Engr228 Circuit Analysis: Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 1

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Chapter 10

Engr228
Circuit Analysis

Dr Curtis Nelson

Chapter 10 Objectives
• Understand the following ac power concepts, their
relationships to one another, and how to calculate them in
a circuit:
• Instantaneous power;
• Average (real) power;
• Root Mean Squared (RMS) value;
• Reactive power;
• Complex power;
• Power factor; and
• Power factor correction.
• Understand the condition for maximum real power
delivered to a load in an AC circuit and be able to
calculate the load impedance required to deliver maximum
real power to the load.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 1


Instantaneous Power

• Instantaneous power is the power measured at any given


instant in time.
• In DC circuits, power is measured in watts as
v2
P = vi = i 2 R =
R
• In AC circuits, voltage and current are time-varying, so
instantaneous power (also measured in watts) is also time-
varying. Power is still measured as

v2
P = vi = i 2 R =
R

Instantaneous AC Power

p( t ) = v( t ) × i( t )

• In an AC circuit, voltage and current are expressed in


general form as
v ( t ) = V m cos( ω t + θ v )
i ( t ) = I m cos( ω t + θ i )

• Instantaneous power is then

p (t ) = Vm I m cos(ωt + θ v ) cos(ωt + θ i )

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 2


Instantaneous Power - continued
p (t ) = Vm I m cos(ωt + θ v ) cos(ωt + θ i )

• Using the trig identity

cos( x) cos( y ) = 0.5 cos( x − y ) + 0.5 cos( x + y )

it can be shown that instantaneous power is


Vm I m
p (t ) = {cos( θ v − θ i ) + cos( 2ω t + θ v + θ i )}
2
• Note that the instantaneous power contains a constant
term as well as a component that varies with time at
twice the input frequency.

Instantaneous Power Plot

Vm I m
p (t ) = {cos( θ v − θ i ) + cos( 2ω t + θ v + θ i )}
2

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 3


Instantaneous Power - continued
Vm I m
p (t ) = {cos( θ v − θ i ) + cos( 2ω t + θ v + θ i )}
2

• The equation above can be further manipulated as follows:

cos(α + β ) = cosα cos β − sin α sin β

cos(2ωt +θv − θi ) = cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) − sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )

p (t ) = V m I m cos(θv − θi ) + V m I m cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) −V m I m sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )


2 2 2

• Note that the instantaneous power still contains a constant


term as well as components that vary with time at twice the
input frequency.

Instantaneous Power Plot


p (t ) = V m I m cos(θv − θi ) + V m I m cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) −V m I m sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )
2 2 2

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 4


Instantaneous vs. Average Power

• While instantaneous power is an interesting mathematical


development for AC circuits, it is not all that useful for
determining how much power a device, circuit, or system
generates or absorbs since it varies with time.
• Average Power is a better indicator of power in AC circuits.
Average power is sometimes called real power, because it
describes the power in a circuit that is transformed from
electric to nonelectric energy.

Average Power

The average power over an arbitrary interval from t1 to t2 is

where p(t) is the instantaneous power. When the power is


periodic with period T, the average power is calculated over any
one period:

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 5


Average Power - continued

p (t ) = V m I m cos(θv − θi ) + V m I m cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) −V m I m sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )


2 2 2

To calculate average power, note that the last two terms in the
equation above will integrate to zero since the average value of
sin and cosine signals over one period is zero. Therefore average
power in AC circuits is calculated as

Vm I m
PAVG = cos(θ v − θ i )
2

Average Power for Elements

Vm I m
PAVG = cos(θ v − θ i )
2
• Since the voltage and current are in phase across a resistor, the
average power absorbed by the resistor R is
1 Vm2
PR , AVG =
2 R

• The average power absorbed by a purely reactive element is


zero, since the current and voltage are 90 degrees out of phase:

PC , AVG = PL , AVG = 0

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 6


Example: Power Calculations

Calculate the instantaneous and average power if

v (t) = 80cos(10t + 20º)V


i(t) = 15cos(10t + 60º)A

Pinst (t) = 459.6 + 600cos(20t + 80º)W


Pavg = 459.6W

Textbook P. 429 (Hayt 8th)

Find the average power absorbed by each element.

Answer: Pind=0 W Pres=25 W Pcap=0 W


Pleft=-50 W Pright=25 W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 7


Example: Average Power in a Resistor

Find the average power dissipated in a resistor R if the applied


voltage is v(t) = Asinθ.

The average power is found by integrating from 0 to 2π


v 2 A2 sin 2 θ
p= =
R R

1 A2
P=
2π ∫ 0
R
sin 2 θ dθ

2 2π 2π
A A2 1 − cos 2θ
2πR ∫0 ∫
2
= sin θ d θ = dθ
2π 0
2
θ = 2π
A2  1 sin 2θ  A2
=  θ−  =
2πR  2 4 θ =0 2R

Example: Average Power

Calculate the average power absorbed by the resistor and inductor.


Find the average power supplied by the voltage source.

PR = 9.6W
PL = 0W
PSource = 9.6W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 8


Example: Average Power

Find the average power being delivered to an impedance ZL=


8 − j11 Ω by a current I= 5ej20° A.

Only the 8-Ω resistance enters the average-power calculation,


since the j11-Ω component will not absorb any average
power.

Thus,
P = (1/2)(52)8 = 100 W

Effective or RMS Value

• Sometimes using average power values can be confusing.


For instance, the average DC power absorbed by a resistor
is P = VM IM while the average AC power is P = VM IM /2
By introducing a new concept, called the effective value
of a periodic waveform, the formulas for the average
power absorbed by a resistor can be made the same for dc,
sinusoidal, or any general periodic waveform.
• The effective value of a periodic current or voltage is the
DC current or voltage that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the periodic AC current or AC
voltage.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 9


Effective or RMS Value

For any periodic function x(t) in general, the effective or root


mean squared (rms) value, is given by:

1 T 2
T ∫0
X rms = x dt

Effective or RMS Value


• For example, the effective value of I = Imcosωt is

1 T 2
I rms = ∫
T 0
I m cos 2 ωtdt

I 2m T 1 I
I rms =
T ∫
0 2
(1 + cos 2ωt )dt = m
2
• Average power can then be written in two ways:

Vm I m
PAVG = cos(θ v − θ i )
2

PAVG = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θ i )

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 10


Circuit Elements - Resistors

• In an ideal resistor, V and I are in phase so θv = θi.

2
V I V I Veff
= (I eff ) R
2
PAVG = m m cos 0 0 = m m = Veff I eff =
2 2 R

• Since voltage and current in inductors and capacitors


are always 90°out of phase, average power is
dissipated only in resistive elements.

Effective Values of Common Waveforms

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 11


Example: RMS Power

Determine the effective (rms) value of the current waveform


in the figure below. If the current is passed through a 2Ω
resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
i(t)

10

0
2 4 6 8 10 t

-10

Irms = 8.165A
P = 133.3W

Reactive Power

• The average power in capacitors and inductors = 0 because


voltage and current have a 90º phase difference.
• However, there is still voltage across, and current through,
inductors and capacitors so they are part of the overall
power picture. We now investigate the part that inductors
and capacitors play in the power picture for general
circuits, leading us to define a new category called
Complex power (S).
• First, we must define the components of complex power.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 12


Apparent Power

• The apparent power (S) is the magnitude of the product of


the rms voltage and current. It is measured in volt-amperes
(VA) to distinguish it from the other types of power.

PAVG = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θ i )


PAVG = S cos(θ v − θ i )
S = Vrms I rms

• S is known as the apparent power with units of VA to


distinguish it from real power which is measured in Watts.
• cos(θV - θi) is know as the power factor.

Power Factor

• Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between


voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the angle of the
load impedance (Ohm’s Law).

Power Factor = cos(θ v − θ i )

where θ v − θ i is the Power Factor Angle

• For a purely resistive load , PF=1.


• For a purely reactive load, PF=0.
• Generally, 0 ≤ PF ≤ 1

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 13


Leading and Lagging Power Factor

• pf is lagging if the current lags the voltage (θV - θI is positive


like in an inductive load).
• pf is leading if the current leads the voltage (θV - θI is
negative like in a capacitive load).

Textbook P. 440 (Hayt 8th)

Find the average power delivered to each of the two loads, the
apparent power supplied by the source, and the power factor of
the combined loads.

Pavg2 = 288 W
Pavg1 = 144 W
Papp = S = 720 VA
PF = 0.6 (lagging)

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 14


Apparent Power & Power Factor

Power factor can also be defined as:

average power Pavg


PF = =
apparent power Veff I eff

which leads us to a graphical depiction of Complex Power.

Complex Power

Complex power is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the
complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a complex
quantity, its real part is real power P (watts) and its imaginary
part is reactive power Q (vars).

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 15


Complex Power

• The real part of S is P, the


average power.
• The imaginary part of S
is Q, the reactive power,
which represents the flow
of energy back and forth
from the source (utility
company) to the 1
inductors and capacitors S = P + jQ = VI * = Vrms I rms∠θv − θi
2
of the load (customer). *
= VrmsI rms
2
2 Vrms
S = I rms Z=
Z*

Complex Power Triangle

S IZI
Q X

θ θ
P R

Power triangle Impedance triangle

P R
pf = cos θ = =
S Z

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 16


Complex Power - Summary
Real (Average) power:
P = Re(S) = S cos(θ v − θi ) Watts
Reactive power:
Q = Im(S) = S sin(θ v − θi ) VAR

Apparent power:
S = S = Vrms I rms = P 2 + Q 2 VA
Complex power:
S = P + jQ = VRMS I * RMS VA
• Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity power factor).
• Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading power factor).
• Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging power factor).

Example: Power Factor

Calculate the power factor of the circuit below as seen by the


source. What is the average power supplied by the source?

pf = 0.936 (lagging)
PAVG = 118W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 17


Example: Apparent Power and Power Factor
• A series connected RC load draws a current of
i (t ) = 4 cos(100πt + 10° ) A
when the applied voltage is
v(t ) = 120 cos(100πt − 20° )V
• Find the apparent power and the power factor of the load.
Determine the element values that form the load.

S = 240 V
pf = 0.866 (leading)
C = 212.2µF
R = 26.0Ω

Complex Power

Splitting the current phasor Ieff into in-phase and out-of-phase


components is another way of visualizing the complex power.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 18


Complex Power

Complex powers to loads add:

S = VI* = V(I1 + I2 )* = V(I1* + I*2 ) = S1 + S2

Power Factor Correction


• The process of increasing the power factor without
altering the voltage or current to the original load is known
as power factor correction.
• Most loads are inductive. The power factor of the load can
be improved (to make it closer to unity) by installing a
capacitor in parallel with an inductive load.

a) Original inductive load b) Inductive load with


improved power factor

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 19


Power Factor Correction Capacitors

Power Factor Correction Capacitors

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 20


Power Factor Correction by Power Triangle
The triangle below shows that the reactive power (Q1) in a
large inductive load can be reduced by an amount (QC) by
adding a capacitor in parallel to the load.

Q1 = Ptanθ1
Q2 = Ptanθ2
QC = Q1 – Q2
= P(tan θ1 – tan θ2)
P = S1cosθ1

Power Factor Correction by Power Triangle


• But QC is also the amount of reactive power the
capacitor must provide
2
Vrms 2
QC = = ωCVrms
XC
• The value of required shunt
capacitance is then:

QC P(tan θ1 − tan θ2 )
C= 2
= 2
ωVrms ωVrms

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 21


Example: PF Correction #1

When connected to a 120 VRMS, 60Hz power line, a load


absorbs 4kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value
of capacitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.

C = 310.4µF

Example: PF Correction #2

Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to correct a


load of 140kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf to unity pf. Assume that
the load is supplied by a 110VRMS, 60Hz line.

C = 30,691µF

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 22


Textbook Problem 11.46 Hayt 7E

The load below draws 10 kVA at a PF = 0.8 lagging. If the


magnitude of the load current IL = 40ARMS, what must be the
value of C to cause the source to operate at a PF = 0.9 lagging?

C = 79.48µF

Textbook Problem 11.52 Hayt 7E

A source of 230 VRMS is supplying three loads in parallel:


1.2kVA at a lagging PF of 0.8, 1.6kVA at a lagging PF of 0.9,
and 900W at unity PF. Find
(a) The amplitude of the source current.
(b) The PF at which the source is operating.
(c) The complex power being furnished by the source.

(a) IS = 15.62 A rms


(b) PFS = 0.9188
(c) S = 3300 + j1417 VA

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 23


Maximum Power Transfer

An independent voltage source in series with an impedance Zth


delivers a maximum average power to that load impedance ZL
when it is the conjugate of Zth.

ZL = Zth*

Maximum Power Transfer Derivation

First, solve for the load power:

| Vth |2 RL
1
2
=
(Rth + RL )2 + (X th + X L )2

Clearly, P is largest when XL+Xth=0.


Solving dP/dRL=0 will show that RL=Rth.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 24


Maximum Average Power Transfer

• In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance and Load


impedance are:
Z Th = R Th + jX Th
Z L = R L + jX L

• For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance


ZL must be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin
impedance ZTh.

Z L = R L + jX L = R Th − jX Th = Z*Th
Z L = Z*Th

Maximum Average Power Transfer

• When ZL = Z*TH, the maximum power delivered to the load


can be shown to be

V 2TH , RMS
Pmax =
4 RTh

• If the load is purely resistive, then the value of RL that


maximizes PL is the magnitude of the Thevenin impedance.
• Note that the 4 factor in the denominator above becomes 8 if
the voltage is expressed as an average or peak value.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 25


Example: Maximum Average Power #1

Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average


power drawn from the circuit below. Calculate the maximum
average power.

Z L = Z *Th = 2.9333 − j 4.4667Ω


Pmax = 2.3675W

Example: Maximum Average Power #2

Find the load impedance ZL that absorbs the maximum


average power for the circuit shown below. Calculate the
maximum average power.

Z L = Z *Th = 3.415 − j 0.7317Ω


Pmax = 1.429W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 26


Chapter 10 Summary

• Understand the following ac power concepts, their


relationships to one another, and how to calculate them in
a circuit:
• Instantaneous power;
• Average (real) power;
• Root Mean Squared (RMS) value;
• Reactive power;
• Complex power;
• Power factor; and
• Power factor correction.
• Understand the condition for maximum real power
delivered to a load in an AC circuit and be able to
calculate the load impedance required to deliver maximum
real power to the load.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 27

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