of how
and annual record of everything well the farm is doing.
produced on farm.
Labour use records ●● Family labour. ●● Measurement of labour, work etc.
●● Hired labour, man hours; ●● Rates of work/wages and salaries.
●● Piecework schedule rates.
Weather records ●● Rainfall/temperature on daily ●● Planning of activities
basis
Financial records ●● Sales amounts/value ●● Enables the farmer access bank loans.
including income and ●● Costs ●● Compilation of mandatory returns to URA/
expenditures records. NSSF
●● Expenditures and income
from crop production and
sales, fertilizer application
amounts and rates and costs,
seedling amounts and costs,
weeding costs and costs of
pest and disease control; plus
yield records.
10.5 Profitability indicators similar environments. Valid comparisons can be

Profitability indicators form one group made in terms of a common production unit e.g. per
of financial analysis, which are used to evaluate acre or ha. It could also be per unit of labour. Gross
profitability and efficiency of the farm management, margins are useful in deciding the best combinations
i.e. the farm’s ability to produce maximum output of activities on a farm. The guiding principle is to
(i.e. margin or profit), ideally with minimal inputs. select the highest GM per unit of the most limiting
These include gross margins, return on investment resource.
and Payback period.
10.5.2 Return on Investment
10.5.1 Gross Margins
Return on investment (ROI) measures the gain
The gross margin of a farm activity is the difference or loss generated on an investment relative to the
between the gross income earned and the variable amount of money invested. It is expressed as a
costs incurred. In a year, the total gross margin percentage. It is used for personal financial decisions,
should not be less than the total overheads, for a to compare a company’s profitability or compare
farm to break-even. The gross margin per unit area the efficiency of different investments. The return
is widely used for comparative analysis of crop on investment formula is: ROI = (Net Profit /Cost
activities of different farms and between farms of of Investment) x 100

10.5.3 Payback Period producing good quality Robusta cherries. Farmers

Simply defined as the year, which the cumulative cash should avoid all the practices that lead to poor quality.
flow becomes positive. Payback period indicates the Traders or the market punishes poor quality and
period within which expended funds are recouped. It farmers will have their coffee discounted. Traders
is useful to quickly assess the profitability of several normally discount the coffee for being not properly
investment options. Its limitation is that it does not dried. About 4% loss is incurred by farmers if the
consider benefits and costs after payback coffee is not properly dried. Overall farmer can
lose between 10 to 15% if they deal in poor quality
10.6 Coffee Marketing coffee. Therefore, good business practices would be
Coffee can either be sold as dried Kiboko, FAQ, to improve the quality of coffee in order to get as
graded coffee, roasted beans or as a beverage/coffee high a price as possible. Farmers should bargain for a
cup. Coffee marketing options for the farmer include: good price if possible the highest premium possible
if they deal in good quality coffee. To be able to get
• Trading in Kiboko at farm gate a premium for quality, farmers should know and own
• Trading in FAQ at the local processing unit their coffee through the entire coffee value chain.
• Trading in FAQ at national markets, to exporters Table 33 helps the farmer to look out for issues that
• Trading in graded coffee for export markets, as traders/market penalizes. However, farmers should
an exporter also look out for unethical practices by middlemen
and should insist on using well-calibrated scales and
10.6.1 Trading Kiboko at Farm Gate
moisture meters.
Growing coffee as a business implies aiming at
Table 33. Scenario 1 - Selling Kiboko at farm gate

Item/issue Kg UGX %
Volume 1,000
Use of scale that are not calibrated 50
Discount (high moisture) 40
Deduct gunny bag weight 10
Existence of foreign matter 30
Total kg discounted 130
Current price per kg 2,300
Total income Kiboko case 1 2,300,000
Total income Kiboko case 2 2,001,000
Total income lost 299,000
Total income lost % 13
10.6.2 Selling FAQ at the local markets

can increase their margins from 30 to about 50% by
Farmers can increase their margins by converting simply processing FAQ and selling it after processing
their Kiboko coffee to FAQ (Value addition). Farmers at the hulling facility as shown in Table 34.

Table 34. Scenario 2 - Value Addition for FAQ at local market

FAQ costs Rate/kg % Kg UGX
Volume 1,000
Loading to hulling factory 10 10,000
Transport to hulling factory per kg 20 20,000
Off-loading 10 10,000
Out-turn 58%
Total kg FAQ 580
Hulling cost per kg 150 87,000
Commission per kg 50 29,000
Total cost 146,000
Price per kg (FAQ) local market 5,500
Total income for FAQ 3,190,000
Margin 3,044,000
Additional income case 1 744,000
Additional income case 2 1,043,000
Additional income case 1 % 32
Additional income case 2% 52
10.6.3 Selling FAQ at national markets
Farmers have an opportunity to further increase their incomes further by processing FAQ, transporting and
selling it to exporters in Kampala, Mbarara, Mbale, Kasese. Farmers can increase their margins from about 40
to 60% as shown in Table 35.
Table 35. Scenario 3 - Value addition for FAQ at national export markets (Kampala,
Kasese, Mbarara and Mbale)
Volume 1,000
Loading to hulling factory 10 10,000
Transport to hulling factory per kg 20 20,000
Off-loading 10 10,000
Out-turn 58%
Total kg FAQ 580
Hulling cost per kg 150 87,000
Transport to Kampala (FAQ) 50 29,000
Commission per kg (group level) 50 29,000
Commission per kg (Association level) 50 29,000
Total cost 204,000
Price per kg (FAQ) local market 5,750
Total income for FAQ 3,335,000
Margin 3,131,000


Additional income case 2 1,130,000
Additional income case 1 % 36
Additional income case 2% 56
Additional income case 3 % 2.9
10.6.4 Selling Graded Coffee for Export Markets
As farmers move up the value chain by adding value, their incomes also increase. Farmers can increase their
incomes by about 50 to 70% if they traded in graded coffee compared to selling Kiboko at the local processing
unit (Table 36). However, the incremental income depends on farmers obtaining a higher screen size i.e. 16, 17,
18 and above. For good business, therefore, farmers should aim at getting higher screen size by carrying out all
the best practices recommended in this handbook.
Table 36. Scenario 4 - Value addition to graded FAQ for Export Markets
FAQ Costs Rate/Kg % Kg UGX
Volume 1,000
Loading To Hulling Factory 10 10,000
Transport To Hulling Factory Per Kg 20 20,000
Off-Loading 10 10,000
Out-Turn 58%
Total Kg FAQ 580
Hulling Cost Per Kg 150 87,000
Transport To Kampala (FAQ) 50 29,000
Graded Coffee Percent 0.925
Graded Coffee Volume 536.5
Cost Of Grading 150 80,475
Commission Per Kg (Group Level) 50 29,000
Commission Per Kg (Association Level) 50 29,000
Total Cost 284,475
Price Per Kg (Graded FAQ) 6,400
Total Income For FAQ 3,712,000
Margin 3,427,525
Additional Income Case 1 1,127,525
Additional Income Case 2 1,426,525
Additional Income Case 1 % 49
Additional Income Case 2 % 71
Additional Income Case 3 296,525
Additional Income Case 3 % 9.5

10.7 Access to Finance their income. Uncertainties like low yield and low
Farmers need money to meet their daily demands. prices can affect their income unexpectedly. Coffee
This may force them to sell their coffee prematurely farmers should keep cattle, goats, poultry or apiary
at very low prices. Farmers need to be able to borrow enterprise (Figure 74), vanilla (Figure75) as well
money on affordable terms (low interest rates and grow other food and cash crops to protect them from
long gestation and loan recovery periods linked to food insecurity. Animals can also provide manure for
the agricultural season. the coffee farm. Farmers can intercrop coffee with
vanilla, bananas, beans, groundnuts, passion fruit
Farmers can overcome these challenges by forming and avocado to provide food an additional income.
Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLAs) or However, it is important to check with an extension
joining Savings and Credit Associations (SACCOs). officer before intercropping coffee with other crops.
These can serve as savings and loan schemes or can
link farmers Heavy feeder crops such as maize, cassava and sweet
potato should be grown as intercrops of coffee but
10.8 Enterprise diversification to rather on a separate piece of land for food and cash.
support coffee business Farmers may also be engaged in non-farm alternatives
enterprises such owning retail or wholesale shops,
Farmers should not rely exclusively on coffee for making crafts and/or having formal employment.
Figure 74. An apiary enterprise in a coffee shamba

Figure 75. Vanilla enterprise in a coffee shamba
10.9 Family decision-making Coffee earnings may be used for school fees health
Successful coffee farming has many stages such as care, investment in the farm, home care (including
planning, production, processing, marketing and soap and clothes) food security and savings. A
utilization of profits to cater for family needs and to farm enterprise should clearly communicate roles
expand the business. At all these stages, key decisions and responsibilities, expectations, capabilities and
should be equitable, encourage participation of all entitlements for everyone involved. For example,
family members (Women, girls, boys) and ensure that children of school going age should not work in
the farm benefits everyone involved. If the man in coffee farms during school time and all wages
the household takes all decisions on the use of coffee and working hours must comply with national
earnings, the woman may need to sell coffee secretly employment policies.
to cater for family needs.

CLIMATE SMART ROBUSTA COFFEE PRODUCTION

CHAPTER 11
CLIMATE SMART ROBUSTA

COFFEE PRODUCTION
11.0 Introduction increasing rainfall for the coming decades has been
Climate change is caused by the warming of the earth termed the East African climate paradox. Whether
due to the emission of greenhouse gases. As result or not the future climate in the region will indeed
of climate change, Uganda is witnessing ecosystem become wetter or not should be considered an open
instability in the form of extreme weather conditions question. The coffee production areas in Uganda
such as prolonged drought, floods, increased have become drier and hotter over the past three
temperatures, erratic/irregular rainfall patterns, decades. Annual temperatures have risen across the
hailstorms, landslides, thunderstorms etc. Such country, potential evapotranspiration increased and
changes and instability in the ecosystem can disrupt the distribution of precipitation has become more
agricultural productivity. variable. The extent of these developments varied
across the country. Global climate models project
The contradiction that East Africa recently annual mean temperature to increase by 1.7°C-1.8°C
experienced a series of devastating droughts, until mid-century. In line with the current trend the
whereas the majority of climate models predict increase was projected to be higher in the Southwest,
Figure 76. Effect of prolonged drought on coffee

than in the East of Uganda. Projected increases in in the map. These are areas that will be suitable
total annual precipitation were substantial and range for coffee but are currently not under coffee. Such
from +6.8 % (Southwest) to +11.5% (South-East) areas will include, forested areas of Mt. Elgon
averaged over all projections. National Park. This means that Robusta Coffee
production will be moving to new areas including
Robusta Coffee production can seriously be affected the protected reserves.
by climate change causing massive economic losses to 3. Incremental zone: These are the areas shown in Grey
the farmer. In Uganda, sporadic dry spells of weather in the map. Such areas will need crop improvements
have been observed to cause wilting of coffee plants and better management and a supportive policy
in many parts of the country as seen in Figure 76. framework to protect the environment.
4. Systemic zone: These are the areas shown in
11.1 Climate change models and orange in the map. Here adaptation will need to be
projections for coffee production put in place (shade systems, improved varieties etc.)
Due to climate change, areas suitable for Robusta 11.2 Implications of climate change
Coffee production are projected to reduce as presented for Robusta Coffee production
in Figure 77.
Increasing temperatures can demand replanting
with drought/disease resistant varieties, or varieties
that are particularly suited to yield in certain climatic
conditions. The future climate change impact zoning
for Robusta Coffee in 2050 is presented in Figure 78.
Figure 77. Map showing future climate change impact

zoning for Robusta Coffee by 2050
The models and projections show that there will
be eminent changes for Robusta Coffee growing in
Uganda that may take place by 2050. The changes will
Figure 78. Map showing suitability areas for Robusta
create new map of Robusta Coffee growing zones if Coffee and how these change with climate change
the current trend is upheld are depicted as follows: impact by 2050
1. Transition zone: These are the areas shown in According to Figure 78, it is predicted that by the
red in the map. Here farmers can opt to switch year 2050:
crops from Arabica to Robusta or from Robusta • Negative (Red areas): Areas currently suitable
to Cocoa or farmers can altogether opt out of for Robusta will no longer be so in 2050. They
agriculture. will be negative, implying it will not be possible to
2. Novel zone: These are the areas shown in green grow Robusta or it will only be grown with heavy

investment in climate smart agricultural practices. acceptable and efficient. Adaptation involves actions
• Positive (green areas: These areas will still be that minimize the negative impacts of climate change
suitable for Robusta Coffee production in the but aimed at lowering the risks posed by a changing
future scenario (2050). climate.
• Unchanged: This indicates areas that are currently
not growing coffee. Mitigation Involves activities that reduce, prevent, or
remove greenhouse gas emissions and therefore limit
11.3 Climate change adaptation the magnitude of long-term climate change. Both
and mitigation strategies for coffee adaptation and mitigation are aimed at enhancing
growing resilience of coffee. Training farmers to implement
good agricultural practices is an important step in
Adaptation and mitigation strategies are becoming climate adaption and mitigation. Table 37 gives a
increasingly important in order to sustain Uganda’s summary of climate hazards on production and
coffee production growth. Given that smallholders adaptation/mitigation measures to prevent impacts.
dominate coffee production in Uganda, these Table 38 is a summary of climate hazards on post
strategies need to be low-cost and hence affordable, harvest and measures to prevent impacts.
Table 37. Climate hazards on production and adaptation/mitigation measures to prevent

negative impacts
Climate hazard Direct-impact on coffee production Adaptation/mitigation measures
High temperature ●● Physiological effects ●● More shade
●● Increased pests like coffee berry ●● Enhanced pest and disease control
borer ●● More resistant varieties
●● Increased disease incidences like
coffee leaf rust
Heavy rain, hail, strong ●● Increased tree damage, ●● Windbreaks
winds ●● Increased fruit fall, ●● Cover crops
●● Increased mould growth ●● Mulching
●● Increased soil erosion, ●● Trenching
●● Landslides
Intermittent drought ●● Increased non-uniformity flowering ●● Agro-forestry
and ripening ●● Enhanced pest and disease control
●● Increased disease incidence ●● Cover crop
●● Irregular bean development ●● Improve soil/water management
●● Change/improve fertilizer plan
Prolonged rain ●● Delaying flowering, ●● Enhanced disease control
●● Extended vegetative phase ●● Shade regulation
●● Delayed ripening of fruits
●● Lowers photosynthesis
●● Favours fungal diseases

Climate hazard Direct-impact on coffee production Adaptation/mitigation measures

Prolonged drought/ ●● Weaker trees, wilting, increased ●● Increased soil mulches and plants
insufficient rain mortality of young trees ●● Increased irrigation
●● Increased pest incidence ●● Increased water harvesting
●● Poor quality fruits/bearing of small ●● Better infiltration techniques
sized fruits/low density
●● Pruning
●● Stumping
●● Establish cover crops
●● Plant trees/agro-forestry systems
Table 38. Climate hazards on post harvest and adaptation/mitigation measures to

prevent negative impacts
Climate hazard Direct-impact on harvest post harvest Adaptation/mitigation options
handling
Prolonged or unseasonal ●● Poor/difficulty in drying ●● Use of artificial solar driers
rain, Winds, Hailstorms
Winds, Hailstorms ●● Increased foreign matter in dried ●● Use solar drying
cherry/Kiboko
Reduced productivity, ●● Low market access and income ●● Diversify income sources both on
incomes ●● Low credit worthiness and off-farm
●● Low standard of living ●● Improve business/investment
planning
●● Gender inequity
●● Engendered planning and
implementation
11.4 Stepwise Climate Smart therefore, the steps may also vary among sites. The
Investment Pathway tools approach involves a 2-step process, consisting on
The Stepwise Climate Smart Investment Pathway developing (1) a general national and (2) a region
(CSIPs) is a tool that helps farmers to apply at low specific CSIP. The national CSIP is established
cost, the recommended coffee farming best practices. by seeking expert opinions, including those of
The tool encourages an incremental investment into representatives from the national coffee board,
recommended practices in each step. Farmers can coffee specialists, coffee agronomists and coffee
implement according to both, the resources they research institutes among others. The findings
have and the most limiting factor specific to their from the national CSIP are validated and adapted
area, until he/she is able to reach the final level of with stakeholders at regional level (comprising
investment, ideally resulting in increased productivity representatives from the government, farmer
and hence improved livelihoods. representatives and input dealers), resulting in a site-
specific regional CSIP.
The limiting factors may vary among growing areas,


ROBUSTA COFFEE SUSTAINABILITY FARMING PRACTICES

CHAPTER 12
ROBUSTA COFFEE SUSTAINABILITY

FARMING PRACTICES
12.0 Introduction young boys and girls do not find an attractive future
Sustainability has 3 main pillars. These three pillars are in the coffee farms of their parents.
informally referred to as people, planet and profits.
The three elements are captured in the following Coffee businesses will increase their efficiency,
categories: profitability and sustainability if they promote gender
and youth equity. This can be achieved through
1. Economic: Whereby farmers have improved addressing the following:
market access and receive a fair price for
their  coffee. • Women are an important source of labour in
2. Social: Which entails improving the quality of life coffee production yet they have limited access to
of farm employees and those that they support. resources and benefits in the coffee value chain.
3. Environmental: which uses production methods This results in many missed business opportunities.
that have a reduced impact on  biodiversity and Productivity and quality can easily be improved in
environmental degradation. the coffee value chain by providing more support
and opportunities to women than currently are.
12.1 Economic Sustainability • Youths form the majority of the population in
Uganda. Integrating and attracting them in coffee
To be sustainable, a coffee business must be value chains will ensure continued productivity
profitable. However, profit cannot justify the over and business sustainability.
dominance by the other two pillars. Activities that
fit under the economic pillar include compliance, The following strategies as outlined in Table 39 help
proper governance and risk management. Farmers businesses and the entire coffee sector players to
need to sustain productivity and quality at farm level address gender and youth economic participation
by keeping good records. This helps them to evaluate in the coffee value chains. They link to the broader
the impact of different good agricultural and post goals of the coffee industry that include maximizing
productivity, growing the supply base, strengthening
One important economic consideration of resilience to climate change and improving the
sustainability is the role of gender and youths in coffee livelihood of farmer households. Youths form the
farming. Sustainable business of the coffee sector, majority of the population in Uganda. Integrating
especially in smallholder dominated production and attracting them in coffee value chains will ensure
systems, is often hampered by unequal distribution continued productivity and business sustainability.
of information, labour, skills and other resources
and benefits across gender and youth within coffee-
farming families. In many coffee-producing countries,

Table 39. Business strategies for enhancing gender and youth equity
Gender Gender Dimension
Women ●● Create an enabling environment - Ensure that policies and actions are gender responsive at all
levels of the coffee value chain.
●● Promote participatory intra household decision-making in which spouses consult each other and
decide together on resource utilization.
●● Support equitable distribution of household and productive activities within coffee farming
families
●● Promote labour and time saving technologies.
●● Increase women’s membership and participation in farmer groups through introduction of quotas
and develop leadership capacity of women.
●● Build the capacity of extension agents to equitably provide services to men and women farmers.
Men and women’s roles ought to be put into consideration in the delivery of extension and
advisory services. If possible recruit women and extension agents and lead farmers.
●● Provide opportunities for women to benefit from standard-related training programs; and ensure
that any extra labour demand on women is assessed, managed and that equal premiums to both
women and men.
●● Support associations of women in coffee by providing services, business linkages and build their
capacity and confidence.
●● Work with financial service providers to develop products with alternative collateral requirements
those that meet women needs.
●● Disseminate climate change related information via communication channels accessible and
frequently used by women.
●● Combine technical trainings with reproductive health, nutrition for coffee farming households.
●● Create a work environment that is healthy, safe and free from discrimination.
●● Businesses should pay equal remuneration, including benefits, to women and men for work of
equal value.
●● Providing gender disaggregated facilities, amenities to serve the different interests of both women
and men.

Gender Gender Dimension

Youth ●● Capacity building: provide appropriate training and exposure through education, mentoring,
coaching to motivate young farmers.
●● Create awareness on importance of family farming
●● Develop models on production and business for rural youth.
●● Develop groups on youth extension, clubs on young creativeness, etc.
●● Organize savings associations among the youth
●● Help youth coffee farmers to access loans for agri-business.
●● Expose the youth to new and advanced technologies.
●● Support farmer organizations to give space to young farmers.
●● Support youth business organizations and offer a voice to young farmers.
●● Strengthen cooperation amongst youth groups and help youth realize their potential.
●● Provide other opportunities in coffee value chain for the youths other than farming e.g. as coffee
baristas, cuppers, application developers etc.
●● Develop financial products tailored to the needs of youth.
●● Equip young coffee farmers with business skills and life skills.
●● Policy advocacy focusing on youth.
12.2 Social sustainability including fundraising, sponsorship, scholarships and

The social sustainability includes giving appropriate investment in local public projects.
respect and care to workers and families involved in
coffee production and the supply chain. A sustainable Coffee workers should be treated with respect. A
coffee business should have the support and approval fair rate for jobs should be agreed and paid when
of its employee’s stakeholders and the community it work is completed or as a greed. All payments should
operates in. Approaches to securing and maintaining be recorded. Workers should have access to clean
social sustainability are various, but it comes down to drinking water, toilets and protective gear.
treating employees fairly and being a good neighbor
and community member, both locally and globally. 12.3 Environmental sustainability
The environmental pillar ensures that adequate
For example, all children should go to school. attention is given to the protection of the natural
Outside school hours, they may do light work on the environment. A coffee farmer should think about
farm under adult supervision. This helps the children the environment around his/her land and the
to learn about the farm and they can help with record long-term impact of his/her farming methods.
keeping. Children should not spray chemicals or carry The farmer should also think about packaging
heavy loads. wastewater management, waste management, water
usage and their overall effect on the environment,
On the employee side, the coffee businesses should energy conservation, safe storage of agro chemicals
refocus on retention and engagement strategies, etc.
including more responsive benefits such as better
maternity and paternity benefits, flexible scheduling Prevention of water pollution serves many purposes.
and learning and development opportunities. If a farmer washes coffee in the river, water for all
For community engagement, the coffee business the neighbors down stream will be contaminated.
should come up with many ways to give back, Therefore, coffee should be washed in a container

away from the water source. Also chemical sprays Energy and water are precious resources that need
should be used away from the water sources. to be harnessed and use with care. A farmer should
plant multipurpose trees for shade and fuel supply.
In terms of waste management, it is important for Always use energy saving stoves and solar energy
the farmer to separate organic and inorganic waste where possible. Explore the possibility of biogas
so that compost can be made from the organic waste from livestock manure and other sources. Runoff
to improve the soil. All chemical containers should water should be collected in trenches or ponds for
be puncture to prevent reuse. All plastic and metal moisture retention.
waste should be kept safely until the time for their
safe disposal. Crop residues should be used for mulching,
composting or feeding livestock. Avoid burning the
Agrochemicals may be dangerous if not properly crop residues in the field as the fire may spread to the
stored and used. In case of disposal, the Uganda coffee and cause loss of nutrients.
National Bureau of Standards agents should be
consulted for advice. The following guidelines should Good hygiene and health on the farm is of
be adhered to when using chemicals: paramount importance. Always keep the farm clean
with a functional pit latrine or VIP toilet. All family
• Always wear a full protective gear, such as head members and workers should sleep under mosquito
cap, nose and mouth masks, overalls, gumboots, nets.
goggles, gloves and boots when handling or
spraying chemicals (Figure 79). 12.4 Certification Programs and
• Do not spray near other people, livestock or water Processes for Coffee Farmers
sources.
• Do not spray when it is windy. Never spray against The basic rationale behind certification for coffee
the direction of the wind. growing is that consumers are willing to pay more
• Make sure that you warn other people before and (a premium) for coffee that is of a higher quality
after spraying. standard or is farmed using practices that are more
• Banned chemicals such as Endosulfan, Paraquat, sustainable. The voluntary process of accreditation
Actellic Super, Ambush etc. should not be used. should be pursued if farmers stand to make a
• Chemicals should be kept in a locked place out of commercial gain from it. Therefore each individual
the reach of children and away from food and stored farm/farmer group (depending on the standard)
crops. Where possible, keep them in a separate store. must consider independently whether the benefits
achieved from certification outweigh the costs
involved with implementing the desired standards.
Certifications based on the production and processing

standards employed along the supply chain are
monitored and communicated to consumers through
the use of “marks”/“seals” which can be used on
product packaging/advertising.  Certification can
sometimes be an expensive and lengthy process,
as producers must sometimes pay fees for the
assessments as well as bearing the costs associated
with compliance. Therefore many producers find it
Figure 79. An illustration showing recommended
protective gear while spraying chemicals difficult to afford being accredited with more than one

scheme. Knowing which certifications to prioritize considered a good baseline for organic producers.
because they are most applicable and will bring the The IFOAM “Family of standards” are organic
most benefit is therefore of vital importance. standards that have been officially endorsed by the
Organic Movement as part of the IFOAM Organic
Considering that there is a multitude of different Guarantee System. Areas of the IFOAM standard
standards offered worldwide, it may be prudent for that are relevant to coffee production include:
producers to choose a certification that is specific to
their target market. For example, if all of the coffee • A good ecosystem management,
grown from a farm is sold into the US then being • Soil and water conservation,
certified under USA Organic Regulation (otherwise • Appropriate choice of crops and technologies,
known as the USDA National Organic Program) pest/disease management,
would be of considerable benefit. Organic operators • Processing and packaging/labeling.
certified in accordance with any of the standards in
the family can apply for use of the mark on their The opportunities and challenges for the organic
products and therefore use the mark identifiable to system are detailed in Table 40. Farmers growing
a specific region or the more general IFOAM mark. organic certified coffee must conform to prescribed
Farmers in Uganda can choose to adhere and practice ware housing facility standards. (Figure 80).
any of the following Coffee Certification Programs
(1) Organic Certification (2) Fair Trade Certification
(3) Rainforest Alliance Certification (4) Smithsonian
Bird Friendly Certification (5) 4C Common Trade
Certification and (6) Starbucks C.A.F.E Practices. The
relevant practices under each of these certification
schemes are described below.
12.4.1 Organic certification
This is a sustainable agriculture system that produces
coffee in harmony with nature, supports biodiversity
and enhances soil health. The International Federation
of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Figure 80. An organic certified coffee warehouse label
provides a standard (the IFOAM Standard) that is
Table 40. Opportunities and challenges of organic certification

Opportunities Challenges
●● Accounts for organic coffee sales up to about 29% ●● Organic certification only focuses on small-scale
●● Opportunities are particularly strong in more farms even though large-scale coffee estates are
developed countries (specifically the US, Canada, EU, influential in promoting ethical supply chains.
Russia and Japan ●● Smallholders must be organized into a cooperative
●● Average price differential paid to producers from with more than 15 members. This is a barrier for
USDA certified produce was US$ 0.255 per pound. isolated farmers or farmers located where the
governance structures/skills are not present for
●● Where the cooperative is sizable then producers must
farmers to form cooperatives.
develop an Internal Control System (ICS) where the
group demonstrates through training and internal
inspection that the organic standards are met.

●● The certification auditor checks the system rather ●● Transition period to sustainable practices may be
than the individual farmers. lengthy (up to 3 years) depending on what chemicals
were used on the land previously. This makes it
economically difficult for farmers to make the
transition because the main costs come during the
transition while the produce must still be sold at the
conventional prices.
●● Many small farms are organic by necessity because
they cannot afford chemical inputs however they also
cannot afford to pay for certification and therefore
cannot achieve the price premium.
●● Annual re-certification is required.
12.4.2 Fairtrade certification

independently operational. It is responsible for the
The Fairtrade mark gives assurance to retailers and inspection of producers against FT standards on an
consumers that Fairtrade producers in the developing annual basis. The standards specific to coffee can be
world are getting a fair deal for their work. Fairtrade accessed online. The opportunities and challenges
certification overseen by “Flo-cert” also ensures for the organic system are detailed in Table 41.
adherence to strict social standards that foster
healthy working conditions and prohibit child labour. Farmers growing Fair Trade certified coffee must
Their environmental standards ensure that natural conform to prescribed production, processing and
ecosystems are not degraded and cultivated land is used ware housing standards. (Figure 81).
sustainably.” Flo-cert is an international certification
company owned by Fairtrade International but
Figure 81. A Fair Trade certified coffee warehouse label

Table 41. Opportunities and challenges of Fair-trade certification

●● Benefits of marketing/awareness campaigns carried ●● All actors in the chain must be certified. Therefore
out by Fairtrade International. producers must find out if there are Fairtrade buyers
●● If assessors decide standards are no longer being willing to buy their coffee in the countries they want
met, producers are given the support and time to to target. Simply getting certified themselves does not
enable them to rectify the problems. guarantee that they will be able to sell their product
on Fairtrade terms to the desired consumers.
●● Producers receive atleast the Fairtrade minimum
price (varies by coffee type, origin and if it is grown ●● Continuous improvement by producers is required.
organically) and additionally the Fairtrade Premium. ●● Small holders must be organised into a cooperative
The premium is an additional amount that is utilized with more than 15 members. This is a barrier for
to improve living conditions following guidelines set isolated farmers or farmers located where the
out by Fairtrade standard. governance structures/skills are not present for
●● Producers can apply for financial assistance to farmers to form co-operatives.
cover fees of inspection and audit from the ●● FLO Focus on small-scale farms even though large-
Producer Certification Fund. May groups also scale coffee estates are influential in promoting
receive assistance in paying certification fees from ethical supply chains.
commercial partners or from NGOs/other partners. ●● The application process will cost €500 plus the cost
of the visit (the overall cost will vary depending on
the number of days required).
●● Annual re-certification is required.
12.4.3 Rainforest Alliance certification sourced through the website. Businesses that source
products grown on certified farms and farms that
“By promoting sustainable land-use practices, the meet the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN)
Rainforest Alliance helps protect the environment standard may apply to use the Rainforest Alliance
and ensure the well-being of workers and their Certified seal. RA-Cert is the Rainforest Alliance’s
communities. The Rainforest Alliance certification auditing division, which provides independent and
is granted based upon compliance with standards transparent verification, validation and certification
compiled by the Sustainable Agriculture Network. services based on the standards. The percentage
They capture human workers’ rights, community of certified content used in a product determines
relations, protection of biodiversity/wildlife, how the seal may be used on the final product. The
conservation of natural resources, integration of crop/ opportunities and challenges for the organic system
waste management and prohibition of hazardous are detailed in Table 42.
chemicals. Full information on the standards can be

Table 42. Opportunities and challenges of Rainforest certification

●● During 2012, 375,000 metric tons of coffee, ●● All businesses in the chain (buying, trading, mixing)
representing 4.5% of global production, was grown products from certified farms must achieve SAN/
on Rainforest Alliance Certified farms, a 45% Rainforest Alliance Chain of Custody certification in
increase over 2011. order to call their product certified.
●● International brands (including McDonalds, Kenco, ●● Annual re-certification is required.
Costa and Nespresso) stocking coffee which is
Rainforest Alliance Certified has helped to boost
public awareness.
●● Support is provided to certified producers and
those in the process of achieving certification
through aiding them in identifying their financial
requirements, providing business advice, advising
on how to use the mark to their best advantage and
linking them with supporting institutions.
●● By implementing the Sustainable Alliance Network’s
(the Rainforest Alliance partners sustainable farm
management system, farmers can control costs, gain
efficiencies and improve crop quality.
●● San standards are available both for producer groups
and for farms.
12.4.4 Smithsonian Bird Friendly

environment for workers is created, pollution at the
Certification
processing stage is avoided, community benefits are
The Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center (SMBC) encouraged, and, farmers are guaranteed fair and
gives this certification to farmers in order to stable prices, access to markets and access to credit.
promote shade-grown organic coffee plantations
that can play a key role in the conservation of our The shade criteria under the Bird Friendly standard
global environment and of migratory birds that are more stringent than those of the Rainforest
find sanctuary in these forest-like plantations.” The Alliance standard. It requires atleast 11 species of
criteria applied in the field for Bird Friendly coffee canopy trees per hectare and the main canopy must
are designed to provide additional accreditation for be over 40 feet in height. Furthermore, the coffee
those farms whose interaction with the environment must have more than 40% foliage cover provided by
exceeds organic practices. The aim is to sensitively three forest layers. Full shade criteria can be found on
integrate coffee cultivation to agroforestry systems the website. The opportunities and challenges for the
for maximum benefit to the ecosystem. Additionally, organic system are detailed in Table 43.
some socio-economic criteria include that healthy

Table 43. Opportunities and challenges for the Smithsonian Bird Friendly certification
●● Potential benefits of using shade trees (e.g. better ●● All certified Bird Friendly coffee must also be
tasting coffee, recycling organic matter saves money). certified organic.
●● Although no minimum price is set producers can use ●● Producers must pay for initial periodic audits.
the certification to negotiate a better price for their ●● Affects all of the actors along the chain: Importers
coffee. As much as 18% more than organic coffee pay a fee of US$100/yr and roasters pay 25cents/lb
can be achieved in the long term. to be registered. These fees are used to support bird
●● Eco-tourism possibilities for birdwatchers, nature conservation research.
lovers and agricultural tourists. ●● Many other plants besides the coffee plants require
●● Inspections can be done at the same time as the management.
organic inspection to save time and money. ●● Relatively new compared to other certifications and
●● Audits are only once every 3years because shade currently only sold in certain markets (e.g. US, UK,
cover does not change very much on an annual basis Canada, Japan and the Netherlands).
and it will save money for producers. The organic ●● Few certified farms in Africa.
inspector who visits the site in the intermediary years
will need to visually assess the shade practices.
●● Provides a completely traceable product to the
consumer – could be valuable instrument for market
purposes.
12.4.5 4C certification
To achieve certification the producer (or “unit”)
The 4C Association is a global platform must have reached an “average yellow” level on
for stakeholders in the coffee sector to come together the traffic light system as well as having excluded
and collectively work to improve the economic, social the 10 Unacceptable Practices. “Average yellow”
and environmental conditions of those working in means that within each dimension (economic, social,
the industry. The Code of Conduct has four main environmental) there may be some “red” practices so
pillars: long as there is equal number of “green” to balance
them out. The full details of these criteria can be
1. Rules of participation for trade and industry, found online.
2. Support mechanisms for farmers,
3. A verification system and The certification system starts with a self-assessment
4. Participatory governance structure. and mapping exercise of all the business partners/
organizational structure. Then a third party completes
The Code encompasses 10 unacceptable practices an independent verification. Collective consultations
and a 4C code matrix presenting 28 principles for are used for making revisions to the code. The
guidance on good sustainability practices. A traffic- opportunities and challenges for the organic system
light system acts as the indicator for how effectively are detailed in Table 44.
the organization aligns itself with the 28 principles.

Table 44. Opportunities and challenges for the 4C certification

●● A 4C License is valid for three years. ●● All actors in chain face a fee for membership (which
●● Open to coffee producers at all levels. Seen as an increases along the chain). Must pay for verification
improvement tool. To aid this, producers can get on services (cost will depend on different factors e.g.
increasingly efficient by being trained in better the daily rate of the verifier, travelling expenses). The
agricultural practices, access to new technologies/ average cost per external verification is  thought to be
materials, applying integrated pest management approximately €2,800.
systems, record keeping and enhancing  management ●● During the 3-year interim period between audits the
capacity. producers must conduct self- assessments on a yearly
●● Freely available online information. basis and send their  results to the 4C Secretariat.
●● Seen as a first step/baseline in reaching  other ●● If they are expanding to include more  farmers, 4C
certifications. Units may need to be visited  annually.
●● Benchmarking partnership held with  Rainforest ●● 4C verifiers may conduct additional  unannounced
Alliance for a 4C license without any additional random verification visits.
cost or verification procedures. Be part of the ●● No on-product seal or labeling as promotion  is
international community to share new thinking/ideas mainly used business-to-business.
and co-produce the standards. ●● No minimum price but free to negotiate price based
●● Continuous improvement approach. on high quality and sustainable  production methods.
12.4.6 Starbucks C.A.F.E. Practices criteria (e.g. payment of minimum wage, no child
Starbucks CAFÉ (Coffee and Farm Equity) Practices labour, traceability), which must be complied in order
is the company’s green coffee sourcing program, to be part of the program. For the other criteria,
started in 2004. The standards were developed however, the program establishes a quantitative
in partnership with Conservation International and scoring system. So even if you start with a low score,
an independent third-party company, “Scientific you can be part of the program and then gradually
Certification System” (SCS). Points are awarded in improve your performance in the course of the
four categories to producers that supply Starbucks following years. Essential criteria of the standard
coffee. These are: includes:
1. Product quality 1. Financial transparency- including traceability of

2. Economic accountability, the coffee back to the farmer
3. Social responsibility and 2. Social Responsibility
4. Environmental leadership • Payment of minimum wage, compliance with
national laws on overtime payment.
Certain criteria are mandatory for all suppliers. • Freedom of association and collective bargaining
Reaching a certain point level confers preferred • Vacation and sick leave program
supplier status; a higher level is awarded strategic • No child labour, discrimination, forced labour
supplier status. These suppliers get enhanced pricing • Decent housing conditions for workers living
and contract terms. Although CAFÉ Practices is a onsite
proprietary set of sourcing guidelines and not a • Access to education, medical care
certification system, their criteria are available to • Safe pesticide handling
the public, much like those of various coffee
certifications. There are some “Zero Tolerance” 3. Environmental Leadership (Farm)

• Watercourse and water quality protection 1. Application to Starbucks Coffee Company,

• Controlling soil erosion including submission of a coffee sample
• Improving soil fertility 2. Application to a verifier approved by SCS
• Shade cover 3. Quotation, Contract with the verifier
• Wildlife conservation, natural conservation areas 4. Pre-payment (50%)
• Ecological pest and disease management 5. Self evaluation
• Management and monitoring practices 6. Onsite verification (all farms larger than 50 ha,
all wet and dry mills have to be verified. From
4. Environmental Leadership (Processing) farms smaller than 50 ha, only sample needs to
• Minimize water consumption (wet mill) be verified)
• Minimize water pollution 7. Report submitted to supplier for approval or
• Waste recycling comments
• Minimize energy use 8. Final payment to verifier
9. Report submitted to Starbucks Coffee Company
The following steps are only a selection of (Farmer Support Center)
essential requirements of the standard, meant as an 10. Final approval as “verified”, “preferred” or
introduction. These are: “strategic supplier” by Starbucks

Annexes
Annex 1: Healthy benefits of drinking coffee

A lot of recent research done on coffee suggests drink nearly eight cups of brewed black tea to get the
that coffee offers a host of potential health benefits. same amount of caffeine.)
This incredibly complex beverage contains more
4. Slows the progress of Dementia
than 1,000 compounds that can affect the body. The
most commonly studied are caffeine (a nervous- In a 2012 study published in the “Journal of Alzheimer’s
system stimulant that’s known to have positive Disease”, Florida researchers tested the blood levels of
cognitive effects) and polyphenols (antioxidants caffeine in older adults with mild cognitive impairments,
that can help slow or prevent cell damage). Though which can be a precursor to severe dementia,
researchers don’t always know exactly which of including Alzheimer’s disease. When the researchers
coffee’s ingredients are responsible for producing re-evaluated the subjects two to four years later,
their studies’ health-boosting results, there’s evidence those whose blood levels contained caffeine amounts
that drinking coffee may help do the following: equivalent to about three cups of coffee were far less
likely to have progressed to full-blown dementia than
1. Improves overall health
those who had consumed little or no caffeine.
An analysis of nearly 220 studies on coffee,
5. Safeguards the liver
published in the “British Medical Journal” in 2017,
found that coffee drinkers may enjoy more overall Several studies published in respected journals have found
health benefits than people who don’t drink coffee. that coffee drinking has beneficial effects on the liver,
The analysis found that during the study period, including reducing the risk of death from liver cirrhosis,
coffee drinkers were 17 percent less likely to die early decreasing harmful liver enzyme levels and limiting liver
from any cause, 19 percent less likely to die of heart scarring in people who have hepatitis C.
disease and 18 percent less likely to develop cancer
6. Promotes heart health
than those who don’t drink coffee.
In 2013, the journal “Epidemiology and
2. Protects against Type 2 Diabetes
Prevention” published a review of studies analyzing
A 2014 study by Harvard researchers published in the the correlation between coffee consumption and
journal “Diabetologica” tracked nearly 124,000 people cardiovascular disease. Data from 36 different studies
for 16–20 years. Those who increased their coffee showed that people who drink three to five cups of
intake by more than a cup a day over a four-year period coffee per day had a lower risk of heart disease than
had an 11 percent lower risk of developing Type 2 those who drink no coffee or more than five cups per
diabetes; those who decreased their intake by one cup day. While the reason isn’t clear, one possibility is that
per day had a 17 percent higher risk of developing coffee helps to improve blood vessels’ control over
the disease. blood flow and blood pressure.
3. Controls Parkinson’s disease symptoms 7. Reduces melanoma risk
A number of studies have suggested that consuming A recent study appearing in the “Journal of the
caffeine can reduce your risk of developing Parkinson’s National Cancer Institute” looked at the coffee-
disease — and research published in 2012 in the drinking habits of more than 447,000 people over 10
journal of the “American Academy of Neurology” years. The researchers found that those who drank
showed that a daily dose of caffeine equivalent to four or more cups of caffeinated coffee each day had
that found in two eight-ounce cups of black coffee a 20 percent lower risk of developing melanoma than
can help to control the involuntary movements of people who drank decaffeinated coffee or no coffee.
people who already have the disease. (You’d have to

Annex 2: Robusta Coffee Gross Margin Per Hectare (UGX)
Activity Physical Measure Rate Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

And Costing (Shs)
Bush Clearing 375,000 @Ha 1 375,000 375,000
Land Opening 1st & 2nd 500,000 @Ha 1 500,000 500,000
Field Establishment Labour-I Ha
Well fermented Cow dung Manure Truck @150,000 300,000 300,000 300,000
Field marking 1,110 holes marking 1,110 50 55,500
Digging planting holes 1,110 holes digging 1,110 500 555,000
Refilling the holes with soil and 1,110 holes refilling 1,110 200 222,000
manure
Shade trees planting 200,000
Recommended Robusta seedlings 1,110 plantlets 1,110 1200 1,332,000
(clones)
Planting seedlings into holes 1,110 seedling 1,110 100 111,000
planting
Field Acclimatization (first month) 250,000
Provision for gap filling 50,000
Coffee/Banana intercrop 4:1 275 banan plants 275 1500 412,500
holes digging
Banana coffee planting materials 275 banana suckers 275 2000 550,000
cost
Beans intercrop seed cost 40 kgs per year 40 6000 240,000 240,000
Beans intercrop planting cost 50,000 50,000
Mulching Bundles of straw 400,000 400,000 400,000
Pruning 40,000 86,800 86,800 86,800
Erosion controls e.g. Fertigation 40 Man days 40 8000 320,000 250,000 60,000 60,000 60,000
trenches

Sub-Total 5,873,000 1,030,000 146,800 546,800 146,800
Inputs
133
Annexes
134
And Costing (Shs)
Annexes
Fertilizer: CAN, NPK 25-5-5, 500 shs 140000@ bag 140000 1,554,000 1,554,000 1,554,000 1,554,000
g per tree per year
Fertilizer and chemical 12.5 man days 12.5 8000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000
applications labour costs
Farm tools and equipment Hoes, Pangas, 60,000 60,000 60,000 100,000 100,000
Secateurs etc…
Pests and disease controls 5litres @SHS 40,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000
Herbicides and application A litre@ shs 30,000 150,000 150,000 150,000

Tarpaulins @60,000 60,000 360,000 360,000 360,000
Gum Boots 2 pairs 40,000
Farm Overall 2 overalls 50,000
Water can, jerry can, spade, garden 50,000
fork slasher
Wheelbarrow one wheel barrow 120,000
Gunny bags bag @3,000 21,000 177,600 244,440 244,440
Sub-Total 320,000 1,995,000 2,601,600 2,708,440 2,708,440
Field maintenance;
Training of Coffee (pegging) 100,000
Coffee weeding 200,000 per weeding 4 200,000 800,000 800,000 400,000 400,000 400,000
Banana pruning/Thinning 200,000 per year 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000

Sub-Total 900,000 1,000,000 600,000 600,000 970,000
Harvesting of Coffee and Beans
Harvesting of Coffee 150 SHS/kg of cherry 171,428 1,522,285 2,095,200 2,095,200
Harvesting of Beans and after 150,000 150,000
harvests costs
Drying processes Costed in lots (a lot of 35,000 210,000 210,000 210,000
400 to 600 Kgs Dry
Transport expenses; Home & Truck hire @50,000/ 50000 400,000 500,000 500,000
Market trip
Sub-Total 150,000 406,428 2,132,285 2,805,200 2,805,200
Provision for 5% Contingency Contingency 5% 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000
costs
Amortized cost (shs/ha)1 0 0 0 0 0
And Costing (Shs)
Depreciation of equipment (shs/ha) 0 0 0 0 0
Total Variable Costs (TVC) 7,343,000 4,531,428 5,580,685 6,760,440 6,730,440
Expected Income
Annual Yield (kg/ha) of dry (1kg of 500 4,440 6,111 6,111
Kiboko cherries=0.43kg of
dry Kiboko)
Unit cost of production (shs/kg) Unit cost=TVC/ 1256.911 1106.273932 1101.3648
Total output
Farm gate prices (shs/kg of dry 2650 2,650 2,700 2,700
Kiboko
Gross income from Beans 1200 kg@shs 1800 2,160,000 2,160,000
Gross income from banana Yield 156 bunches @shs 1,560,000 1,560,000 1,560,000 1,560,000 1,560,000
(shs/ha) 10,000
Gross income-coffee 1,325,000 11,766,000 16,499,700 16,499,700
Overall gross income 3,720,000 5,045,000 13,326,000 18,059,700 18,059,700
Gross margin Gross income- Total (3,623,000) 513,572 7,745,315 11,299,260 11,329,260
variable cost
Cumulated net (3,623,000) (3,109,428) 4,635,887 15,935,147 27,264,407
income/Hectare
Cumulated net (1,466,802) (1,258,878) 1,876,877 6,451,477 11,038,221
income/Acre
Assumptions of Recommended Coffee practices farmer

1. He/She adopts most GAPs
2. He/She applies recommended amounts of fertilizers and/or manures
3. He/She carries out proper canopy management
4. He/She carries out pest and disease management
I bag of dry cherry weighs 75 Kg
A drying lot of 400 to 600 kg dry is dried at 35,000

135
Annexes
Annexes
Annex 3: Farm layout
It requires advance planning before any field operation. It includes the following whose relative positions/
locations on the farm are important.
1. The farm household. 7. Farm road

2. Farm blocks, or divisions. 8. Other farm structures like the irrigation structures
3. Coffee drying yard (this is usually near the farm (the water source, irrigation pipes, Tanks) etc. (the
household and up slope in relation to other water sources for irrigation/Dams are usually
structures like the Kraal). sited at the low altitude positions of the farm).
4. The Coffee store. 9. Other enterprises/farm structures at the farm like
5. The agro-chemicals store. poultry/cattle etc.
6. The workers house.

Uganda Coffee
Uganda Coffee Development Authority

Coffee House,
Plot 35 Jinja Road,
P.O.Box 7267, Kampala, Uganda
Tel: (+256)-312-260470
Email: [email protected]
Website: www. ugandacoffee.go.ug
Twitter: @CoffeeUganda
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Uganda Coffee

Citation: Robusta Coffee Handbook. Uganda Coffee Development Authority

Uganda Coffee Development Authority

CHAPTER 1. ROBUSTA COFFEE GROWING IN UGANDA 3

CHAPTER 2. ROBUSTA COFFEE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS AND PRODUCTION 9

CHAPTER 3. ROBUSTA COFFEE FARM ESTABLISHMENT 15

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK i

CHAPTER 4. REHABILITATION AND RENOVATION OF OLD ROBUSTA COFFEE TREES 41

CHAPTER 5. SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT FOR ROBUSTA COFFEE FARMING 49

ii ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 6. INSECT PESTS OF ROBUSTA COFFEE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 73

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK iii

CHAPTER 8. ROBUSTA COFFEE HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING PRACTICES 89

CHAPTER 9. ROBUSTA COFFEE VALUE ADDITION 97

CHAPTER 10. COFFEE FARMING AS A BUSINESS 103

iv ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 11. CLIMATE SMART ROBUSTA COFFEE PRODUCTION 115

CHAPTER 12. ROBUSTA COFFEE SUSTAINABILITY FARMING PRACTICES 121

vi ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

Dr. Emmanuel Iyamulemye Niyibigira

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 1

ROBUSTA COFFEE GROWING

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 3

4 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

Rubanda Rukiga Legend

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 5

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

1.5 Objectives of the Handbook therefore aims at achieving the following:

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 7

8 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

ROBUSTA COFFEE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 9

10 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of Coffee monocropping

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 11

Table 3. Advantages and disadvantages of the Coffee-Banana intercrop system

“Coffee banana intercrop is a good multipurpose practice

12 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 13

14 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

ROBUSTA COFFEE FARM ESTABLISHMENT

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 15

“Windbreakers are a climate change

16 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

Table 4. Advantages and disadvantages of Shade Trees

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 17

18 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

“Planting shade trees is a climate change

ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK 19

Figure 7. Map of Uganda showing recommended shade trees by region

20 ROBUSTA COFFEE HANDBOOK

Drip Irrigation Overhead irrigation

Overhead water reservoir Water dam

Hand pump Solar powered water pump panel

Figure 8. Options for water delivery systems