6/25/2020 Week 1

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The Python Programming Language: Functions

add_numbers is a function that takes two numbers and adds them together.

In [1]:

def add_numbers(x, y):

return x + y

add_numbers(1, 2)

Out[1]:

add_numbers updated to take an optional 3rd parameter. Using print allows printing of multiple expressions
within a single cell.

In [2]:

def add_numbers(x,y,z=None):
if (z==None):
return x+y
else:
return x+y+z

print(add_numbers(1, 2))
print(add_numbers(1, 2, 3))

3
6

add_numbers updated to take an optional flag parameter.

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In [4]:

def add_numbers(x, y, z=None, flag=False):

if (flag):
print('Flag is true!')
if (z==None):
return x + y
else:
return x + y + z

print(add_numbers(1, 2,3, flag=True))

Flag is true!
6

Assign function add_numbers to variable a.

In [6]:

def add_numbers(x,y):
return x+y

a = add_numbers
a(1,2)

Out[6]:

The Python Programming Language: Types and

Sequences

Use type to return the object's type.

In [7]:

type('This is a string')

Out[7]:
str

In [8]:

type(None)

Out[8]:

NoneType

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In [9]:

type(1)

Out[9]:

int

In [10]:

type(1.0)

Out[10]:
float

In [11]:

type(add_numbers)

Out[11]:

function

Tuples are an immutable data structure (cannot be altered).

In [1]:

x = (1, 'a', 2, 'b')

type(x)

Out[1]:

tuple

Lists are a mutable data structure.

In [3]:

x = [1, 'a', 2, 'b']

type(x)

Out[3]:
list

Use append to append an object to a list.

In [4]:

x.append(3.3)
print(x)

[1, 'a', 2, 'b', 3.3]

This is an example of how to loop through each item in the list.

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In [15]:

for item in x:
print(item)

1
a
2
b
3.3

Or using the indexing operator:

In [5]:

i=0
while( i != len(x) ):
print(x[i])
i = i + 1

1
a
2
b
3.3

Use + to concatenate lists.

In [17]:

[1,2] + [3,4]

Out[17]:

[1, 2, 3, 4]

Use * to repeat lists.

In [18]:

[1]*3

Out[18]:
[1, 1, 1]

Use the in operator to check if something is inside a list.

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In [19]:

1 in [1, 2, 3]

Out[19]:
True

Now let's look at strings. Use bracket notation to slice a string.

In [20]:

x = 'This is a string'
print(x[0]) #first character
print(x[0:1]) #first character, but we have explicitly set the end character
print(x[0:2]) #first two characters

T
T
Th

This will return the last element of the string.

In [21]:

x[-1]

Out[21]:
'g'

This will return the slice starting from the 4th element from the end and stopping before the 2nd element from
the end.

In [22]:

x[-4:-2]

Out[22]:

'ri'

This is a slice from the beginning of the string and stopping before the 3rd element.

In [23]:

x[:3]

Out[23]:
'Thi'

And this is a slice starting from the 4th element of the string and going all the way to the end.
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g g g g y

In [24]:

x[3:]

Out[24]:

's is a string'

In [25]:

firstname = 'Christopher'
lastname = 'Brooks'

print(firstname + ' ' + lastname)

print(firstname*3)
print('Chris' in firstname)

Christopher Brooks
ChristopherChristopherChristopher
True

split returns a list of all the words in a string, or a list split on a specific character.

In [26]:

firstname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[0] # [0] selects the first elemen
lastname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[-1] # [-1] selects the last elemen
print(firstname)
print(lastname)

Christopher
Brooks

Make sure you convert objects to strings before concatenating.

In [27]:

'Chris' + 2

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-27-1623ac76de6e> in <module>()
----> 1 'Chris' + 2

TypeError: must be str, not int

In [28]:

'Chris' + str(2)

Out[28]:
'Chris2'

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Dictionaries associate keys with values.

In [29]:

x = {'Christopher Brooks': 'brooksch@umich.edu', 'Bill Gates': 'billg@microsoft.com'}

x['Christopher Brooks'] # Retrieve a value by using the indexing operator

Out[29]:
'brooksch@umich.edu'

In [33]:

x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson'] = None

x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson']

Iterate over all of the keys:

In [32]:

for name in x:
print(x[name])

brooksch@umich.edu
billg@microsoft.com
None

Iterate over all of the values:

In [34]:

for email in x.values():

print(email)

brooksch@umich.edu
billg@microsoft.com
None

Iterate over all of the items in the list:

In [35]:

for name, email in x.items():

print(name)
print(email)

Christopher Brooks
brooksch@umich.edu
Bill Gates
billg@microsoft.com
Kevyn Collins-Thompson
None

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You can unpack a sequence into different variables:

In [36]:

x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', 'brooksch@umich.edu')

fname, lname, email = x

In [37]:

fname

Out[37]:

'Christopher'

In [38]:

lname

Out[38]:
'Brooks'

Make sure the number of values you are unpacking matches the number of variables being assigned.

In [39]:

x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', 'brooksch@umich.edu', 'Ann Arbor')

fname, lname, email = x

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-39-9ce70064f53e> in <module>()
1 x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', 'brooksch@umich.edu', 'Ann Arbor')
----> 2 fname, lname, email = x

ValueError: too many values to unpack (expected 3)

The Python Programming Language: More on

Strings
In [40]:

print('Chris' + 2)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-40-82ccfdd3d5d3> in <module>()
----> 1 print('Chris' + 2)

TypeError: must be str, not int

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In [41]:

print('Chris' + str(2))

Chris2

Python has a built in method for convenient string formatting.

In [43]:

sales_record = {
'price': 3.24,
'num_items': 4,
'person': 'Chris'}

sales_statement = '{} bought {} item(s) at a price of {} each for a total of {}'

print(sales_statement.format(sales_record['person'],
sales_record['num_items'],
sales_record['price'],
sales_record['num_items']*sales_record['price']))

Chris bought 4 item(s) at a price of 3.24 each for a total of 12.96

Reading and Writing CSV files

Let's import our datafile mpg.csv, which contains fuel economy data for 234 cars.

mpg : miles per gallon

class : car classification
cty : city mpg
cyl : # of cylinders
displ : engine displacement in liters
drv : f = front-wheel drive, r = rear wheel drive, 4 = 4wd
fl : fuel (e = ethanol E85, d = diesel, r = regular, p = premium, c = CNG)
hwy : highway mpg
manufacturer : automobile manufacturer
model : model of car
trans : type of transmission
year : model year

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In [7]:

import csv

%precision 2

with open('mpg.csv') as csvfile:

mpg = list(csv.DictReader(csvfile))

mpg[:3] # The first three dictionaries in our list.

Out[7]:

[OrderedDict([('', '1'),
('manufacturer', 'audi'),
('model', 'a4'),
('displ', '1.8'),
('year', '1999'),
('cyl', '4'),
('trans', 'auto(l5)'),
('drv', 'f'),
('cty', '18'),
('hwy', '29'),
('fl', 'p'),
('class', 'compact')]),
OrderedDict([('', '2'),
('manufacturer', 'audi'),
('model', 'a4'),
('displ', '1.8'),
('year', '1999'),
('cyl', '4'),

csv.Dictreader has read in each row of our csv file as a dictionary. len shows that our list is comprised of
234 dictionaries.

In [8]:

len(mpg)

Out[8]:
234

keys gives us the column names of our csv.

In [9]:

mpg[0].keys()

Out[9]:
odict_keys(['', 'manufacturer', 'model', 'displ', 'year', 'cyl', 'trans', 'd
rv', 'cty', 'hwy', 'fl', 'class'])

This is how to find the average cty fuel economy across all cars. All values in the dictionaries are strings, so we
need to convert to float.

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In [11]:

sum(float(d['cty']) for d in mpg)

Out[11]:
3945.00

Similarly this is how to find the average hwy fuel economy across all cars.

In [ ]:

sum(float(d['hwy']) for d in mpg) / len(mpg)

Use set to return the unique values for the number of cylinders the cars in our dataset have.

In [13]:

cylinders = set(d['cyl'] for d in mpg)

cylinders

Out[13]:
{'4', '5', '6', '8'}

Here's a more complex example where we are grouping the cars by number of cylinder, and finding the average
cty mpg for each group.

In [2]:

CtyMpgByCyl = []

for c in cylinders: # iterate over all the cylinder levels

summpg = 0
cyltypecount = 0
for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries
if d['cyl'] == c: # if the cylinder level type matches,
summpg += float(d['cty']) # add the cty mpg
cyltypecount += 1 # increment the count
CtyMpgByCyl.append((c, summpg / cyltypecount)) # append the tuple ('cylinder', 'avg mpg

CtyMpgByCyl.sort(key=lambda x: x[0])
CtyMpgByCyl

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-2-6a38e09e7d36> in <module>()
1 CtyMpgByCyl = []
2
----> 3 for c in cylinders: # iterate over all the cylinder levels
4 summpg = 0
5 cyltypecount = 0

NameError: name 'cylinders' is not defined

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Use set to return the unique values for the class types in our dataset.

In [15]:

vehicleclass = set(d['class'] for d in mpg) # what are the class types

vehicleclass

Out[15]:
{'2seater', 'compact', 'midsize', 'minivan', 'pickup', 'subcompact', 'suv'}

And here's an example of how to find the average hwy mpg for each class of vehicle in our dataset.

In [3]:

HwyMpgByClass = []

for t in vehicleclass: # iterate over all the vehicle classes

summpg = 0
vclasscount = 0
for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries
if d['class'] == t: # if the cylinder amount type matches,
summpg += float(d['hwy']) # add the hwy mpg
vclasscount += 1 # increment the count
HwyMpgByClass.append((t, summpg / vclasscount)) # append the tuple ('class', 'avg mpg')

HwyMpgByClass.sort(key=lambda x: x[1])
HwyMpgByClass

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-3-189fb3d201ff> in <module>()
1 HwyMpgByClass = []
2
----> 3 for t in vehicleclass: # iterate over all the vehicle classes
4 summpg = 0
5 vclasscount = 0

NameError: name 'vehicleclass' is not defined

The Python Programming Language: Dates and

Times
In [8]:

import datetime as dt
import time as tm

time returns the current time in seconds since the Epoch. (January 1st, 1970)

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In [9]:

tm.time()

Out[9]:

1573149245.2140586

Convert the timestamp to datetime.

In [10]:

dtnow = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(tm.time())
dtnow

Out[10]:
datetime.datetime(2019, 11, 7, 17, 54, 42, 650901)

Handy datetime attributes:

In [14]:

dtnow.year, dtnow.month, dtnow.day, dtnow.hour, dtnow.minute, dtnow.second # get year, mont

Out[14]:
(2019, 11, 7, 17, 54, 42)

timedelta is a duration expressing the difference between two dates.

In [15]:

delta = dt.timedelta(days = 100) # create a timedelta of 100 days

delta

Out[15]:

datetime.timedelta(100)

date.today returns the current local date.

In [16]:

today = dt.date.today()

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In [17]:

today - delta # the date 100 days ago

Out[17]:
datetime.date(2019, 7, 30)

In [18]:

today > today-delta # compare dates

Out[18]:
True

The Python Programming Language: Objects and

map()

An example of a class in python:

In [19]:

class Person:
department = 'School of Information' #a class variable

def set_name(self, new_name): #a method

self.name = new_name
def set_location(self, new_location):
self.location = new_location

In [20]:

person = Person()
person.set_name('Christopher Brooks')
person.set_location('Ann Arbor, MI, USA')
print('{} live in {} and works in the department {}'.format(person.name, person.location, p

Christopher Brooks live in Ann Arbor, MI, USA and works in the department Sc
hool of Information

Here's an example of mapping the min function between two lists.

In [21]:

store1 = [10.00, 11.00, 12.34, 2.34]

store2 = [9.00, 11.10, 12.34, 2.01]
cheapest = map(min, store1, store2)
cheapest

Out[21]:

<map at 0x7f79f46617f0>

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Now let's iterate through the map object to see the values.

In [22]:

for item in cheapest:

print(item)

9.0
11.0
12.34
2.01

The Python Programming Language: Lambda and List

Comprehensions

Here's an example of lambda that takes in three parameters and adds the first two.

In [23]:

my_function = lambda a, b, c : a + b

In [24]:

my_function(1, 2, 3)

Out[24]:
3

Let's iterate from 0 to 999 and return the even numbers.

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In [25]:

my_list = []
for number in range(0, 1000):
if number % 2 == 0:
my_list.append(number)
my_list

Out[25]:

[0,
2,
4,
6,
8,
10,
12,
14,
16,
18,
20,
22,
24,
26,
28,
30,
32,
34,

Now the same thing but with list comprehension.

In [26]:

my_list = [number for number in range(0,1000) if number % 2 == 0]

my_list

Out[26]:

[0,
2,
4,
6,
8,
10,
12,
14,
16,
18,
20,
22,
24,
26,
28,
30,
32,
34,

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The Python Programming Language: Numerical Python

(NumPy)
In [27]:

import numpy as np

Creating Arrays

Create a list and convert it to a numpy array

In [28]:

mylist = [1, 2, 3]
x = np.array(mylist)
x

Out[28]:
array([1, 2, 3])

Or just pass in a list directly

In [29]:

y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
y

Out[29]:
array([4, 5, 6])

Pass in a list of lists to create a multidimensional array.

In [30]:

m = np.array([[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]])

m

Out[30]:
array([[ 7, 8, 9],
[10, 11, 12]])

Use the shape method to find the dimensions of the array. (rows, columns)

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In [31]:

m.shape

Out[31]:
(2, 3)

arange returns evenly spaced values within a given interval.

In [33]:

n = np.arange(0, 30, 2) # start at 0 count up by 2, stop before 30

n

Out[33]:
array([ 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28])

reshape returns an array with the same data with a new shape.

In [34]:

n = n.reshape(3, 5) # reshape array to be 3x5

n

Out[34]:

array([[ 0, 2, 4, 6, 8],
[10, 12, 14, 16, 18],
[20, 22, 24, 26, 28]])

linspace returns evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval.

In [35]:

o = np.linspace(0, 4, 9) # return 9 evenly spaced values from 0 to 4

o

Out[35]:
array([ 0. , 0.5, 1. , 1.5, 2. , 2.5, 3. , 3.5, 4. ])

resize changes the shape and size of array in-place.

In [36]:

o.resize(3, 3)
o

Out[36]:
array([[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ],
[ 1.5, 2. , 2.5],
[ 3. , 3.5, 4. ]])

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ones returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with ones.

In [37]:

np.ones((3, 2))

Out[37]:
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])

zeros returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with zeros.

In [38]:

np.zeros((2, 3))

Out[38]:

array([[ 0., 0., 0.],

[ 0., 0., 0.]])

eye returns a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.

In [39]:

np.eye(3)

Out[39]:
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])

diag extracts a diagonal or constructs a diagonal array.

In [40]:

np.diag(y)

Out[40]:
array([[4, 0, 0],
[0, 5, 0],
[0, 0, 6]])

Create an array using repeating list (or see np.tile)

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In [41]:

np.array([1, 2, 3] * 3)

Out[41]:
array([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3])

Repeat elements of an array using repeat.

In [42]:

np.repeat([1, 2, 3], 3)

Out[42]:
array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3])

Combining Arrays

In [43]:

p = np.ones([2, 3], int)

p

Out[43]:

array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1]])

Use vstack to stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).

In [44]:

np.vstack([p, 2*p])

Out[44]:
array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2],
[2, 2, 2]])

Use hstack to stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).

In [45]:

np.hstack([p, 2*p])

Out[45]:
array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]])

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Operations

Use +, -, *, / and ** to perform element wise addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and power.

In [46]:

print(x + y) # elementwise addition [1 2 3] + [4 5 6] = [5 7 9]

print(x - y) # elementwise subtraction [1 2 3] - [4 5 6] = [-3 -3 -3]

[5 7 9]
[-3 -3 -3]

In [47]:

print(x * y) # elementwise multiplication [1 2 3] * [4 5 6] = [4 10 18]

print(x / y) # elementwise divison [1 2 3] / [4 5 6] = [0.25 0.4 0.5]

[ 4 10 18]
[ 0.25 0.4 0.5 ]

In [48]:

print(x**2) # elementwise power [1 2 3] ^2 = [1 4 9]

[1 4 9]

Dot Product:

[]
y1

[ x1 x2 x3 ] ⋅ y2 = x 1y 1 + x 2y 2 + x 3y 3
y3

In [49]:

x.dot(y) # dot product 1*4 + 2*5 + 3*6

Out[49]:
32

In [50]:

z = np.array([y, y**2])
print(len(z)) # number of rows of array

Let's look at transposing arrays. Transposing permutes the dimensions of the array.

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In [51]:

z = np.array([y, y**2])
z

Out[51]:
array([[ 4, 5, 6],
[16, 25, 36]])

The shape of array z is (2,3) before transposing.

In [52]:

z.shape

Out[52]:
(2, 3)

Use .T to get the transpose.

In [53]:

z.T

Out[53]:
array([[ 4, 16],
[ 5, 25],
[ 6, 36]])

The number of rows has swapped with the number of columns.

In [54]:

z.T.shape

Out[54]:
(3, 2)

Use .dtype to see the data type of the elements in the array.

In [55]:

z.dtype

Out[55]:
dtype('int64')

Use .astype to cast to a specific type.

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In [56]:

z = z.astype('f')
z.dtype

Out[56]:
dtype('float32')

Math Functions

Numpy has many built in math functions that can be performed on arrays.

In [ ]:

a = np.array([-4, -2, 1, 3, 5])

In [ ]:

a.sum()

In [ ]:

a.max()

In [ ]:

a.min()

In [ ]:

a.mean()

In [ ]:

a.std()

argmax and argmin return the index of the maximum and minimum values in the array.

In [ ]:

a.argmax()

In [ ]:

a.argmin()

Indexing / Slicing

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In [ ]:

s = np.arange(13)**2
s

Use bracket notation to get the value at a specific index. Remember that indexing starts at 0.

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s[0], s[4], s[-1]

Use : to indicate a range. array[start:stop]

Leaving start or stop empty will default to the beginning/end of the array.

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s[1:5]

Use negatives to count from the back.

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s[-4:]

A second : can be used to indicate step-size. array[start:stop:stepsize]

Here we are starting 5th element from the end, and counting backwards by 2 until the beginning of the array is
reached.

In [ ]:

s[-5::-2]

Let's look at a multidimensional array.

In [ ]:

r = np.arange(36)
r.resize((6, 6))
r

Use bracket notation to slice: array[row, column]

In [ ]:

r[2, 2]

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And use : to select a range of rows or columns

In [ ]:

r[3, 3:6]

Here we are selecting all the rows up to (and not including) row 2, and all the columns up to (and not including)
the last column.

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r[:2, :-1]

This is a slice of the last row, and only every other element.

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r[-1, ::2]

We can also perform conditional indexing. Here we are selecting values from the array that are greater than 30.
(Also see np.where)

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r[r > 30]

Here we are assigning all values in the array that are greater than 30 to the value of 30.

In [ ]:

r[r > 30] = 30

r

Copying Data

Be careful with copying and modifying arrays in NumPy!

r2 is a slice of r

In [ ]:

r2 = r[:3,:3]
r2

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Set this slice's values to zero ([:] selects the entire array)

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r2[:] = 0
r2

r has also been changed!

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To avoid this, use r.copy to create a copy that will not affect the original array

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r_copy = r.copy()
r_copy

Now when r_copy is modified, r will not be changed.

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r_copy[:] = 10
print(r_copy, '\n')
print(r)

Iterating Over Arrays

Let's create a new 4 by 3 array of random numbers 0-9.

In [57]:

test = np.random.randint(0, 10, (4,3))

test

Out[57]:

array([[3, 3, 2],
[4, 5, 9],
[3, 1, 2],
[3, 7, 6]])

Iterate by row:

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In [58]:

for row in test:

print(row)

[3 3 2]
[4 5 9]
[3 1 2]
[3 7 6]

Iterate by index:

In [59]:

for i in range(len(test)):
print(test[i])

[3 3 2]
[4 5 9]
[3 1 2]
[3 7 6]

Iterate by row and index:

In [60]:

for i, row in enumerate(test):

print('row', i, 'is', row)

row 0 is [3 3 2]
row 1 is [4 5 9]
row 2 is [3 1 2]
row 3 is [3 7 6]

Use zip to iterate over multiple iterables.

In [61]:

test2 = test**2
test2

Out[61]:
array([[ 9, 9, 4],
[16, 25, 81],
[ 9, 1, 4],
[ 9, 49, 36]])

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In [62]:

for i, j in zip(test, test2):

print(i,'+',j,'=',i+j)

[3 3 2] + [9 9 4] = [12 12 6]
[4 5 9] + [16 25 81] = [20 30 90]
[3 1 2] + [9 1 4] = [12 2 6]
[3 7 6] + [ 9 49 36] = [12 56 42]

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