6/25/2020 Week 1
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The Python Programming Language: Functions
add_numbers is a function that takes two numbers and adds them together.
In [1]:
def add_numbers(x, y):
return x + y
add_numbers(1, 2)
Out[1]:
add_numbers updated to take an optional 3rd parameter. Using print allows printing of multiple expressions
within a single cell.
In [2]:
def add_numbers(x,y,z=None):
if (z==None):
return x+y
else:
return x+y+z
print(add_numbers(1, 2))
print(add_numbers(1, 2, 3))
3
6
add_numbers updated to take an optional flag parameter.
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In [4]:
def add_numbers(x, y, z=None, flag=False):
if (flag):
print('Flag is true!')
if (z==None):
return x + y
else:
return x + y + z
print(add_numbers(1, 2,3, flag=True))
Flag is true!
6
Assign function add_numbers to variable a.
In [6]:
def add_numbers(x,y):
return x+y
a = add_numbers
a(1,2)
Out[6]:
The Python Programming Language: Types and
Sequences
Use type to return the object's type.
In [7]:
type('This is a string')
Out[7]:
str
In [8]:
type(None)
Out[8]:
NoneType
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In [9]:
type(1)
Out[9]:
int
In [10]:
type(1.0)
Out[10]:
float
In [11]:
type(add_numbers)
Out[11]:
function
Tuples are an immutable data structure (cannot be altered).
In [1]:
x = (1, 'a', 2, 'b')
type(x)
Out[1]:
tuple
Lists are a mutable data structure.
In [3]:
x = [1, 'a', 2, 'b']
type(x)
Out[3]:
list
Use append to append an object to a list.
In [4]:
x.append(3.3)
print(x)
[1, 'a', 2, 'b', 3.3]
This is an example of how to loop through each item in the list.
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In [15]:
for item in x:
print(item)
1
a
2
b
3.3
Or using the indexing operator:
In [5]:
i=0
while( i != len(x) ):
print(x[i])
i = i + 1
1
a
2
b
3.3
Use + to concatenate lists.
In [17]:
[1,2] + [3,4]
Out[17]:
[1, 2, 3, 4]
Use * to repeat lists.
In [18]:
[1]*3
Out[18]:
[1, 1, 1]
Use the in operator to check if something is inside a list.
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In [19]:
1 in [1, 2, 3]
Out[19]:
True
Now let's look at strings. Use bracket notation to slice a string.
In [20]:
x = 'This is a string'
print(x[0]) #first character
print(x[0:1]) #first character, but we have explicitly set the end character
print(x[0:2]) #first two characters
T
T
Th
This will return the last element of the string.
In [21]:
x[-1]
Out[21]:
'g'
This will return the slice starting from the 4th element from the end and stopping before the 2nd element from
the end.
In [22]:
x[-4:-2]
Out[22]:
'ri'
This is a slice from the beginning of the string and stopping before the 3rd element.
In [23]:
x[:3]
Out[23]:
'Thi'
And this is a slice starting from the 4th element of the string and going all the way to the end.
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g g g g y
In [24]:
x[3:]
Out[24]:
's is a string'
In [25]:
firstname = 'Christopher'
lastname = 'Brooks'
print(firstname + ' ' + lastname)
print(firstname*3)
print('Chris' in firstname)
Christopher Brooks
ChristopherChristopherChristopher
True
split returns a list of all the words in a string, or a list split on a specific character.
In [26]:
firstname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[0] # [0] selects the first elemen
lastname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[-1] # [-1] selects the last elemen
print(firstname)
print(lastname)
Christopher
Brooks
Make sure you convert objects to strings before concatenating.
In [27]:
'Chris' + 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-27-1623ac76de6e> in <module>()
----> 1 'Chris' + 2
TypeError: must be str, not int
In [28]:
'Chris' + str(2)
Out[28]:
'Chris2'
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Dictionaries associate keys with values.
In [29]:
x['Christopher Brooks'] # Retrieve a value by using the indexing operator
Out[29]:
'[email protected]'
In [33]:
x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson'] = None
x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson']
Iterate over all of the keys:
In [32]:
for name in x:
print(x[name])
[email protected]
[email protected]
None
Iterate over all of the values:
In [34]:
for email in x.values():
print(email)
[email protected]
[email protected]
None
Iterate over all of the items in the list:
In [35]:
for name, email in x.items():
print(name)
print(email)
Christopher Brooks
[email protected]
Bill Gates
[email protected]
Kevyn Collins-Thompson
None
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You can unpack a sequence into different variables:
In [36]:
fname, lname, email = x
In [37]:
fname
Out[37]:
'Christopher'
In [38]:
lname
Out[38]:
'Brooks'
Make sure the number of values you are unpacking matches the number of variables being assigned.
In [39]:
x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', '[email protected]', 'Ann Arbor')
fname, lname, email = x
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-39-9ce70064f53e> in <module>()
1 x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', '[email protected]', 'Ann Arbor')
----> 2 fname, lname, email = x
ValueError: too many values to unpack (expected 3)
The Python Programming Language: More on
Strings
In [40]:
print('Chris' + 2)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-40-82ccfdd3d5d3> in <module>()
----> 1 print('Chris' + 2)
TypeError: must be str, not int
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In [41]:
print('Chris' + str(2))
Chris2
Python has a built in method for convenient string formatting.
In [43]:
sales_record = {
'price': 3.24,
'num_items': 4,
'person': 'Chris'}
sales_statement = '{} bought {} item(s) at a price of {} each for a total of {}'
print(sales_statement.format(sales_record['person'],
sales_record['num_items'],
sales_record['price'],
sales_record['num_items']*sales_record['price']))
Chris bought 4 item(s) at a price of 3.24 each for a total of 12.96
Reading and Writing CSV files
Let's import our datafile mpg.csv, which contains fuel economy data for 234 cars.
mpg : miles per gallon
class : car classification
cty : city mpg
cyl : # of cylinders
displ : engine displacement in liters
drv : f = front-wheel drive, r = rear wheel drive, 4 = 4wd
fl : fuel (e = ethanol E85, d = diesel, r = regular, p = premium, c = CNG)
hwy : highway mpg
manufacturer : automobile manufacturer
model : model of car
trans : type of transmission
year : model year
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In [7]:
import csv
%precision 2
with open('mpg.csv') as csvfile:
mpg = list(csv.DictReader(csvfile))
mpg[:3] # The first three dictionaries in our list.
Out[7]:
[OrderedDict([('', '1'),
('manufacturer', 'audi'),
('model', 'a4'),
('displ', '1.8'),
('year', '1999'),
('cyl', '4'),
('trans', 'auto(l5)'),
('drv', 'f'),
('cty', '18'),
('hwy', '29'),
('fl', 'p'),
('class', 'compact')]),
OrderedDict([('', '2'),
('manufacturer', 'audi'),
('model', 'a4'),
('displ', '1.8'),
('year', '1999'),
('cyl', '4'),
csv.Dictreader has read in each row of our csv file as a dictionary. len shows that our list is comprised of
234 dictionaries.
In [8]:
len(mpg)
Out[8]:
234
keys gives us the column names of our csv.
In [9]:
mpg[0].keys()
Out[9]:
odict_keys(['', 'manufacturer', 'model', 'displ', 'year', 'cyl', 'trans', 'd
rv', 'cty', 'hwy', 'fl', 'class'])
This is how to find the average cty fuel economy across all cars. All values in the dictionaries are strings, so we
need to convert to float.
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In [11]:
sum(float(d['cty']) for d in mpg)
Out[11]:
3945.00
Similarly this is how to find the average hwy fuel economy across all cars.
In [ ]:
sum(float(d['hwy']) for d in mpg) / len(mpg)
Use set to return the unique values for the number of cylinders the cars in our dataset have.
In [13]:
cylinders = set(d['cyl'] for d in mpg)
cylinders
Out[13]:
{'4', '5', '6', '8'}
Here's a more complex example where we are grouping the cars by number of cylinder, and finding the average
cty mpg for each group.
In [2]:
CtyMpgByCyl = []
for c in cylinders: # iterate over all the cylinder levels
summpg = 0
cyltypecount = 0
for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries
if d['cyl'] == c: # if the cylinder level type matches,
summpg += float(d['cty']) # add the cty mpg
cyltypecount += 1 # increment the count
CtyMpgByCyl.append((c, summpg / cyltypecount)) # append the tuple ('cylinder', 'avg mpg
CtyMpgByCyl.sort(key=lambda x: x[0])
CtyMpgByCyl
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-2-6a38e09e7d36> in <module>()
1 CtyMpgByCyl = []
2
----> 3 for c in cylinders: # iterate over all the cylinder levels
4 summpg = 0
5 cyltypecount = 0
NameError: name 'cylinders' is not defined
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Use set to return the unique values for the class types in our dataset.
In [15]:
vehicleclass = set(d['class'] for d in mpg) # what are the class types
vehicleclass
Out[15]:
{'2seater', 'compact', 'midsize', 'minivan', 'pickup', 'subcompact', 'suv'}
And here's an example of how to find the average hwy mpg for each class of vehicle in our dataset.
In [3]:
HwyMpgByClass = []
for t in vehicleclass: # iterate over all the vehicle classes
summpg = 0
vclasscount = 0
for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries
if d['class'] == t: # if the cylinder amount type matches,
summpg += float(d['hwy']) # add the hwy mpg
vclasscount += 1 # increment the count
HwyMpgByClass.append((t, summpg / vclasscount)) # append the tuple ('class', 'avg mpg')
HwyMpgByClass.sort(key=lambda x: x[1])
HwyMpgByClass
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-3-189fb3d201ff> in <module>()
1 HwyMpgByClass = []
2
----> 3 for t in vehicleclass: # iterate over all the vehicle classes
4 summpg = 0
5 vclasscount = 0
NameError: name 'vehicleclass' is not defined
The Python Programming Language: Dates and
Times
In [8]:
import datetime as dt
import time as tm
time returns the current time in seconds since the Epoch. (January 1st, 1970)
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In [9]:
tm.time()
Out[9]:
1573149245.2140586
Convert the timestamp to datetime.
In [10]:
dtnow = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(tm.time())
dtnow
Out[10]:
datetime.datetime(2019, 11, 7, 17, 54, 42, 650901)
Handy datetime attributes:
In [14]:
dtnow.year, dtnow.month, dtnow.day, dtnow.hour, dtnow.minute, dtnow.second # get year, mont
Out[14]:
(2019, 11, 7, 17, 54, 42)
timedelta is a duration expressing the difference between two dates.
In [15]:
delta = dt.timedelta(days = 100) # create a timedelta of 100 days
delta
Out[15]:
datetime.timedelta(100)
date.today returns the current local date.
In [16]:
today = dt.date.today()
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In [17]:
today - delta # the date 100 days ago
Out[17]:
datetime.date(2019, 7, 30)
In [18]:
today > today-delta # compare dates
Out[18]:
True
The Python Programming Language: Objects and
map()
An example of a class in python:
In [19]:
class Person:
department = 'School of Information' #a class variable
def set_name(self, new_name): #a method
self.name = new_name
def set_location(self, new_location):
self.location = new_location
In [20]:
person = Person()
person.set_name('Christopher Brooks')
person.set_location('Ann Arbor, MI, USA')
print('{} live in {} and works in the department {}'.format(person.name, person.location, p
Christopher Brooks live in Ann Arbor, MI, USA and works in the department Sc
hool of Information
Here's an example of mapping the min function between two lists.
In [21]:
store1 = [10.00, 11.00, 12.34, 2.34]
store2 = [9.00, 11.10, 12.34, 2.01]
cheapest = map(min, store1, store2)
cheapest
Out[21]:
<map at 0x7f79f46617f0>
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Now let's iterate through the map object to see the values.
In [22]:
for item in cheapest:
print(item)
9.0
11.0
12.34
2.01
The Python Programming Language: Lambda and List
Comprehensions
Here's an example of lambda that takes in three parameters and adds the first two.
In [23]:
my_function = lambda a, b, c : a + b
In [24]:
my_function(1, 2, 3)
Out[24]:
3
Let's iterate from 0 to 999 and return the even numbers.
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In [25]:
my_list = []
for number in range(0, 1000):
if number % 2 == 0:
my_list.append(number)
my_list
Out[25]:
[0,
2,
4,
6,
8,
10,
12,
14,
16,
18,
20,
22,
24,
26,
28,
30,
32,
34,
Now the same thing but with list comprehension.
In [26]:
my_list = [number for number in range(0,1000) if number % 2 == 0]
my_list
Out[26]:
[0,
2,
4,
6,
8,
10,
12,
14,
16,
18,
20,
22,
24,
26,
28,
30,
32,
34,
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The Python Programming Language: Numerical Python
(NumPy)
In [27]:
import numpy as np
Creating Arrays
Create a list and convert it to a numpy array
In [28]:
mylist = [1, 2, 3]
x = np.array(mylist)
x
Out[28]:
array([1, 2, 3])
Or just pass in a list directly
In [29]:
y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
y
Out[29]:
array([4, 5, 6])
Pass in a list of lists to create a multidimensional array.
In [30]:
m = np.array([[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]])
m
Out[30]:
array([[ 7, 8, 9],
[10, 11, 12]])
Use the shape method to find the dimensions of the array. (rows, columns)
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In [31]:
m.shape
Out[31]:
(2, 3)
arange returns evenly spaced values within a given interval.
In [33]:
n = np.arange(0, 30, 2) # start at 0 count up by 2, stop before 30
n
Out[33]:
array([ 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28])
reshape returns an array with the same data with a new shape.
In [34]:
n = n.reshape(3, 5) # reshape array to be 3x5
n
Out[34]:
array([[ 0, 2, 4, 6, 8],
[10, 12, 14, 16, 18],
[20, 22, 24, 26, 28]])
linspace returns evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval.
In [35]:
o = np.linspace(0, 4, 9) # return 9 evenly spaced values from 0 to 4
o
Out[35]:
array([ 0. , 0.5, 1. , 1.5, 2. , 2.5, 3. , 3.5, 4. ])
resize changes the shape and size of array in-place.
In [36]:
o.resize(3, 3)
o
Out[36]:
array([[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ],
[ 1.5, 2. , 2.5],
[ 3. , 3.5, 4. ]])
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ones returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with ones.
In [37]:
np.ones((3, 2))
Out[37]:
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])
zeros returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
In [38]:
np.zeros((2, 3))
Out[38]:
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]])
eye returns a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
In [39]:
np.eye(3)
Out[39]:
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
diag extracts a diagonal or constructs a diagonal array.
In [40]:
np.diag(y)
Out[40]:
array([[4, 0, 0],
[0, 5, 0],
[0, 0, 6]])
Create an array using repeating list (or see np.tile)
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In [41]:
np.array([1, 2, 3] * 3)
Out[41]:
array([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3])
Repeat elements of an array using repeat.
In [42]:
np.repeat([1, 2, 3], 3)
Out[42]:
array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3])
Combining Arrays
In [43]:
p = np.ones([2, 3], int)
p
Out[43]:
array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1]])
Use vstack to stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
In [44]:
np.vstack([p, 2*p])
Out[44]:
array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2],
[2, 2, 2]])
Use hstack to stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).
In [45]:
np.hstack([p, 2*p])
Out[45]:
array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]])
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Operations
Use +, -, *, / and ** to perform element wise addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and power.
In [46]:
print(x + y) # elementwise addition [1 2 3] + [4 5 6] = [5 7 9]
print(x - y) # elementwise subtraction [1 2 3] - [4 5 6] = [-3 -3 -3]
[5 7 9]
[-3 -3 -3]
In [47]:
print(x * y) # elementwise multiplication [1 2 3] * [4 5 6] = [4 10 18]
print(x / y) # elementwise divison [1 2 3] / [4 5 6] = [0.25 0.4 0.5]
[ 4 10 18]
[ 0.25 0.4 0.5 ]
In [48]:
print(x**2) # elementwise power [1 2 3] ^2 = [1 4 9]
[1 4 9]
Dot Product:
[]
y1
[ x1 x2 x3 ] ⋅ y2 = x 1y 1 + x 2y 2 + x 3y 3
y3
In [49]:
x.dot(y) # dot product 1*4 + 2*5 + 3*6
Out[49]:
32
In [50]:
z = np.array([y, y**2])
print(len(z)) # number of rows of array
Let's look at transposing arrays. Transposing permutes the dimensions of the array.
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In [51]:
z = np.array([y, y**2])
z
Out[51]:
array([[ 4, 5, 6],
[16, 25, 36]])
The shape of array z is (2,3) before transposing.
In [52]:
z.shape
Out[52]:
(2, 3)
Use .T to get the transpose.
In [53]:
z.T
Out[53]:
array([[ 4, 16],
[ 5, 25],
[ 6, 36]])
The number of rows has swapped with the number of columns.
In [54]:
z.T.shape
Out[54]:
(3, 2)
Use .dtype to see the data type of the elements in the array.
In [55]:
z.dtype
Out[55]:
dtype('int64')
Use .astype to cast to a specific type.
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In [56]:
z = z.astype('f')
z.dtype
Out[56]:
dtype('float32')
Math Functions
Numpy has many built in math functions that can be performed on arrays.
In [ ]:
a = np.array([-4, -2, 1, 3, 5])
In [ ]:
a.sum()
In [ ]:
a.max()
In [ ]:
a.min()
In [ ]:
a.mean()
In [ ]:
a.std()
argmax and argmin return the index of the maximum and minimum values in the array.
In [ ]:
a.argmax()
In [ ]:
a.argmin()
Indexing / Slicing
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In [ ]:
s = np.arange(13)**2
s
Use bracket notation to get the value at a specific index. Remember that indexing starts at 0.
In [ ]:
s[0], s[4], s[-1]
Use : to indicate a range. array[start:stop]
Leaving start or stop empty will default to the beginning/end of the array.
In [ ]:
s[1:5]
Use negatives to count from the back.
In [ ]:
s[-4:]
A second : can be used to indicate step-size. array[start:stop:stepsize]
Here we are starting 5th element from the end, and counting backwards by 2 until the beginning of the array is
reached.
In [ ]:
s[-5::-2]
Let's look at a multidimensional array.
In [ ]:
r = np.arange(36)
r.resize((6, 6))
r
Use bracket notation to slice: array[row, column]
In [ ]:
r[2, 2]
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And use : to select a range of rows or columns
In [ ]:
r[3, 3:6]
Here we are selecting all the rows up to (and not including) row 2, and all the columns up to (and not including)
the last column.
In [ ]:
r[:2, :-1]
This is a slice of the last row, and only every other element.
In [ ]:
r[-1, ::2]
We can also perform conditional indexing. Here we are selecting values from the array that are greater than 30.
(Also see np.where)
In [ ]:
r[r > 30]
Here we are assigning all values in the array that are greater than 30 to the value of 30.
In [ ]:
r[r > 30] = 30
r
Copying Data
Be careful with copying and modifying arrays in NumPy!
r2 is a slice of r
In [ ]:
r2 = r[:3,:3]
r2
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Set this slice's values to zero ([:] selects the entire array)
In [ ]:
r2[:] = 0
r2
r has also been changed!
In [ ]:
To avoid this, use r.copy to create a copy that will not affect the original array
In [ ]:
r_copy = r.copy()
r_copy
Now when r_copy is modified, r will not be changed.
In [ ]:
r_copy[:] = 10
print(r_copy, '\n')
print(r)
Iterating Over Arrays
Let's create a new 4 by 3 array of random numbers 0-9.
In [57]:
test = np.random.randint(0, 10, (4,3))
test
Out[57]:
array([[3, 3, 2],
[4, 5, 9],
[3, 1, 2],
[3, 7, 6]])
Iterate by row:
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In [58]:
for row in test:
print(row)
[3 3 2]
[4 5 9]
[3 1 2]
[3 7 6]
Iterate by index:
In [59]:
for i in range(len(test)):
print(test[i])
[3 3 2]
[4 5 9]
[3 1 2]
[3 7 6]
Iterate by row and index:
In [60]:
for i, row in enumerate(test):
print('row', i, 'is', row)
row 0 is [3 3 2]
row 1 is [4 5 9]
row 2 is [3 1 2]
row 3 is [3 7 6]
Use zip to iterate over multiple iterables.
In [61]:
test2 = test**2
test2
Out[61]:
array([[ 9, 9, 4],
[16, 25, 81],
[ 9, 1, 4],
[ 9, 49, 36]])
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In [62]:
for i, j in zip(test, test2):
print(i,'+',j,'=',i+j)
[3 3 2] + [9 9 4] = [12 12 6]
[4 5 9] + [16 25 81] = [20 30 90]
[3 1 2] + [9 1 4] = [12 2 6]
[3 7 6] + [ 9 49 36] = [12 56 42]
In [ ]:
In [ ]:
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