UNIVERSIDAD AERONÁUTICA EN

QUERÉTARO.
Ingeniería Aeronáutica en Manufactura.

Second Partial:

synthesis

Aerodynamics
Prof. Luis Roberto Sandoval Ordoñez

González Acevedo Marco

IAM-32C

12/07/20
Contents
Circulation .......................................................................................................... 5
Kelvin´s Theorem ............................................................................................... 6
Potential Velocity ................................................................................................ 7
Stream Function ................................................................................................. 7
Relation between streamlines and equipotential lines ........................................ 9
Source & Sink................................................................................................... 10
Doublet ............................................................................................................. 11
Helmholtz’ Theorems ....................................................................................... 12
Use of Bernoulli’s equation to determine airspeed ........................................... 13
Circulation
It is one of the most important concepts to describe aerodynamic flow. Circulation
is a kinematic property that depends on the velocity field and the displacement
along the edge of an element.

⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
−Γ = ∮ 𝑉 𝑑𝑠 (1.1)
𝐶

It is a line integral that analyzes a closed curve 𝐶, that has a displacement vector
differential ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠

⃗ that goes through the outline of 𝐶.

in its outline and a velocity vector 𝑉

Using the Navier Stokes theorem we can transform the line integral (1.1) into a
surface integral in three-dimensional space.

⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑉 ⃗ ) ∙ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑠 = ∬ (∇ × 𝑉 (1.2)
𝐶 𝐴

Where 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 it is a vector normal to the surface.

With equation 1.2 we can relate the flow circulation to the flow rotation, since the
circulation in curve C is equal to the rotation generated in any part of the surface
delimited by 𝐶.
Kelvin´s Theorem
The Kelvin Circulation Theorem indicates that for a non-viscous fluid with a
homogeneous flow and has a circulation in a closed flow line it remains constant
over time. A homogeneous flow is one whose density depends on changes
depending on the pressure.
The derivative with respect to the time of circulation along a closed flow line is:

𝑑Γ 𝑑 ⃗
𝑑𝑉 𝑑
− = (∮ 𝑉⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠) = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∮ 𝑉
∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
⃗ ∙ (𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

⃗
𝑑𝑉 1
= −∇𝐹 − ∇𝑝
𝑑𝑡 𝜌

𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝑑 ( ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑𝑝
⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(∮ 𝑉 𝑑𝑠) = − ∮ 𝑑𝐹 − ∮ + ∮𝑉⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝜌 𝐶

Since density changes as a function of pressure, all terms on the right side are
exact differentials. The integral of an exact differential in a tight curve is zero,
therefore:

𝑑
⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(∮ 𝑉 𝑑𝑠) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Potential Velocity
The potential velocity is a scalar value used in the potential flow theory, it is used
in continuous models where the flow is irrotational, that is:

∇×𝑢 =0

Where 𝑢 is the velocity of the flow, which can be represented as the gradient of
the scalar function Φ formally known as the potential velocity of 𝑢.
∂Φ ∂Φ ∂Φ
𝑢 = ∇Φ = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

If the potential velocity complies with the Laplace equations, the flow is
incompressible. This can be checked by solving ∇(∇ × 𝑢).

Stream Function
The stream function is defined for incompressible flows in 2nd or 3rd dimension.
The components of the flow velocity can be expressed in derivatives of the
current function. The stream function can be used to graph the streamlines,
representing the path of the particles in a constant flow, it can also be used for
rotational flows, which can help to describe the layers of the laminar flow.
The stream function 𝜓 is defined with the velocity components:

𝜕𝜓
𝑢=
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜓
𝑣=−
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Applying the continuity equation ∇ ∙ 𝑉 = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 = 0 we get that:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
+ = ( )+ (− ) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

This will be true if the current function and its derivatives are continuous.

We know that 𝜓 = (𝑥, 𝑦) so its differential form is:

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Substituting:

𝑑𝜓 = −𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦

Since a streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point coincides with the
direction of the velocity vector, the two-dimensional flow line is:

𝑑𝑦 𝑣
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
Therefore, it is known that:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑣 𝑢
𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0

Along the flow line, with the naked eye you might notice that:

𝑑𝜓 = 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0

Which represents that 𝜓 is constant throughout the streamline.

⃗ = 𝜕𝑣 −
We know that a two-dimensional irrotational flow is represented by ∇ × 𝑉 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 0 then writing the velocity components in terms of the current function we
𝜕𝑦
get:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
− = (− ) − ( )=0 & ∇2 𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Therefore, for an incompressible, irrotational flow, the current function is also

governed by the Laplace equations.
Relation between streamlines and equipotential lines

If a flow is irrotational, incompressible and two-dimensional, its velocity field can

be calculated using the potential function or the current function. Using the
potential function, its components in the Cartesian plane are:
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢= 𝑣=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

For the potential function in 2 dimensions, 𝜙=𝜙 (x,y), and its differential is:
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑑𝜙 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Therefore, if the potential current is constant (𝑑𝜙 = 0), it is called a equipotential

line.
𝑑𝑦 𝑢
( ) =−
𝑑𝑥 𝜙=𝐶 𝑣

Since a streamline is tangent to the local velocity at all points, the slope of the
streamline whose current function is constant is:
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝜓=𝐶 𝑢

Comparing the 2 previous equations we get:

𝑑𝑦 1
( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝜙=𝐶 (𝑑𝑦⁄ )
𝑑𝑥 𝜓=𝐶

The slope of an equipotential current is inversely proportional to the slope of the

streamline, therefore the streamlines (𝜓 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) are orthogonal to the
equipotential currents. This only applies at stagnation points.
Source & Sink

A source is defined as a point where the fluid comes out radially. The continuity
equation is true at any point except the center of the source since the mass leaves
this point. The potential function centered on the origin of a two-dimensional
source is:
𝐾
𝜙= ln 𝑟
2𝜋
Where 𝑟 is the radial coordinate of the origin of the source and k is the
sourcebstrength. A two-dimensional font can also be called as a linear font, since
the center extends infinitely. The resultant of the velocity field in cylindrical
coordinates is:
𝜕𝜙 𝑒̂𝑟 𝜕𝜙
⃗ = ∇𝜙 = 𝑒̂𝑟
𝑉 +
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

Considering that
⃗ = 𝑒̂𝑟 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑒̂𝜃 𝑉𝜃
𝑉
𝜕𝜙 𝐾 1 𝜕𝜙
𝑉𝑟 = = 𝑉𝜃 = =0
𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
The resulting velocity has only one radial component and this is inversely
proportional to the radial distance from the source.

Another related flow function is a sink, which is just a source in reverse; that is,
fluid flows into a sink along radial streamlines, where fluid flows out of a source.
Thus, for a sink of strength K centered at the origin
𝐾
𝜙=− ln 𝑟
2𝜋
The stream function for a source flow is given by:
𝐾𝜃
𝜓=
2𝜋
which will yield the same velocity components as the velocity potential, since:
1 𝜕𝜓 𝐾 𝜕𝜓
𝑉𝑟 = = 𝑉𝜃 = − =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 𝜕𝑟
we can equate the velocity components from the velocity potential and the stream
function for cylindrical coordinates to find:
𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑉𝑟 = = 𝑉𝜃 = =−
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

Doublet

A doublet consists of a source and a sink that have the same strength, this is
formed when a source and a sink come close. Consequently, the current function
becomes:
𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜓=−
𝑟
And its potential velocity is:
𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜙=
𝑟
Helmholtz’ Theorems
In fluid mechanics, Helmholtz's theorems, named after Hermann von Helmholtz,
describe the three-dimensional motion of fluid in the vicinity of vortex filaments.
These theorems apply to inviscid flows and flows where the influence of viscous
forces are small and can be ignored.

Helmholtz's three theorems are as follows:

Helmholtz's first theorem: The strength of a vortex filament is constant along
its length.
Helmholtz's second theorem: A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid; it must
extend to the boundaries of the fluid or form a closed path.
Helmholtz's third theorem: In the absence of rotational external forces, a fluid
that is initially irrotational remains irrotational.
Helmholtz's theorems apply to inviscid flows. In observations of vortices in real
fluids the strength of the vortices always decays gradually due to the dissipative
effect of viscous forces.

Alternative expressions of the three theorems are as follows:

1. The strength of a vortex tube does not vary with time.
2. Fluid elements lying on a vortex line at some instant continue to lie on that
vortex line. More simply, vortex lines move with the fluid. Also, vortex lines
and tubes must appear as a closed loop, extend to infinity or start/end at
solid boundaries.
3. Fluid elements initially free of vorticity remain free of vorticity.
Helmholtz's theorems have application in understanding:

• Generation of lift on an airfoil

• Starting vortex
• Horseshoe vortex
• Wingtip vortices.
Use of Bernoulli’s equation to determine airspeed

The use of Bernoulli’s equation (which is valid only for an inviscid, incompressible
flow) is appropriate to determine the airspeed because the analysis of the y-
momentum equation reveals that the static pressure is essentially constant
across a thin boundary layer. As a result, the value of the static pressure
measured at the wall is essentially equal to the value of the static pressure in the
inviscid stream.
There can be many conditions of flight where the airspeed indicator may not
reflect the actual velocity of the vehicle relative to the air. These deviations in the
measured velocity when compared with the actual velocity are corrected in a
series of calculations, each defining a new airspeed definition. The definitions for
the various terms associated with airspeed are as follows:
Indicated airspeed (IAS): Indicated airspeed is equal to the Pitot-static airspeed
indicator reading as installed in the airplane without correction for airspeed
indicator system errors but including the sea-level standard adiabatic
compressible flow correction.
Calibrated airspeed (CAS): CAS is the result of correcting IAS for errors of the
instrument and errors due to position or location of the pitot-static installation. The
instrument error may be small by design of the equipment and is usually
negligible in equipment that is properly maintained and cared for. The position
error of the installation must be small in the range of airspeed involving critical
performance conditions. Position errors are most usually confined to the static
source in that the actual static pressure sensed at the static port may be different
from the free airstream static pressure.
Equivalent airspeed (EAS): Equivalent airspeed is equal to the airspeed
indicator reading corrected for position error, instrument error, and for adiabatic
compressible flow for the particular altitude. The equivalent airspeed (EAS) is the
flight speed in the standard day sea-level air mass that would produce the same
free-stream dynamic pressure as flight at the true airspeed at the correct density
altitude.
True airspeed (TAS): The true airspeed results when the EAS is corrected for
density altitude. Since the airspeed indicator is calibrated for the dynamic
pressures corresponding to air speeds at standard day sea-level conditions, we
must account for variations in air density away from the standard day values. To
relate EAS and TAS requires consideration that the EAS coupled with standard
day sea-level density produces the same dynamic pressure as the TAS coupled
with the actual air density of the flight condition. From this reasoning, the TAS
can be calculated from:

𝜌
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = 𝐸𝐴𝑆 √
𝜌𝑆𝐿
Bibliography

• Bertin, J., & Cummings, R. Aerodynamics for engineers.

• Hershel, S. Fundamentals of aerodynamics.