MODEL TYPE

(Adapted from COMET online NWP modules)

1. Introduction
Grid point and spectral models are based on the same set of primitive equations. However,
each type formulates and solves the equations differently. The differences in the basic
mathematical formulations contribute to different characteristic errors in model guidance.

The differences in the basic mathematical formulations lead to different methods for
representing data. Grid point models represent data at discrete, fixed grid points, whereas
spectral models use continuous wave functions. Different types and amounts of errors are
introduced into the analyses and forecasts due to these differences in data representation.

The characteristics of each model type along with the physical and dynamic
approximations in the equations influence the type and scale of features that a model may
be able to resolve.

Model type does not necessarily impact the size of a model's domain. Global models have,
however, historically been spectral because the wave functions and spherical harmonics
in the spectral formulation operate over a spherical domain, a good match for global
models. Global models are increasingly becoming grid point as computer resources
increase.

Model type has no direct impact on the choice of horizontal or vertical resolution.
Theoretically, grid point and spectral models can be of any resolution, within the
limitations of available computing power.

The remainder of this section explores the characteristics and errors associated with grid
point and spectral models in more detail.

2. Grid Point Models

2.1 Data Representation
In the real atmosphere, temperature, pressure, wind, and moisture vary from location to
location in a smooth, continuous way. In the graphic below, the continuous temperature
field is depicted with the red contours, labeled in degrees Celsius. This is similar to how a
spectral model would depict the field.
Grid point models, however, perform their calculations on a fixed array of spatially
disconnected grid points. The values at the grid points actually represent an area average
over a grid box. The continuous temperature field, therefore, must be represented at each
grid point as shown by the black numbers in the right panel. The temperature value at the
grid point represents the grid box volume average.

Grid point models actually represent the atmosphere in three-dimensional grid cubes,
such as the one shown above. The temperature, pressure, and moisture (T, p, and q),
shown in the center of the cube, represent the average conditions throughout the cube.
Likewise, the east-west winds (u) and the north-south winds (v), located at the sides of
the cube, represent the average of the wind components between the center of this cube
and the adjacent cubes. Similarly, the vertical motion (w) is represented on the upper and
lower faces of the cube. This arrangement of variables within and around the grid cube
(called a staggered grid) has advantages when calculating derivatives. It is also physically
intuitive; average thermodynamic properties inside the grid cube are represented at the
center, while the winds on the faces are associated with fluxes into and out of the cube.

2.2 Grid Point Models

As discussed earlier, grid point models must use finite difference techniques to solve the
forecast equations. In the simplified moisture forecast equation shown below, time
changes in moisture at the center of a grid cube are caused by moisture advection across
the cube. This, in turn, depends upon the changes in the moisture between the adjacent
cubes and the average wind over the grid cube. The cube drawing graphically illustrates
the conceptual moisture equation shown at the bottom.

In the real atmosphere, advection often occurs at very small scales. For example, sea
breezes have strong advection but are usually confined to distances of only a few tens of
kilometers from shore. In our example, the grid points are spaced about 80 km apart. This
lack of resolution introduces errors into the solution of the finite difference equation. The
greater the distance between grid points, the less likely the model will be able to detect
small-scale variations in the temperature and moisture fields. Deficiencies in the ability
of the finite difference approximations to calculate gradients and higher order derivatives
exactly are called truncation errors.

The top finite difference equation can be converted into the form below it to explicitly
show that we are solving for the future value of q. This value depends on its current value
and the moisture difference between the grid points to the east and west. This is
illustrated conceptually in the bottom equation.

While finite difference equations appear complex, they are relatively simple and fast for a
computer to evaluate. The grid point model structure is then used so the equations can be
solved in a straightforward way for every grid point to produce a weather forecast.

Note that this is the simplest possible finite difference approximation for the original
equation. In practice, more complex expressions are used to increase the accuracy of the
approximation. Typically, more grid points are also involved in the calculation of each
term.

Additionally, note that forecasters often calculate diagnostic quantities from model output
as part of the forecasting process. These calculations will not necessarily be the same as
those performed by the forecast model itself, since some variables have been averaged
during model postprocessing. For instance, a complicated quantity such as potential
vorticity, which requires an average of the gradients of winds and temperatures over
several grid points, will appear to be smoother in the forecaster's diagnostic than was in
fact the case in the forecast model itself.

3. Spectral Model
3.1 Data representation
Spectral models represent the spatial variations of meteorological variables (such as
geopotential heights) as a finite series of waves of differing wavelengths.
In the introduction, we considered the structure of a conceptual two-wave model. Let's
now look at a real data set.

Consider the example of a hemispheric 500-hPa height field in the top portion of the
graphic. If the height data are tabulated at 40°N latitude every 10 degrees of longitude
(represented at each yellow dot on the chart), there are 36 points around the globe. It
takes a minimum of five to seven points to reasonably represent a wave and, in this case,
five or six waves can be defined with the data. The locations of the wave troughs are
shown in the top part as solid red lines.

When the data are plotted in the graph, the five wave troughs are definable by the blue
dots but are unequally spaced. This indicates the presence of more than one wavelength
of small-scale variations. In this case, the shorter waves represent the synoptic-scale
features, while the longer waves represent planetary features.

3.2 Use of Grid Point Methods in Spectral Models

Spectral models use a combination of computational techniques, both spectral and grid
point. Parts of the forecast equations use information about the forecast variables and
their derivatives obtained entirely from the wave representation. Examples of these linear
components include the important pressure gradient and Coriolis forces. Horizontal
gradients are precisely calculated from the wave representation, avoiding errors
associated with finite differencing.

Other parts of the forecast equations must be calculated on grids, for example,
precipitation and radiative processes, vertical advection, and parts of the wind advection
terms. Grid point calculation of time tendencies for forecast variables resulting from
physical processes introduces truncation errors. These errors are not removed when time
tendencies are transformed back to wave representation and noise is introduced in the
transformation process.
While vertical advections are calculated using finite differencing, which generates
truncation errors, horizontal advections, including wind advection, are also calculated on
grids. However, special mathematical properties avoid the introduction of error for these
terms.

The more accurate computational techniques used in spectral models can be integrated
over much longer periods than those used in grid point models without the generation of
small-scale noise and provide smoother longer-range forecasts. This is one of the reasons
why spectral models are most often used in global medium-range forecasting.

3.3 Impacts of Grid Point Physics Calculations in

Spectral Models
For the grid point calculations, the values of the forecast variables must be transformed
from spectral representation to grid points. The exact location and spacing of the grid
points is determined by the model's "resolution" (maximum number of waves). The
location and spacing of points is chosen to closely match the model's spectral resolution
(maximum wave number) and most accurately calculate the non-linear dynamic terms.
However, since model physics are also calculated on this grid, problems can result when
the local effects of physics introduce errors during the transformation from grid point
back to spectral representation.

The graphic illustrates the process for calculations done on the grid in spectral models.
Specific impacts of physics grid calculations include the following:

• Grid calculations are subject to the limitations found in grid point models, for
example, errors in the calculation of estimated gradients.

• Errors in the time tendency terms for the forecast variables are carried back into
spectral space and thus are not removed.

• Since physical processes often do not result in wave-like time tendencies for the
forecast variables, a distortion resulting from converting step-like features into
waves occurs. A prime example is the time tendency of temperature from latent
heat release due to precipitation processes. At the outer edges of a precipitation
region, these fields tend to be more 'step-like' than 'wave-like.' When the 'step' in
the latent heat release time tendency between grid points is transformed into a
spectral representation, the distortion spreads through the model domain (though
its amplitude becomes small away from the step location). Spectral models use
filtering methods to minimize the effects of these distortions on the forecast
variables. Additionally, postprocessing of data includes noise-reducing filtering of
the physical fields.

• Patterns produced by physical processes occurring at several adjacent grid points

can cause minor oscillations in the spectral representation of the shorter
wavelengths. The total effect is on the order of up to a few percent but can extend
for a long distance on either side of the source of physical forcing. Thus, intense
latent heating causes the model dynamics to respond to small amounts of heating
in places where the physics actually has none. Because the oscillations are only a
few percent, the effect at any one time is minimal. However, because this occurs
throughout the model at different places at all times, it results in spurious
background noise at small scales superimposed on the reliable part of the forecast.
 This effect can also be seen in the terrain elevation of the AVN model (see the
Horizontal Resolution section).

Now suppose that convective precipitation is triggered at a single physics grid point. The
graphic illustrates how the effects are felt within the model. The red line represents the
convective parameterization that causes a forcing of magnitude 1.0 at a single grid point
on the physics grid in a spectral model. The yellow line is the spectral representation of
this forcing plotted back onto the physics grid. Note that the associated warming retained
in the spectral representation is reduced by around 33% at that location and its influence
spread throughout a long distance in an unphysical oscillating pattern, as illustrated here.
As the maximum number of waves in the spectral model is doubled, the oscillation fades
faster so the distance scale would read about half of what is shown. This example is for a
spectral model with a maximum wave number of 170 and a location along 40°N.

3.4 Spectral: Truncation Effects

What are the effects of truncation in a spectral model? Recall that in a grid point model,
truncation error is associated with the finite difference approximations used to evaluate
the derivatives of the model forecast equations. One of the nice features of the spectral
formulation is that most horizontal derivatives are calculated directly from the waves and
are therefore extremely accurate.

This does not mean that spectral models have no truncation effects at all. The degree of
truncation for a given spectral model is associated with the scale of the smallest wave
represented by the model. A grid point model tries to include all scales but does a poor
job of handling waves only a few grid points across. A spectral model represents all of
the waves that it resolves perfectly but includes no information on smaller-scale waves. If
the number of waves in the model is small (for example, T80), only larger features can be
represented and smaller-scale features observed in the atmosphere will be entirely
eliminated from the forecast model. Therefore, spectral models with limited numbers of
waves can quickly depart from reality in situations involving rapid growth of initially
small-scale features.

Several types of wave orientation are possible in spectral models. Triangular (T, as in
T170) configuration is the most common in operational models since it has roughly the
same resolution in the zonal and meridional directions around the globe.

4. Hydrostatic vs. Non-Hydrostatic Models

4.1 Hydrostatic Models
Most grid point models and all spectral models in the current operational NWP suites are
hydrostatic. That is, they use the hydrostatic primitive equations, which assume a balance
between the weight of the atmosphere and the vertical pressure gradient force. This
means that no vertical accelerations are calculated explicitly.

The hydrostatic assumption is valid for synoptic- and planetary-scale systems and for
some mesoscale phenomena. A most notable exception is deep convection, where
buoyancy becomes an important force.

Hydrostatic models account for the effects of convection using statistical

parameterizations approximating the larger-scale changes in temperature and moisture
caused by non-hydrostatic processes.
4.2 Non-Hydrostatic Models
Currently, most non-hydrostatic models use grid point formulations. They are generally
applied to forecast problems requiring very high horizontal resolution (from tens of
meters to a few kilometers) and cover relatively small domains.

Non-hydrostatic models can explicitly forecast the release of buoyancy in the atmosphere
and its detailed effects on the development of deep convection. To accomplish this, non-
hydrostatic models must include an additional forecast equation that accounts for vertical
accelerations and vertical motions directly, rather than determining the vertical motion
diagnostically, solely from horizontal divergence. The basic form of the equation is
similar to that of the horizontal wind forecast equation. Conceptually, it states

In addition to changes in the vertical motion due to changes in orographic uplift and
descent, changes in vertical motion from one time step to the next in a grid box are
caused by

• Advection bringing in air with a different vertical velocity

• Pressure deviations from hydrostatic balance resulting from

• Changes in horizontal convergence/divergence

• Phenomena with non-hydrostatic pressure perturbations, such as

thunderstorms and mountain waves

• Buoyancy (B): Positive (negative) buoyancy generates a tendency toward

upward (downward) motion. Positive buoyancy is caused by

• Warm temperature anomalies in a grid box compared to its

surroundings

• Higher moisture content in a grid box compared to its surroundings

 • Downward drag caused by the weight of liquid or frozen cloud water and
precipitation

In addition, to account for vertical motions and buoyancy properly, non-hydrostatic

models must include a great deal of detail about cloud and precipitation processes in their
temperature and moisture forecast equations. Since hydrostatic models do not have a
vertical motion forecast equation, none of these processes can directly affect the vertical
motion in their predictions.

One disadvantage of non-hydrostatic models is longer computation time. Since the

models must finish running in time for forecasters to use model products, hydrostatic
models are more advantageous unless non-hydrostatic phenomena need to be simulated
or unless resolution finer than around 10 km is needed.

Non-hydrostatic models run at very high resolution characteristically predict detailed

mesoscale structure and associated forecast impacts on surrounding areas. For instance, a
prediction of a mesoscale convective system will include a well-defined gust front,
downstream thick anvil affecting surface temperature, and trailing mesohigh affecting
winds for some distance from the active convection. These details will look like the kinds
of features observed in real convective systems, but the forecast of convective initiation is
subject to considerable error, possibly throwing off the whole forecast. Generally,
mesoscale detail is most reliably predicted when forced by topography or coastlines.
Otherwise, the detailed structure gives an idea of what to expect if the weather event
causing it develops, but the timing and placement of that event may have considerable
error.

5. Summary
GRID POINT MODELS
• Characteristics
o Data are represented on a fixed set of grid points
o Resolution is a function of the grid point spacing
o All calculations are performed at grid points
o Finite difference approximations are used for solving the derivatives of the
model's equations
o Truncation error is introduced through finite difference approximations of
the primitive equations
o The degree of truncation error is a function of grid spacing and time-step
interval
• Disadvantages
o Finite difference approximations of model equations introduce a
significant amount of truncation error
o Small-scale noise accumulates when equations are integrated for long
periods
o The magnitude of computational errors is generally more than in spectral
models of comparable resolution
 o Boundary condition errors can propagate into regional models and affect
forecast skill
o Non-hydrostatic versions cover only very small domains and short
forecast periods
• Advantages
o Can provide high horizontal resolution for regional and mesoscale
applications
o Do not need to transform physics calculations to and from gridded space
o As the physics in operational models becomes more complex, grid point
models are becoming computationally competitive with spectral models
o Non-hydrostatic versions can explicitly forecast details of convection,
given sufficient resolution and detail in the initial conditions

SPECTRAL MODELS
• Characteristics
o Data are represented by wave functions
o Resolution is a function of the number of waves used in the model
o Model resolution is limited by the maximum number of waves
o The linear quantities of the equations of motion can be calculated
without introducing computational error
o Grids are used to perform non-linear and physical calculations
o Transformations occur between spectral and grid point space
o Equations can be integrated for large time steps and long periods of
time
o Originally designed for global domains
• Disadvantages
o Transformations between spectral and grid point physics calculations
introduce errors in the model solution
o Generally not designed for higher resolution regional and mesoscale
applications
o Computational savings decrease as the physical realism of the model
increases
• Advantages
o The magnitude of computational errors in dynamics calculations is
generally less than in grid point models of comparable resolution
o Can calculate the linear quantities of the equations of motion exactly
o At horizontal resolutions typically required for global models (late
1990s), require less computing resources than grid point models with
equivalent horizontal resolution and physical processes

HYDROSTATIC MODELS
• Characteristics
o Use the hydrostatic primitive equations, diagnosing vertical motion
from predicted horizontal motions
o Used for forecasting synoptic-scale phenomena, can forecast some
mesoscale phenomena
 o Used in both spectral and grid point models (for instance, the
AVN/MRF and Eta)
• Disadvantages
o Cannot predict vertical accelerations
o Cannot predict details of small-scale processes associated with
buoyancy
• Advantages
o Can run fast over limited-area domains, providing forecasts in time for
operational use
o The hydrostatic assumption is valid for many synoptic- and sub-
synoptic-scale phenomena

NON-HYDROSTATIC MODELS
o Characteristics
o Use the non-hydrostatic primitive equations, directly forecasting
vertical motion
o Used for forecasting small-scale phenomena
o Predict realistic-looking, detailed mesoscale structure and consistent
impact on surrounding weather, resulting in either superior local
forecasts or large errors
• Disadvantages
o Take longer to run than hydrostatic models with the same resolution
and domain size
o Used for limited-area applications, so they require boundary
conditions (BCs) from another model; if the BCs lack the structure and
resolution characteristic of fields developing inside the model domain,
they may exert great influence on the forecast
o May predict realistic-looking phenomena, but the timing and
placement may be unreliable
• Advantages
o Calculate vertical motion explicitly
o Explicitly predict release of buoyancy
o Account for cloud and precipitation processes and their contribution to
vertical motions
o Capable of predicting convection and mountain waves