Sahand University of Technology

Bioelectric Signals
•Bioelectrical potential is a result of electrochemical activity across
the membrane of the cell.
•Bioelectrical signals are generated by excitable cells such as nervous,
muscular, and glandular cells.
•The resting potential of the cell is -40 to -90 mV relative to the
outside and +60 mV during action potential.
•Volume conductor electric field is an electric field generated by
many excitable cells of the specific organ such as the heart.

Typical types of bioelectric signals

Electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electromyogram (EMG)
Electroretinogram (ERG)
2
 Bioelectric Signals
L: latent period= transmission time from stimulus to recording site.

Potential inside cells -40

to -90 mV relative to the
outside.

Cell membrane is
lipoprotein complex that
is impermeable to
intracellular protein and
other organic anions (A-)

3
 The Resting State
Membrane at resting state is
-slightly permeable to Na+ and freely permeable to K+ and Cl-
-permeability of potassium PK is 50 to 100 times larger than the
permeability to sodium ion PNa.

2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 140 mmol/liter of K+ 2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 140 mmol/liter of K+

Cl- Cl- K+
K+ Electric Field
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -

External media Internal media External media Internal media

Frog skeletal muscle membrane Frog skeletal muscle membrane

Diffusional force > electrical force Diffusional force = electrical force
4
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
Keeping the cell at resting state requires active transport of ionic
species against their normal electrochemical gradients.
Sodium-potassium pump is an active transport that transports Na+ out
of the cell and K+ into the cell in ration 3Na+:2K+
Energy for the pump is provided by a cellular energy adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 140 mmol/liter of K+
2K+ 3Na+

+ -
+ - Electric Field
+ -
+ -

External media Internal media

Frog skeletal muscle membrane

5
 Equilibrium Potential- Nernst Equation
RT K o K o At 37 oC
Ek  ln  0.0615 log10
nF K i K i
Where n is the valence of K+.

RT  PK K o  PNa Na o  PCl Cl i 

E ln  
F  PK K i  PNa Na i  PCl Cl o 

E: Equilibrium transmembrane resting potential, net current is zero

PM : permeability coefficient of the membrane for ionic species M
[M]i and [M]o : the intracellular and extracellular concentrations of M
in moles/ liter
R: Universal gas constant (8.31 j/mol.k)
T: Absolute temperature in K
F: Faraday constant (96500 c/equivalent)
6
 Example 4.1
For the frog skeletal muscle, typical values for the intracellular
and extracellular concentrations for the major ion species (in
millimoles per liter) are as follows.

Species Intracellular Extracellular

Na+ 12 145
K+ 155 4
Cl- 4 120

Assuming room temperature (20 oC) and typical values of

permeability coefficient for the frog skeletal muscle
(PNa = 2*10-8 cm/s, Pk = 2*10-6 cm/s, and PCl = 4*10-6 cm/s),
calculate the equilibrium resting potential for this membrane,
using the Goldman equation.
7
 The Active State
Membrane at resting state is polarized (more negative inside the cell)
Depolarization : lessening the magnitude of cell polarization by
making inside the cell less negative.
Hyperpolarization : increasing the magnitude of cell polarization by
making inside the cell more negative.
A stimulus that depolarize the cell to a potential higher than the
threshold potential causes the cell to generate an action potential.
Action Potential:
- Rate: 1000 action potential per second for nerve
- All-or-none
- v = 120 mV for nerve

8
 Action Potential
If stimulus depolarize the cell such that Vcell > Vthreshold an action
potential is generated.
External media Internal media
2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 140 mmol/liter of K+
Na+

Electric Field + -
+ -
+ -

K+

- +
Electric Field - +
- +

9
 Action Potential
Absolute refractory period: membrane can not respond to any
stimulus.
Relative refractory period: membrane can respond to intense
stimulus.

10
 Action Potential
Action potential travel at one direction.
External medium Local closed (solenoidal)
lines of current flow
+ + + + + + ++-- - - - --++ + + + + + +
- - - - - - --++ ++ + ++-- - - - - - -
Active region Axon
- - - - - - --++ ++ + ++-- - - - - - -
+ + + + + + ++-- - - - --++ + + + + + +
Resting Repolarized
membrane membrane
Direction of Depolarized
propagation membrane
Myelin
sheath
Active
node
Periaxonal
space
Axon + -

Schwann Cell
Node of Ranvier

Myelination reduces leakage currents and improve transmission rate

by a factor of approximately 20. 11
Diagram of network equivalent circuit of a small length (z) of an unmyelinated
nerve fiber or a skeletal muscle fiber The membrane proper is characterized by
specific membrane capacitance Cm (mF/cm2) and specific membrane conductances
gNa, gK, and gCl in mS/cm2 (millisiemens/cm2). Here an average specific leakage
conductance is included that corresponds to ionic current from sources other than Na+
and K+ (for example, Cl-). This term is usually neglected. The cell cytoplasm is
considered simply resistive, as is the external bathing medium; these media may thus
be characterized by the resistance per unit length ri and ro (/cm), respectively. Here im
is the transmembrane current per unit length (A/cm), and i and o are the internal and
external potentials  at point z, respectively. 12
Volume Conductor Fields
Volume conductor fields is an electric field generated by active cell (current source)
or cells immersed in a volume conductor medium of resistivity  such as the body
fluids.

Potential Waveform at the outer surface of membrane for monophasic action

potential:
1- triphasic in nature
2- greater spatial extent than the action potential
3- much smaller in peak to peak magnitude
4- relatively constant in propagation along the excited cell.

- Potential in the extracellular medium of a single fiber fall off exponentially in

magnitude with increasing radial distance from the fiber (potential zero within fifteen
fiber radii)
- Potential depends on medium Properties. External medium Local closed (solenoidal)
lines of current flow
+ + + + + + ++-- - - - --++ + + + + + +
- - - - - - --++ ++ + ++-- - - - - - -
Active region Axon
- - - - - - --++ ++ + ++-- - - - - - -
+ + + + + + ++-- - - - --++ + + + + + +
Resting Repolarized
membrane membrane
Direction of Depolarized
propagation membrane 13
 Volume Conductor Fields
The extracellular field of an active nerve trunk with its thousands of component
nerve fibers simultaneously activated is similar to the field of a single fiber.

Figure 4.5 Extracellular field potentials

(average of 128 responses) were recorded
at the surface of an active (1-mm-diameter)
frog sciatic nerve in an extensive volume
conductor. The potential was recorded with
(a) both motor and sensory components
excited (Sm + Ss), (b) only motor nerve
components excited (Sm), and (c) only
sensory nerve components excited (Ss).

Sensory branch

Motor branch

14
 Peripheral Nervous System
Spinal nervous system is functionally organized on the basis of what is
called the reflex arc:
1. A sense organ: (ear-sound, eye-light, skin-temperature)
2. A sensory nerve: (transmit information to the CNS)
3. The CNS: serves as a central integrating station
4. Motor nerve: communication link between CNS and peripheral
muscle
5. Effector organ: skeletal muscle fibers

15
 Example of reflex arc
Example of reflex arc

16
 (Feedback)

Schematic diagram of a muscle-length control system for a

peripheral muscle (biceps) (a) Anatomical diagram of limb system,
showing interconnections. (b) Block diagram of control system. 17
 Junctional Transmission
Synapses: intercommunicating links between neurons
Neuromuscular junctions: communicating links between neurons and
muscle fibers at end-plate region.
Neuromuscular junction (20nm thickness)
release neurotransmitter substance Acetylcholine (Ach)
Time delay due to junction is 0.5 to 1 msec
Excitation-contraction time delay due to muscle contraction
Neuron
Muscle

end-plate region

At high stimulation rates, the mechanical response fuse into one continuous
contraction called a tetanus (mechanical response summates).
18
Neuromuscular junction

19
 Electroneurogram (ENG)
Recording the field potential of an excited nerve.

Neural field potential is generated by

- Sensory component
- Motor component

Parameters for diagnosing peripheral nerve disorder

- Conduction velocity
- Latency
- Characteristic of field potentials evoked in muscle supplied
by the stimulated nerve (temporal dispersion)

Amplitude of field potentials of nerve fibers < extracellular

potentials from muscle fibers.
20
 Conduction Velocity of a Nerve
V°(t)
S1 S2

+ - + - R Reference
D Muscle

S2
V°(t)
L2 t D
Velocity = u =
S1
L1 - L2
1 mV
V°(t)
L1
2 ms

Figure 4.7 Measurement of neural conduction velocity via

measurement of latency of evoked electrical response in muscle.
The nerve was stimulated at two different sites a known distance D
apart.
21
 Field Potential of Sensory Nerves
Extracellular field response from the sensory nerves of the
median or ulnar nerves
To excite the large, rapidly
conducting sensory nerve fibers but
not small pain fibers or surrounding
muscle, apply brief, intense stimulus
( square pulse with amplitude 100-V
and duration 100-300 msec). To
prevent artifact signal from muscle
movement position the limb in a
comfortable posture.
Figure 4.8 Sensory nerve action potentials evoked from median nerve of a healthy subject at
elbow and wrist after stimulation of index finger with ring electrodes. The potential at the wrist is
triphasic and of much larger magnitude than the delayed potential recorded at the elbow.
Considering the median nerve to be of the same size and shape at the elbow as at the wrist,
we find that the difference in magnitude and waveshape of the potentials is due to the size of
the volume conductor at each location and the radial distance of the measurement point from
the neural source. 22
23
 Reflexly Evoked Field Potentials
Some times when a peripheral nerve is stimulated, a two
evoked potentials are recorded in the muscle the nerve
supplies. The time difference between the two potentials
determined by the distance between the stimulus and the
muscle.

Stimulated nerve: posterior tibial nerve

Muscle: gastrocnemius
24
25
 Reflexly Evoked Field Potentials
Low intensity stimulus stimulate only
Medium intensity stimulus
the large sensory fibers that conduct
stimulate smaller motor fibers in
toward the CNS. No M wave
addition to the large sensory
fibers. Motor fibers produce a
direct muscle response the M
wave.

With strong stimuli, the excited motor

fibers are in their refractory period so
only the M wave is produced.

Figure 4.9 The H reflex The four traces show potentials evoked by stimulation
of the medial popliteal nerve with pulses of increasing magnitude (the stimulus
artifact increases with stimulus magnitude). The later potential or H wave is a
low-threshold response, maximally evoked by a stimulus too weak to evoke the
muscular response (M wave). As the M wave increases in magnitude, the H
wave diminishes. 26
 Electromyogram (EMG)
Skeletal muscle is organized
functionally on the basis of the
single motor unit (SMU).
SMU is the smallest unit that can
be activated by a volitional
effort where all muscle fibers
are activated synchronously.
SMU may contain 10 to 2000
muscle fibers, depending on
the location of the muscle.

Factors for muscle varying

strength
1. Number of muscle fibers
contracting within a muscle
2. Tension developed by each
contracting fiber 27
 Muscle Fiber (Cell)

http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/matthews/myosin.html 28
Figure 4.10 Diagram of a single motor unit (SMU), which consists of a single
motoneuron and the group of skeletal muscle fibers that it innervates. Length
transducers [muscle spindles, Figure 4.6(a)] in the muscle activate sensory nerve
fibers whose cell bodies are located in the dorsal root ganglion. These bipolar neurons
send axonal projections to the spinal cord that divide into a descending and an
ascending branch. The descending branch enters into a simple reflex arc with the
motor neuron, while the ascending branch conveys information regarding current
muscle length to higher centers in the CNS via ascending nerve fiber tracts in the
29
spinal cord and brain stem. These ascending pathways are discussed in Section 4.8.
 Electromyogram (EMG)
Field potential of the active fibers of an SMU
1- triphasic form
2- duration 3-15 msec
3- discharge rate varies from 6 to 30 per second
4- Amplitude range from 20 to 2000 mV

Surface electrode record field potential of surface muscles and

over a wide area.
Monopolar and bipolar insertion-type needle electrode can be
used to record SMU field potentials at different locations.

The shape of SMU potential is considerably modified by

disease such as partial denervation.

30
Figure 4.11 Motor unit
action potentials from
normal dorsal
interosseus muscle
during progressively
more powerful
contractions. In the
interference pattern (c ),
individual units can no
longer be clearly
distinguished. (d)
Interference pattern
during very strong
muscular contraction.
Time scale is 10 ms per
dot.

31
 Electroretinogram (ERG)
ERG is a recording of the temporal sequence of changes in potential in
the retina when stimulated with a brief flash of light.

Aqueous humor

Glaucoma
High pressure

A transparent contact lens contains one electrode and the reference electrode can be
placed on the right temple. 32
 Electroretinogram (ERG)
Ag/AgCl electrode impeded in a special contact lens.

33
 Source of Retinal Potential
There are more photoreceptors than ganglion cells so there is a convergence pattern.
Many photoreceptors terminate into one bipolar cell and many bipolar cells terminate
into one ganglion cell. The convergence rate is greater at peripheral parts of the retina
than at the fovea. Rod (10 million) is for vision in dim light and cone (3 million) is for
color vision in brighter light.

34
 Electroretinogram (ERG)
The a-wave, sometimes called the "late receptor potential," reflects the general
physiological health of the photoreceptors in the outer retina. In contrast, the b-
wave reflects the health of the inner layers of the retina, including the ON bipolar
cells and the Muller cells (Miller and Dowling, 1970). Two other waveforms that are
sometimes recorded in the clinic are the c-wave originating in the pigment
epithelium (Marmor and Hock, 1982) and the d-wave indicating activity of the OFF
bipolar cells (see Figure 3).

35
 <>
<>

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/ClinicalERG.html 36
 Electro-Oculogram (EOG)
EOG is the recording of the corneal-retinal potential to determine the
eye movement.

By placing two electrodes to the left and the right of the eye or above
and below the eye one can measure the potential between the two
electrode to determine the horizontal or vertical movement of the eye.
The potential is zero when the gaze is straight ahead.

Applications
1- Sleep and dream research,
2- Evaluating reading ability and visual fatigue.

37
Electro-Oculogram (EOG)

38
Bionic Eyes

39
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Blood (poor with oxygen) flows from the body
to the right atrium and then to the right
ventricle. The right ventricle pump the blood to
the lung.

Blood (rich with oxygen) flows from the lung

into the left atrium and then to the left
ventricle. The left ventricle pump the blood to
the rest of the body.

Diastole: is the resting or filling phase (atria

chamber) of the heart cycle.
Systole: is the contractile or pumping phase
(ventricle chamber) of the heart cycle.

The electrical events is intrinsic to the heart itself.

See website below for the animation of the heart.
http://www.bostonscientific.com/templatedata/impo
rts/HTML/CRM/heart/index.html

40
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Distribution of specialized conductive
tissues in the atria and ventricles,
showing the impulse-forming and
conduction system of the heart. The
rhythmic cardiac impulse originates in
pacemaking cells in the sinoatrial (SA)
node, located at the junction of the
superior vena cava and the right atrium.
Note the three specialized pathways
(anterior, middle, and posterior internodal
tracts) between the SA and
atrioventricular (AV) nodes.

Bachmann's bundle (interatrial tract) comes off the anterior internodal tract leading to the left
atrium. The impulse passes from the SA node in an organized manner through specialized
conducting tracts in the atria to activate first the right and then the left atrium. Passage of the
impulse is delayed at the AV node before it continues into the bundle of His, the right bundle
branch, the common left bundle branch, the anterior and posterior divisions of the left bundle
branch, and the Purkinje network. The right bundle branch runs along the right side of the
interventricular septum to the apex of the right ventricle before it gives off significant branches.
The left common bundle crosses to the left side of the septum and splits into the anterior
division (which is thin and long and goes under the aortic valve in the outflow tract to the
anterolateral papillary muscle) and the posterior division (which is wide and short and goes to
41
the posterior papillary muscle lying in the inflow tract).
 SA node activates first
the right and then the
left atrium.

AV node delays a signal

coming from the SA
node before it distribute
it to the Bundle of His.

Bundle of His and

Purkinie fibers activate
the right and left
ventricles

A typical QRS amplitude

is 1-3 mV

The P-wave shows the heart's upper chambers (atria) contracting (depol.)
The QRS complex shows the heart's lower chambers (ventricles) contracting
The T-wave shows the heart's lower chambers (ventricles) relaxing (repol.)
The U-wave believed to be due repolarization of ventricular papillary muscles.
P-R interval is caused by delay in the AV node
S-T segment is related to the average duration of the plateau regions of the
42
individual ventricular cells.
Steps of action potential of the ventricular cell
-Prior to excitation the resting potential is -90 mV
-Rapid Depolarization at a rate 150 V/s
-Initial rapid repolarization that leads to a fixed depolarization level for 200 t0
300 msec
-Final repolarization phase that restore membrane potential to the resting level
for the remainder of the cardiac cycle

Myofibrils Centroid Nuclei

The cellular architecture of myocardial fibers.

43
Isochronous lines of ventricular activation of the human heart Note
the nearly closed activation surface at 30 ms into the QRS complex.
44
The electrocardiography problem

Points A and B are arbitrary observation points on the torso, RAB is the
resistance between them, and RT1 , RT2 are lumped thoracic medium
resistances. The bipolar ECG scalar lead voltage is A - B, where these
voltages are both measured with respect to an indifferent reference
potential.
45
 Heart Block (dysfunctional His Bundle)
Figure 4.17 Atrioventricular 60 to 70 bps
block (a) Complete heart block.
Cells in the AV node are dead 30 to 45 bps
and activity cannot pass from
atria to ventricles. Atria and
ventricles beat independently,
ventricles being driven by an
ectopic (other-than-normal)
pacemaker. (B) AV block wherein
the node is diseased (examples
include rheumatic heart disease
and viral infections of the heart).
Although each wave from the
atria reaches the ventricles, the
AV nodal delay is greatly
increased. This is first-degree
heart block.
- When one branch of the bundle of His is interrupted, then the QRS
46
complexes are prolonged while the heart rate is normal.
 Arrhythmias
A portion of the myocardium sometimes becomes “irritable”
and discharge independently.

Figure 4.18 Normal ECG followed by an ectopic beat An irritable focus,

or ectopic pacemaker, within the ventricle or specialized conduction system
may discharge, producing an extra beat, or extrasystole, that interrupts the
normal rhythm. This extrasystole is also referred to as a premature
ventricular contraction (PVC).
47
Figure 4.19 (a)
Paroxysmal
tachycardia. An
ectopic focus may
repetitively discharge
at a rapid regular rate
for minutes, hours, or
even days. (B) Atrial
flutter. The atria begin
a very rapid, perfectly
regular "flapping"
movement, beating at
rates of 200 to 300
beats/min.

48
Figure 4.20 (a) Atrial fibrillation. The atria stop their regular beat and begin
a feeble, uncoordinated twitching. Concomitantly, low-amplitude, irregular
waves appear in the ECG, as shown. This type of recording can be clearly
distinguished from the very regular ECG waveform containing atrial flutter.
(b) Ventricular fibrillation. Mechanically the ventricles twitch in a feeble,
uncoordinated fashion with no blood being pumped from the heart. The
ECG is likewise very uncoordinated, as shown 49
 Alteration of Potential Waveforms
in Ischemia

Figure 4.21 (a) Action potentials recorded from normal (solid lines) and
ischemic (dashed lines) myocardium in a dog. Control is before coronary
occlusion. (b) During the control period prior to coronary occlusion, there is no
ECG S-T segment shift; after ischemia, there is such a shift.
50
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
EEG is a superposition of the volume-conductor fields produced by a variety
of active neuronal current generators. The three type of electrodes to make
the measurements are scalp, cortical, and depth. Superior

Diencephalon
Topics in this section Cerebrum

-Gross anatomy and function of the brain

-Ultrastructure of the cerebral cortex Anterior
Posterior

-The potential fields of single neuron

-Typical clinical EEG waveform Midbrain

-Abnormal EEG waveform

The three main parts of the brain:

-Cerebrum Pons

-Conscious functions Ventral

-Brainstem Medulla oblongata

Cerebellum

-primitive functions such as controlling heart beat

-Integration center for motor reflexes Inferior
Caudal

-Thalamus is integration center for sensory system

(a)

-Cerebellum (balance and voluntary muscle movement) 51

The cerebrum,
showing the four lobes
(frontal, parietal,
temporal, and
occipital), the lateral
and longitudinal
fissures, and the
central sulcus.

The cortex receives sensory information from skin, eyes, ears, and other
receptors. This information is compared with previous experience and
produces movements in response to these stimuli.

SER: somatosensory evoked response

AER: auditory evoked response
VER: visual evoked response

52
The outer layer (1.5 – 4.0 mm) of the cerebrum is called cerebral cortex and
consist of a dense collection of nerve cells that appear gray in color (gray
matter).

The deeper layer consists of axons (or white matter) and collection of cell
body.

53
 Neuron Cell in the Cortex Excitatory
synaptic
input

-
EEG wave
activity
Two type of cells in the cortex Lines of current flow
-Pyramidal cell
-Nonpyramidal cell
- small cell body Apical dendritic tree
- Dendrites spring in all direction Cell body (soma)
- Axons most of the times don’t
leave the cortex

+ Basilar dendrites
Axon

Electrogenesis of cortical field potentials for a net excitatory input to the

apical dendritic tree of a typical pyramidal cell. For the case of a net
inhibitory input, polarity is reversed and the apical region becomes a source
(+). Current flow to and from active fluctuating synaptic knobs on the
dendrites produces wave-like activity. 54
Bioelectric Potential From the Brain
Conducted action potentials in axons contribute little to surface
cortical records, because they usually occur asynchronously in time
and at different spatial directions.

Pyramid cells of the cerebral cortex are oriented vertically, with their
long apical dendrites running parallel to one another. So, the
surface records obtained signal principally the net effect of local
postsynaptic potentials of cortical cells.

Nonpyramidal cells in the neocortex are unlikely to contribute

substantially to surface records because their dendritic trees are
radially arranged around their cells, so the current sum to zero
when viewed by electrode at a distance.

When the sum of dendritic activity is negative relative to the cell,

the cell is depolarized and quite excitable. When it is positive, the
cell is hyperpolarized and less excitable. 55
Bioelectric Potential From the Brain
Wave group of the normal cortex
-Alpha wave
- 8 to 13 Hz, 20-200 mV,
- Recorded mainly at the occipital region
-disappear when subject is sleep, change when subject change
focus, see Fig. 4.27b
-Beta wave (I and II)
- 14 to 30Hz,
- during mental activity f=50Hz, beta I disappear during brain
activity while beta II intensified.
- Recorded mainly at the parietal and frontal regions
-Theta wave
4 to 7 Hz, appear during emotional stress such as
disappointment and frustration
Recorded at the parietal and temporal regions 56
Bioelectric Potential From the Brain
-Delta wave
-Below 3.5 Hz, occur in deep sleep, occur independent of
activity
- Occur solely within the cortex, independent of activities in
lower regions of the brain.
-Synchronization is the underline process that bring a group of
neurons into unified action. Synaptic interconnection and
extracellular field interaction cause Synchronization.

- Although various regions of the cortex capable of exhibiting

rhythmic activity they require trigger inputs to excite rhythmicity.
The reticular activation system (RAS) provide this pacemaker
function.

57
 EEG Waves

Fig 4.27 (a) Different types of normal EEG waves. (b)

Replacement of alpha rhythm by an asynchronous discharge
when patient opens eyes. (c) Representative abnormal EEG
waveforms in different types of epilepsy. 58
International Federation 10-20 System
Type of electrode connections
1- Between each member of a pair (bipolar)
2- Between one monopolar lead and a distant reference
3- Between one monopolar lead and the average of all.

59
 EEG Waves During Sleep

The electroencephalographic changes that occur as a

human subject goes to sleep The calibration marks on the
right represent 50 mV. 60
 The Abnormal EEG
EEG is used to diagnose different type of epilepsy and in the
location of the focus in the brain causing the epilepsy.
Causes of epilepsy could be intrinsic hyperexcitability of the
neurons that make up the reticular activation system (RAS) or by
abnormality of the local neural pathways of this system.
Two type of epilepsy
1- Generalized epilepsy
a- Grand mal
b- petit mal (myoclonic
form and absence form)
2- Partial epilepsy
a- Jacksonian epilepsy
b- Psychomotor seizure
(amnesia, abnormal rage,
sudden anxiety or fear,
incoherent speech) 61