Techniques in

Mineral Exploration
 Techniques in
Mineral Exploration

J. H. REEDMAN
B.Se., M.Phil., M.I.M.M.
Noranda Exploration Company Ltd, Winnipeg, Canada

APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD

LONDON
 APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
RIPPLE ROAD, BARKING, ESSEX, ENGLAND

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Reedman, J H
Techniques in mineral exploration.
1. Prospecting
I. Title
622'.1'024553 TN270

ISBN-13: 978-94-009-9229-0 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-9227-6

001: 10.1007/978-94-009-9227-6

WITH 56 TABLES AND 213 ILLUSTRATIONS

© APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD 1979

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1979

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publishers, Applied
Science Publishers Ltd, Ripple Road, Barking, Essex, England
 Preface

For some years I have felt there was a need for a single, comprehen-
sive, reference book on exploration geology. Numerous textbooks are
available on subjects such as geophysical prospecting, exploration
geochemistry, mining geology, photogeology and general economic
geology, but, for the geologist working in mineral exploration, who
does not require a specialist's knowledge, a general book on explora-
tion techniques is needed. Many undergraduate university courses
tend to neglect economic geology and few deal with the more prac-
tical aspects in any detail. Graduate geologists embarking on a career
in economic geology or mineral exploration are therefore often poorly
equipped and have to learn a considerable amount 'on the job'. By
providing a book that includes material which can be found in some
of the standard texts together with a number of practical aspects not
to be found elsewhere, I hope that both recent graduates and more
experienced exploration geologists will find it a useful reference work
and manual. In addition, students of economic geology and personnel
working in related fields in the mining and mineral extraction in-
dustries will find it informative.

J. H. REEDMAN

v
 Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Dr K. Fletcher, geochemist with the

Department of Geology, University of British Columbia, and Kari
Savario, geophysicist with Finnish Technical Aid to Zambia, for
reading the original drafts and offering constructive criticism and
advice on the chapters on geochemical and geophysical prospecting
respectively. The following organizations are thanked for allowing
figures and drawings, which have appeared in their various pub-
lications, to be copied: The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, The
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, The European Association of
Exploration Geophysicists, The Society of Mining Engineers of
A.I.M.E., and the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Hunting Surveys Ltd kindly supplied an illustration of a seismic
survey in the North Sea, Hunting Geology and Geophysics Ltd
provided an excellent example of an SLAR image, and Spectral
Africa Pty. Ltd, South Africa, permitted the copying of an example of
thermal imagery that appeared in one of their publications. The
author is indebted to the Geological Survey and Mines Department of
Uganda, Noranda Exploration (Ireland) Ltd and Mindeco Noranda
Ltd, Lusaka, Zambia, for unpublished material and data used in the
book. Aerial photographs used as illustrations all came from the
Survey Department, Republic of Zambia. Finally, the author is parti-
cularly grateful to Miss Esther Zulu, who typed a large part of the
manuscript, and to Ladreck Lungu, who draughted many of the
illustrations.

vii
 Contents

Pre/ace . . . . v
Acknowledgements vii

1 INTRODUCTION: MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORA-

TION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Growth in Mineral Production . . . . 1
1.2 Metal Prices .......... 6
1.3 Patterns of Production and Consumption 8
1.4 The Nature of Mineral Exploration 16
1.5 Mining and the Environment .... 22

2 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 25

2.1 The Importance of Geological Mapping and Prospecting 25
2.2 Traditional Prospecting Methods 52

3 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 59

3.1 Photogeology . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2 Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) 82
3.3 Satellite Photographs and Imagery 84
3.4 Thermal Imagery . . . . . . 86
3.5 Other Remote Detection Methods 89
3.6 Air Sampling Methods 90

4 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 93
4.1 Distribution of Elements 93
4.2 Primary Dispersion 98
4.3 Secondary Dispersion 106
4.4 Soil Types . . . . 139
4.5 Statistical Treatment of Data 147
4.6 Drainage Surveys 159
4.7 Soil Surveys ..... 165
4.8 Vegetation and Water Surveys 172
4.9 Analytical Methods 177
ix
x CONTENTS

5 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 208

5.1 Pitting and Trenching 208
5.2 Auger Drilling . . . . . 214
5.3 Hand-Held Percussion Drills 218
5.4 Wagon Drilling 224
5.5 Banka Drilling 226

6 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 229

6.1 Gravity Surveying .... 229
6.2 Magnetic Surveying . . . . 241
6.3 Resistivity Surveys . . . . 257
6.4 Induced Polarization (IP) Surveys 268
6.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Surveying 274
6.6 Self-Potential (SP) Surveys 287
6.7 Equipotential (EP) Surveys 290
6.8 Magneto-Telluric (MT) Surveys 291
6.9 Seismic Methods . . . 292
6.10 Radiometric Surveying . 305
6.11 Geothermal Methods 314
6.12 Well-Logging Techniques 315

7 DRILLING METHODS 322

7.1 Percussion Drilling 322
7.2 Churn Drilling . 327
7.3 Diamond Drilling 330
7.4 Rotary Drilling 371

8 SURVEYING 375
8.1 Chaining 375
8.2 Compass and Tape Surveys 385
8.3 Determination of Elevation 389
8.4 Plane Table Surveying . . 402
8.5 Surveying Calculations 406
8.6 Measurements with a Theodolite 411
8.7 Measurement of Distance 421
8.8 Astronomical Surveying 427

9 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 433

9.1 Ore and Ore Reserves 433
9.2 Plan Methods . . . . . 436
9.3 Cross-Sectional Methods 439
9.4 Steeply Dipping Ore Bodies 452
9.5 Ore Bodies of Variable Dip 454
9.6 Use of Ore Blocks 454
9.7 Cut-Off Grades .... 455
9.8 Tonnage Factor . . . . 458
9.9 Sampling for Grade Determination 463
 CONTENTS xi

10 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 481

10.1 Mineral Dressing . . . . 481
10.2 Smelting and Refining of Ores 495
10.3 Mining Methods . . . . 496
lOA Economic Feasibility Studies 500
10.5 Examination of Properties 509

Index . . . . . . . . . . 515
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Mineral Resources and Exploration

Mining is one of man's oldest activities and may even be considered

older than agriculture, since Stone Age hunters, who worked flints
into arrowheads and other tools and weapons, often obtained suitable
material from carefully selected sites which were worked by pits and
small underground workings. With the advent of the ancient civiliza-
tions in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China and elsewhere metals were
widely worked to produce tools, weapons and ornaments. The earliest
metals used by man were gold, copper, bronze (copper + tin), silver
and lead. The use of iron was discovered later and from it far superior
tools and weapons could be manufactured. During the time of the
Roman Empire, mining for gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and iron was
well established in various parts of Europe and many of -these ancient
mining centres in Israel, Cyprus, Spain and Britain are still producing
today. After the fall of the Roman Empire, mining in Europe went
into decline, but by the Middle Ages it was flourishing again in areas
such as the Harz Mountains and the Erzgebirge in Germany and
Cornwall in England. Agricola'S famous treatise De Re Metallica is a
fascinating account, beautifully illustrated with woodcuts, of mining
practices in the 1500's. In Book One he gives an eloquent defence of
mining as an honourable and essential occupation, carefully and
systematically refuting the various arguments of critics.

1.1 GROWTH IN MINERAL PRODUCTION

Although iron and the common base metals, together with the
monetary metals, gold and silver, were in common usage in the
civilized world for hundreds of years before the Industrial Rev-
olution, consumption was very low and it was only with the advent of
industrialization that demand increased significantly. Even so, con-
sumption of base metals during most of the 1800's was extremely low
by present-day standards and it was not until the twentieth century
2 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

that mmmg really expanded. For example, total world copper

production in the early 1800's has been estimated at about 10 000
tonnes per year, equivalent to only 11 hours' world production in 1974.
Even by the 1850's total world copper production was still only about
50000 tonnes per year. With the demands brought about by
development of the electrical industry and the discovery of large
copper deposits in Chile and the United States, copper production
rose rapidly to over 300 000 tonnes per year by the end of the
nineteenth century with the other old base metals showing a similar
increase in production. The late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries were times of great scientific discovery compared to earlier
centuries and a number of new metals were discovered and separated
from their ores (Table 1.1). Most of these were to remain scientific
curiosities until the early twentieth century, but experimental work
had shown that some of the new metals such as nickel, molybdenum
and chromium could be alloyed with steel to produce metals with
properties superior to those of ordinary steel.

TABLE 1.1
METALS LISTED ACCORDING TO THE YEARS OF THEIR DISCOVERY OR
ISOLATION

Year Metal Discoverer Year Metal Discoverer

1735 Cobalt Brandt 1801 Vanadium Roscoe

1751 Nickel Cronstedt 1801 Niobium Hatchett
1774 Manganese Scheele 1802 Tantalum Ekeberg
Osmium
1778 Molybdenu.m Scheele 1804 Iridium Tennant
1783 Tungsten d'Ehujar 1808 Magnesium Davy
brothers
Uranium
1789 Zirconium Klaproth 1817 Selenium Berzelius
1791 Titanium Gregor 1817 Cadmium Stromeyer
1797 Beryllium Vanquelin 1827 Aluminium Wohler
1798 Chromium Vanquelin 1886 Germanium Winkler

Source: Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia

After the turn of the present century, industrialization spread

rapidly in North America and Europe and created an increasing
demand for the traditional base metals, copper, tin, lead and zinc,
which was met by a steady increase in mine production (Figs. 1.1 and
1.2). There was also increased use of the new base metals, nickel and
aluminium, which resulted in a truly spectacular increase in their
production (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). In the case of aluminium a break-
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 3

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FIG. 1.1. Growth in primary production of lead, zinc, nickel and tin since
1900. (Source: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975.)

through in extraction technology made simultaneously in the late

1880's by the American, Hall, and the Frenchman, Heroult, meant that
aluminium could be produced at a much lower cost than earlier
techniques of extraction which had kept aluminium as a scientific
curiosity and jewellers' metal. Aluminium found increased application
as a major structural metal, replacing steel in many of its traditional
roles: in the electrical industry, aircraft industry, domestic appliance
manufacture and packaging it has become pre-eminent so that
production has risen from a few thousand tonnes per year in 1900 to
over 13 million tonnes per year in the mid-1970's, making aluminium
the second most widely used metal after iron and steel. In the case of
nickel, growth of consumption and production has not been quite as
4 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

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" 1910 1920 1930
Growth in primary production of copper and aluminium since
1940 1950 1960 1970

1900. (Source: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975.)

spectacular as that of aluminium, but its use as an essential ingredient

for stainless and tough strong steels has meant that there has been a
big increase in production over the past forty years (Fig. 1.1). From
the early 1900's to the present day, growth in production of the major
non-ferrous metals has been over 1000-fold in the case of aluminium,
240-fold in the case of nickel, 12-fold in the case of copper, lO-fold in
the case of zinc, 4-fold in the case of lead and just over 2-fold in the
case of tin. The increased demand for both non-ferrous metals and
iron and steel (Table 1.2) has been met by an equally impressive
increase in the consumption of energy (Table 1.3), in particular
petroleum which has become a dominant factor in world economic
order in the 1970's. In addition the growth of consumption and
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 5

TABLE 1.2
WORLD IRON ORE AND STEEL PRODUCTION IN
MILLIONS OF TONNES SINCE 1950

1950 1960 1970 1976

Iron ore 246 468 750 890

Steel 189 356 585 680

Source: Mining Annual Review 1952, 1962, 1971, 1977

TABLE 1.3
WORLD COAL AND OIL PRODUCTION IN MILLIONS
OF TONNES SINCE 1950

1950 1960 1970 1975

Coal 1550 2161 2964 3267

Oil 594 1085 2500 2765

Source: Mining Annual Review 1952, 1962, 1972, 1977

production of industrial minerals has been equally impressive (Table

1.4), but they have not received the same publicity as they lack the
'glamour' of metals or petroleum.
To meet the increased demand for various minerals enormous
increases in mine production were required. These were met both
through advances in extraction technology which permitted the
beneficiation of lower grade ores and through major discoveries made
by concerted exploration campaigns in different parts of the world. In
the case of copper, grades as high as 10-20% were required in the late

TABLE 1.4
WORLD ASBESTOS, PHOSPHATE AND POTASH PRODUCTION IN THOU-
SANDS OF TONNES SINCE 1950

1950 1960 1970 1975

Asbestos 1300* 2098 4780 5712

Phosphates 25000* 41200 80088 106 563
Potash (contained K2 0) 5700* 9100 17727 24453

*Estimate
Source: Mining Annual Review 1952, 1962, 1972, 1977
6 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

1800's, but by the 1930's ores grading 3% or less were commonly

worked, and by the 1950's large low-grade deposits of 0·7% Cu and
less were being worked on an increasingly large scale. Examples of
some of the major discoveries which made it possible for production
to meet increased demand are the large copper deposits of Chile and
the southwest United States developed between 1850 and 1900, the
fabulous goldfields of the Witwatersrand which have dominated world
gold production since their discovery at the end of the nineteenth
century, the Broken Hilliead-zinc-silver deposit in New South Wales
discovered in 1883, the copper-nickel deposits of Sudbury, Ontario
discovered in the 1880's (the world's major source of nickel since the
early 1900's) and the copper belt of Zambia and Zaire which was
discovered and developed between 1900 and 1940, becoming the
greatest single copper-producing area in the world. More recent major
discoveries include the Jamaican bauxite deposits (1940's), the enor-
mous bauxite deposits of northern Queensland (1950's), the Pilbara
iron deposits of Western Australia (1950's), and the uranium deposits
of the Northern Territory, Australia (1970's).
After the Second World War there were great advances in tech-
nology and a consequent demand for new 'space age' metals such as
beryllium, niobium and titanium. Developments in electronics also
created an increased demand for metals such as selenium, indium,
silver, tantalum, gallium, rhenium, germanium and the rare earths.
The post-war period saw the burgeoning of the atomic energy in-
dustry and its need for uranium which had remained very much a
scientific curiosity since its discovery in 1789. This element has now
become a much sought-after commodity with the so-called energy
crisis of recent years and major exploration efforts are being mounted
to locate supplies to meet projected future demand.

1.2 METAL PRICES

Like any other commodity, metals and ores are subject to the law of
supply and demand and the prices they can command on the world
markets may vary considerably (Fig. 1.3). There are three basic
components to metal prices: (i) a long-term increase to keep pace with
general rising costs or inflation, (ii) short-term, cyclical changes due to
fluctuating economic controls, and (iii) relative price changes vis-a-vis
one metal and another. The overall increases are seen on the price
graphs as a general upward trend and can be determined by averaging
prices out over a number of years. For example, the average price of
copper in the 1960's was 40t/lb compared with only 13t/lb in the 1920's.
The cyclical changes are seen as sharp and sudden upward and
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 7

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1920 1930 1950 19~ 1970

FIG. 1.3. Average yearly metal prices of copper, lead, zinc and aluminium
since 1910~ New York quotations. (Source: Engineering and Mining Journal.)

downward movements on the graphs and they can have serious

repercussions for mining and mineral exploration. The recession of
the early 1920's and the Great Depression of the early 1930's are
clearly seen on both the production and price graphs as production
outstripped demand. The marked fall in mine production of base
metals immediately after the Second World War is not accompanied
by a fall in price, since consumption did not outstrip production at
that time and, in fact, shortage of supply kept prices steadily rising.
The mid-1970's were once again a time of falling prices and output
since production facilities, greatly expanded in the late 1960's, resul-
ted in world production outstripping consumption in the industrial
8 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

nations whose economies have fallen into recession due to the huge
price increases in petroleum imposed by the OPEC cartel.
The relative price change in metals is exemplified by aluminium. A
major reduction in the cost of producing aluminium from its ores in
the late nineteenth century was responsible for creating demand.
Production costs fell steadily from 1925 until 1945 when it became
cheaper than copper (Fig. 1.3) and in the 1950's it finally overtook
copper as the world's major non-ferrous metal. For interest, the
average prices pertaining in 1975 for a number of metals are given in
Table 1.5.

TABLE 1.5
AVERAGE PRICES FOR SOME METALS IN 1975 IN TERMS OF DOLLARS
PERlb

Metal Price Metal Price Metal Price

Pig iron 0·07 Nickel 2·00 Bismuth 7·72

Lead 0·21 Mercury 2·08 Niobium 21·50
Zinc 0·39 Antimony 2·09 Tantalum 39·95
Aluminium 0·39 Vanadium 2·18 Beryllium 61·00
Copper 0·58 Tin 3-12 Silver 65·11
Manganese 0·59 Cadmium 3·35 Palladium 1244·00
Magnesium 0·82 Cobalt 3·85 Platinum 2297·00
Titanium 1-17 Molybdenum 5·25 Gold 2355-00
Chromium 1·90 Tungsten 7-13 Osmium 2730·00
Iridium 7366·00

Source: Engineering and Mining Journal

1.3 PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMYI10N

Mineral resources tend to be very unevenly distributed over the world

with the result that some countries are richly endowed while others
are almost entirely lacking in mineral wealth. No country is self-
sufficient in mineral resources. Even the United States, which is a
major producer of many metals, has hardly any tin, chromium, nickel
or manganese deposits and has to rely heavily on imports. Table 1.6
lists the major producers of a number of metals and minerals and it is
interesting to see how a few countries, or even one country in some
instances, dominate production of certain commodities. Single coun-
tries that produce over 50% of the world supply of a particular metal
include Brazil (niobium 83%), South Africa (gold 65%), USA
(molybdenum 64%), Zaire (cobalt 59%) and USSR (platinum 55%).
Patterns of production change considerably over the years with the
depletion of deposits and the discovery and development of new ore
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 9

TABLE 1.6
MAJOR PRODUCERS OF A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT METALS AND
MINERALS IN 1973 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED. (FIGURES ARE IN
THOUSANDS OF TONNES UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED)

Asbestos Chromite
(1976 figures) Antimony (1976 figures)

USSR 2528 South Africa 14·8 South Africa 2177

Canada 1694 China 14·0 USSR 1542
South Africa 370 Bolivia 13·1 Turkey 637
Rhodesia 350 USSR 7·5 Rhodesia 550
China 145 Mexico 3·0 Philippines 287
USA 135 Yugoslavia 2·0 Others ?
Others 400 Others 15·4 5193+
5622 69·8

Diamonds
(1976 figures)
Cobalt Copper (1974 figures) (millions of carats)

Zaire 15·1 USA 1446 Zaire 17·0

Zambia 2·0 USSR 1200 USSR 12·0
Canada 1·8 Chile 902 South Africa 7·6
USSR 1·7 Canada 826 Botswana 2·4
Others 5·0 Zambia 698 Ghana. 2·2
25·6 Zaire 544 Namibia 1·7
Australia 256 Sierra Leone \.\
Peru 213 Venezuela 0·6
Philippines 209 Tanzania 0·5
South Africa 205 Liberia 0·5
Others 1387 Others 1-6
7886 47·2

Gold (tonnes) Lead (1974 figures) Manganese (ore)

South Africa 909·6 USA 602 USSR 8000

USSR 214·6 USSR 590 South Africa 4176
Canada 64.7 Australia 377 Gabon 2244
USA 45·1 Canada 296 India 1535
Australia 29·9 Mexico 218 China 998
Ghana 22·6 Peru 193 Mexico 364
Philippines 18·1 China 130 Zaire 334
Rhodesia 15·5 Yugoslavia 120 Others 4385
Others 70·6 Others 1048 22036
1390·7 3574
10 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 1.6 (Contd.)

Molybdenum
Mercury (Mo in ore) Nickel (1976 figures)

Spain 2·09 USA 52·6 Canada 249·0

USSR 1·90 Canada 12·5 USSR 110·0
Italy 1·15 USSR 8·5 New Caledonia 119·0
China 1·00 Chile 5·9 Australia 37·0
Yugoslavia 0·54 China 1·5 Dominican
Others 2·24 Others B Republic 27·0
8·92 82·2 Cuba 26·0
Indonesia 15·8
South Africa 19·4
Others 73·3
676·5

Niobium Platinum-group metals

(tonnes concentrate) (tonnes)

Brazil 7893 USSR 73·1

Canada 913 South Africa 45·1
Africa (mainly Canada 12·6
Nigeria) 572 Others ~
Others 101 132·3
9479

Phosphate
(1976 figures) Tantalum
(millions of tonnes) Silver (tonnes concentrate)

USA 44·15 Canada 1·48 Africa (mainly

USSR 24·23 USSR 1·45 Nigeria) 167
Morocco 15·29 Peru 1·31 Canada 43
China 3·90 Mexico 1·21 Brazil 39
Tunisia 3·29 USA 1-16 Zaire 13
Togo 2·07 Japan 0·27 Malaysia 8
Jordan 1·70 Others 2·78 Others Jl
South Africa 1·70 9·66 349
Senegal 1·58
Vietnam 1·50
Others ----1:11
106·54
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 11

TABLE 1.6 (Contd.)

Vanadium
Tin Tungsten (V in ore)

Malaysia 72·3 China 8·0 South Africa 8·9

Bolivia 35·4 USSR 7·4 USA 4·0
Indonesia 22·5 Asia (mainly USSR 3·4
China 22·0 Korea) 5·3 Finland 1·3
Thailand 15·5 USA 3·4 Chile 1·0
USSR 12·0 Bolivia 2·2 Others 3·8
Australia 10·8 Canada 2·1 22·4
Zaire 5·4 Others 10·3
Brazil 4·0 38·7
Nigeria 3·8
UK 3·8
South Africa 3·3
Others 15·5
226·3

Zinc (1974 figures)

{Janada 1122
USSR 950
Australia 449
USA 449
Peru 387
Mexico 263
Japan 241
Poland 200
China 130
Others 1691
5882
Sources: 1973 and 1974: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975
1976: Mining Annual Review, 1977

bodies; former major producers may be relegated to the position of

minor producers or even non-producers and vice versa when pre-
viously non-producing countries become major producers. An example
of this is the production of bauxite of which the two present leading
producers, Australia and Jamaica, were virtual non-producers in 1950.
Table 1.7 compares the major iron ore and oil producers in 1960 and
1976 and it is interesting to see how the ranking of producers has
changed. In the case of iron ore both Brazil and Australia, who
produced very little in 1960, have become the second and third ranked
producers respectively. On the other hand, production in the case of
12 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 1.7
LEADING IRON ORE AND OIL PRODUCERS IN 1960 AND 1976.
FIGURES IN MILLIONS OF TONNES

1960 1976
Iron ore
USSR 107 USSR 234
USA 87 Brazil 170
France 66 Australia 92
Canada 22 USA 78
Sweden 21 China 65
West Germany 19 Canada 56
UK 17 France 43
Others ~ India 40
415 Sweden 29
Liberia 23
Others ~
890
Oil
USA 383 USSR 513
Venezuela 151 USA 487
USSR 147 Saudi Arabia 429
Kuwait 82 Iran 296
Saudi Arabia 61 Iraq 109
Iran 52 Kuwait 107
Iraq 47 Nigeria 103
Canada 26 UAE 97
Indonesia 20 Libya 96
Mexico 15 China 83
Others 101 Others 634
1085 2954

Source: Mining Annual Review, 1961, 1977

West Germany and the UK, who both appear in the 1960 column of
Table 1.7, has decreased due to depletion of ores. In the case of oil
the second-ranked country in 1960, Venezuela, does not even appear
in the top ten in 1976; Nigeria, a virtual non-producer in 1960, is
ranked seventh in 1976 with a production very close to that of Iraq
and Kuwait in fifth and sixth places respectively.
If we consider consumption of mineral wealth there is an even
bigger disparity between the nations of the world. Industrialization
and development are largely concentrated in North America, Europe,
Japan, Australasia and the USSR who between them consume 95% of
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 13

the world's nickel, 92% of its aluminium and copper, 87% of its lead
and zinc and 85% of its tin_ If consumption of partly developed
nations such as Brazil, Argentina, Korea, Taiwan, South Africa,
China and Mexico, who all have significant industrial capacity, is
taken into account, there is very little left for the vast numbers of
people in the developing nations of Asia, Africa and South America,
the so-called Third World_ In addition, many of the industrialized
nations, particularly Japan and those of Western Europe, have to rely
heavily on imports of raw materials and unworked metals to meet
their domestic consumption_ Many of the world's major metal and ore
producers are in the Third World and consume a negligible amount of

TABLE 1.8
COPPER PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIAL
NATIONS IN 1974 (IN MILLIONS OF TONNES)

Mine Smelter Primary Use of

production production consumption scrap

EEC 0-016 0-194 1-817 1-074

USSR 1-200 1-200 1-025 ?
Japan 0-082 0-900 0-716 0-445
USA 1-446 1-424 1-519 1-299

Totals 2-731 3-718 5-077 2-818+

Source: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975

TABLE 1.9
COPPER PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MAJOR COPPER EXPORT-
ERS IN 1974 (IN MILLIONS OF TONNES)

Mine Smelter Primary Use of

production production consumption scrap

Chile 0-902 0-724 0-029

Canada 0-826 0-537 0-270 0-099
Zambia 0-698 0-709 0-004
Zaire 0-544 0-470 0-002
Australia 0-256 0-196 0-088 0-034
Peru 0-213 0-180 0-013

Totals 3-439 2-816 0-406 0-133

Source: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975

14 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

their own products. This can be seen in Tables 1.8 and 1.9, which
show the copper production and consumption of the major industrial
nations and copper exporters respectively. Only the USSR produces
sufficient copper for its own needs, the USA is very nearly self
sufficient, but Japan and the EEC countries produce only 11% and 1%
of their copper needs respectively. In addition Japan has an enormous
smelting capacity in excess of her needs which has to be supplied
with large quantities of copper concentrates, much of the contained
copper of which is finally exported as refined metal. Amongst the
major copper exporters only Canada and Australia are highly
developed nations. A further example of the disparity between
producers and consumers is given by bauxite and aluminium produc-
tion shown in Fig. 1.4. The interesting facts to emerge are that the
Third World bauxite producers consume negligible amounts of alu-
minium, few of them even have any capacity to produce aluminium
metal and there are a number of developed nations, notably Canada
and Norway, which produce no bauxite, but are major exporters of
primary aluminium.
If the consumption of various metals is put in per capita terms, the
disparity between the developed and the Third World countries is
illustrated very forcibly. Table 1.10 shows the per capita consumption
for aluminium, copper, lead and zinc for a number of nations and it is
clear that the majority of people in the world consume very little of
the world's mineral wealth. Similar tables for energy consumption
would show an even bigger disparity. If this consumption of metals is
used as a measure of wealth, it means that there will have to be an
enormous increase in mineral production if peoples of the Third
World are to move even slightly towards the living standards of the
industrialized and developed nations. This is possible, but it is essen-
tial that the Third World uses its mineral wealth wisely by investing in
agriculture and other basic development projects money earned from
mining. Unfortunately, many Third World producers of raw materials
are not doing this and are spending their mineral export earnings on
current living expenses which can only lead to tragedy. Many people
advocate that nations should not hurry to exploit mineral wealth, but
should rather conserve it for the future when they may be in a better
position to use the minerals for their own development rather than
export them to more developed countries. This approach has little to
commend it in most cases and any Third World country fortunate
enough to find a large mineral deposit should consider it as an
important capital asset, which can be used to assist in the develop-
ment of the country, even if most of its mineral production has to be
exported in a raw state, at least in the early years.
 MAJOR BAUXITE PROOUCERS MAJOR PRIMARY ALUMINIUM PROOUCERS MAJOR CONSUMERS OF PRIMARY ALUMINIUM

AusrR'Al.lA US" US"

•
JAMAICA F-- I USSR USSR

GUINEA J"PAN r~'T? JAf'AN

I
SlJqINAM C .... ADA GERMANY

U~SR GERMANy U ~

GUYANA NQRW"Y FRANCE

-
F
r-l
~
~
FRA~Cf. FRANCE TAL.Y CIl

GRneE U~ CANADA

HUNGA!R'Y NETH£RLANOS CH!NA

CIl
~
BElG1UM.
VUGOSL.AVIA AUSTRALIA LU~EM3<JRG i ~
USA ITAL,V SPAIN •
INDONES1A SPAiN BRAZil
-F
INOlA ROMAN'A £ GE.RMANY
~
OOMINICAN AUSTRALIA
GHA""'~
REPUBLIC F z
10 1) zo
I
",.111IOId 0 ' ION'>'" •.,. of tOl'Vlft """lC\f"'\. ot 10fW\ft0

FIG. 104. The world's leading bauxite producers, primary aluminium producers and aluminium consumers in 1974.
(Source: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975.) VI
-
16 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 1.10
PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF ALUMINIUM. COPPER. LEAD AND ZINC
FOR A NUMBER OF SELECTED COUNTRIES IN 1974

Per capita
consumption
in kg Aluminium Copper Lead Zinc

USA
Canada
Sweden Sweden
>10
EEC Canada
Japan
Australia

Canada
Australia Japan
5-10 USSR USA Australia USA
EEC EEC
Japan Australia

USA
Sweden
Poland USSR Poland
EEC
Argentina Poland Sweden
2-5 Canada
South Africa South Africa USSR
Poland
Brazil Mexico USSR South Africa
Japan

Mexico Argentina
Mexico Argentina
1-2 Argentina Mexico
Turkey Brazil
South Africa Brazil

Brazil Turkey
0·1-1·0 China China Turkey China
India Turkey China India

India India
Third World Third World
<0·1 Third World Third World
countries countries
countries countries

Source: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975 (consumption)

UNESCO (population)

1.4 THE NATURE OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

The reserves of any mine, however great, are finite and will even-
tually be depleted. Thus, any country or company involved in mining
should undertake a continual search for new deposits and extensions
to existing ones. This can be considered akin to the research and
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 17

development work undertaken by manufacturing companies which is

necessary to improve existing products or develop new ones to
maintain an edge over competitors. Mining is a risky business com-
pared to other industrial activities, however, and mineral exploration
carries an even higher element of risk. It is for this reason that
accountants and business men, who often control or exercise a major
influence on the affairs of a mining company, may cut off all explora-
tion in times of economic recession as they see it as a totally
unproductive venture with no return on capital expended. This is an
extremely short-sighted policy since mineral exploration is essential
to the future of any mining company.
Although mining carries an element of risk which can mean heavy
financial loss to the owners of a mine, it also holds the possibility of a
big return on capital invested and a much higher profitability than can
be obtained from most other industrial or agricultural ventures. This
point was put across very well by Agricola in the 16th century:

It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of agriculture, and

that the profits of mining are less stable I will always and readily admit, for
the veins do in time cease to yield metals, whereas the fields bring forth fruits
every year. But though the business of mining may be less reliable it is more
productive, so that in reckoning up, what is wanting in stability is found to be
made up by productiveness. Indeed the yearly profit of a lead mine in
comparison with the fruitfulness of the best fields, is three times or at least
twice as great.
This potential for a high rate of return from a mining venture is the
incentive which encourages individuals and companies to engage in
mineral exploration. Destroy this incentive and investment in mineral
exploration will decline and future mineral development will suffer.
There is a growing trend in the world today to penalize mining
through heavy taxation and other government controls for what are
seen as 'excessive profits'. It is certainly true that some companies
have made enormous profits out of mining, but what is often con-
veniently forgotten are the companies and individuals who invested in
mineral exploration ventures which failed to discover viable deposits
and were thus total losses to the people concerned. Also forgotten are
the times of recession when falling metal prices turned profitable
mines into loss-making operations for their owners. It cannot be
denied that mineral wealth is a national resource and as many people
in the country as possible should benefit from its exploitation, but at
the same time it is important to achieve a satisfactory balance so that
the incentives for mineral exploration and d~velopment are not
removed completely. It is often thought that the socialist countries
with centrally controlled economies do not suffer from these prob-
18 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

lems and that a mineral deposit will be developed for the national
good regardless of short term economic considerations. This is not
necessarily any more satisfactory, however, than systems pertaining
in countries with free enterprise, since mineral exploration and
development in the socialist countries fall directly under the
umbrella of government bodies and organizations, which have a
tendency in any nation to become bureaucratic and highly inefficient.
In Third World countries, which lack technological expertise and
financial resources, it is necessary to attract outside interests to
develop mineral wealth. Unless sufficient incentives can be offered,
however, foreign capital and know-how, whether it be from capitalist
or socialist countries, will be withheld. The really big problem is to
create the necessary climate of confidence so that a Third World
country can attract investment and still ensure that it receives a fair
and equitable share of its own resources. Too often instability or fear
of instability in Third World countries causes a foreign investor to
expect a higher rate of return on an investment than he might expect
in his own country. On the other hand, excessive profits made by a
foreign investor will result in a nation feeling that it is being robbed of
its national wealth and heritage.
Table 1.11 lists the sequence of operations involved in starting from
a reconnaissance exploration survey and concluding with the suc-
cessful development of a mine, indicating the risk. element at the
various stages. Hypothetical costs are given to illustrate the escalating
nature of costs with each advancing stage. When risk is highest,
expenditure is lowest, but even at an advanced stage, when significant
sums of money may have been spent, the risk is still high. U sing the
hypothetical costs, a project terminated at the end of the recon-
naissance phase will have incurred a loss of $0·5 million. Few
projects are cut off at this stage purely for geological reasons since
there is usually sufficient encouragement to proceed with a certain
amount of initial follow-up work. In many cases expenditure at this
stage may be no more, and may even be less, than the reconnaissance
stage, but, if results of preliminary work are sufficiently encouraging,
expenditure may be considerable. The risk is still very high at this
stage and termination of a project due to discouraging results will
involve a loss of $1·5 million using our hypothetical figures.
Encouraging indications of mineralization may justify detailed follow-
up work which can be very expensive as it is likely to be based
heavily on drilling. The risk factor is still high and, if indicated grades
and tonnage are considered insufficient, termination of the project will
result in a total loss of $5·5 million. If the detailed follow-up work
indicates a viable deposit, a feasibility study to determine the mining
methods to be employed, the rate of production, treatment of ore,
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 19

TABLE 1.11
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS IN EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
AN ORE DEPOSIT

Hypothetical
Possible methods costs
Stage Type of work employed (millions of $) Risk

geological mapping,_
prospecting,
geochemistry, extremely
reconnaissance 0·5
geophysics, high
airborne
surveys

geological mapping,
Exploration geochemistry,
initial very
geophysics, 1·0
follow-up high
limited
drilling

drilling,
detailed limited
4·0 high
follow-up metallurgical
testing

drilling,
metallurgical
feasibility testing, 10·0 moderate
study mine design,
trial mining
Development
site
construction construction,
and mine drilling,
100·0 low
development underground
and/or surface
mining

various
extraction
mining and operating
Mining and beneficiation low
concentrating methods costs
of ore
depending on deposit

disposal of the product, etc. will be necessary. In the case of remote

deposits, this may involve planning an entire township with all the
necessary amenities. By this stage the risk factor is considerably
reduced, but it may still be necessary to terminate the project if
results of the feasibility study indicate serious problems. Termina-
tion at this stage involves a total loss of $15.5 million using
our hypothetical figures. When the decision to mine the deposit
is finally taken, the risk factor should be very low, but there is no
certainty in mining and a fall in metal prices or unforeseen difficulties
in transporting the product can have a disastrous effect, especially if
20 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

they occur in the first few years of the new mine's life. Total
exploration and development costs now stand at $115·5 million for
our hypothetical example. Even if the mine does prove to be below
expectations, a considerable recovery of the total investment can still
be made, but profits may be poor or non-existent. A good deposit, of
course, will result in rapid recovery of exploration and development
investments plus profits for the shareholders. For every successful
discovery, however, there'will be countless projects that will have to
be terminated at earlier stages and, as stated earlier, it is for this
reason that returns on mining have to be better than other industrial
ventures which carry a lower risk factor.
It is clear from the great disparity between consumption of mineral
wealth in the developed and Third World countries that an enormous
increase in mineral production will be needed if Third World coun-
tries are ever to attain the living standards enjoyed by the aftluent
nations. The pessimists would say that this is impossible, since the
known reserves of almost every mineral are insufficient to allow
expansion of production on the scale that would be required. This
may be true, but to be over-pessimistic is to ignore a number of
factors. Firstly, it must be remembered that the world has passed
several 'deadlines' at which pundits in the past had predicted exhaus-
tion of the reserves of various natural resources. Discoveries of new
deposits have always managed to keep reserves in step with increas-
ing consumption. Secondly, advances in technology have made it
possible to work lower and lower grades so that material formerly
considered waste becomes the ore reserves of tomorrow. Mining
techniques have also improved so that underground mines have gone
deeper than ever before and opencast mines have become bigger and are
worked on a scale that would hardly have been imagined 50 years ago.
Thirdly, and very importantly, patterns of consumption change. Just
because the average person in Sweden accounts for 12 kg of primary
copper production per annum, for example, does not mean that the
impoverished inhabitant of a central Mrican state will have to consume
the same amount of copper to enjoy a good standard of living.
Aluminium was only used for a few specialized jobs 50 years ago, but
today it is the world's most important non-ferrous metal. Steel has been
considered the bell-wether of an economy, but production and con-
sumption have fallen well below forecasts made 30 or 40 years ago since
a number of traditional uses of steel have been replaced by new
materials such as plastics, aluminium and prestressed concrete which
were not envisaged at the time the forecasts were made. In the case of
tin, consumption today is only just over twice what it was in 1900 as a
result of substitutes that were not foreseen 75 years ago. Many of the
metal containers that are used to preserve beverages and foodstuffs are
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 21

now made of aluminium instead of tinplate. Also, as a result of improved

techniques, the tin coating used on tinplate today is much thinner than it
was in the past so that a given amount of tin goes further. Lead is another
metal whose traditional uses, such as plumbing and roofing, have been
replaced by substitutes so that production today is only four times what
it was in 1900. If lead accumulators used in vast numbers by the motor
industry are ever replaced, the demand for lead would drop drastically.
These are just some of the examples of changes in the patterns of
consumption that have occurred and will continue to occur.
Thus, the potential for mineral exploration is very good as new
discoveries will have to be made to keep pace with the increasing
demands of the developing and developed nations. Nevertheless,
short-term cyclical changes can have drastic effects on mineral
exploration and big slumps will occur in times of economic recession
due to shortages of funds. At times like these it is easy to be
pessimistic and feel that mineral exploration has a poor future,
but such times of depression are always short lived. Neverthe-
less, the extremely sensitive nature of mineral exploration to
economic change means that exploration geology can be a rather
precarious profession. 'Boom' times may also occur such as the
famous Australian nickel boom of the late 1960's, when an increase in
the free market price for nickel from £986 per ton in 1968 to £7000 per
ton in 1969 resulted in frantic speculation and much unsound
exploration activity. Such 'booms' are not really in the long-term
interests of the industry, however lucrative they may seem to geolo-
gists at the time. Ideally, a more balanced approach is required, but it
is difficult to see how it can be achieved. Systems pertaining in the
socialist countries with centrally controlled economies move some
way towards rationalizing mineral exploration, but there are other
disadvantages which may outweigh any gains.
Although it is certain that production of almost all minerals can be
increased significantly and exploration will result in future major
discoveries, it remains a fact that mineral resources are finite. There
is thus a pressing need to use the world's resources wisely and
conserve minerals for future generations. One way of doing this is to
recycle materials and it is interesting to note that this is already being
done on a large scale (Table 1.12).
In comparison to minerals, the future of energy supplies causes
much more concern. At the rate oil and natural gas are being con-
sumed, reserves may well be depleted in the not too distant future.
There is a very real need for the major energy consumers to conserve
energy and use it more wisely than is being done at present. N ever-
theless, further oilfields will be found by future petroleum exploration
and there are a number of alternative sources of energy which can be
22 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 1.12
USE OF SCRAP METALS BY WESTERN COUNTRIES

Scrap as % Scrap as %
of production of consumption

Tin 21 19
Zinc 16 16
Copper 43 49
Lead 37 31
Aluminium 20 17

Source: Metallgesellschaft AG, 1975

exploited on a much larger scale. These include hydro-electricity,

solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy and, most important of
all for the immediate future, atomic energy. Considerable amounts of
uranium will be required to meet the world's growing consumption of
atomic energy and the search for uranium deposits will account for a
large proportion of expenditure on mineral exploration. The biggest
problems with the widespread use of atomic energy are the threat of
the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the disposal of radioactive
wastes. It will be necessary to overcome these problems, however, if
the world is to cope with the so-called energy crisis.
Finally, it is worth considering another source of mineral wealth
which has not been exploited to any great extent-the sea. Plans are
well advanced to mine deep sea manganese nodules which contain
significant amounts of Ni, Cu, Zn and Co in addition to Mn. Metalli-
ferous muds or brines, similar to those of the Red Sea which contain
large tonnages at 1% Cu and 5% Zn (Bignell, 1975), might be located
by prospecting and worked in the future. In shallower offshore waters
a number of minerals are already being worked. These include sands
and gravels, calcium carbonate in the form of shells, shell sands,
aragonite muds and coral, iron sands (magnetite), cassiterite and
diamonds. There is considerable scope for expanding production and
working new minerals which will require concerted exploration
efforts (Siegel, 1971).

1.5 MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

There can be no doubt that the mining industry has earned itself a bad
reputation as a despoiler of the countryside. In many parts of the
world scarred hillsides, derelict buildings, slag heaps and sterile
ground are ugly reminders of past mining activities. Vast areas have
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION 23

been devastated by uncontrolled or poorly controlled strip mining and

pollution and contamination from smelters and tailings dams have
rendered good farmland unproductive. Not all mining activities need
be like this and there are numerous examples of mines all over the
world that are well planned and worked so as to make as little impact
on the countryside as possible. Nevertheless, it has become fashion-
able in many quarters to bandy about the word 'ecology' and con-
demn mining in general and mining companies in particular as des-
troyers of our natural heritage. Taken to the extreme this outlook is
quite absurd since our whole way of life in the modern world is
ultimately dependent on mining. Agricola even made this point to
critics in the sixteenth century:

If we remove metals from the service of man, all methods of protecting and
sustaining health and more carefully preserving the course of life are done
away with.
Much of the thinking of the anti-mining lobby was as illogical and
irrational then as it is now and some of the most outspoken critics are
people who more than most enjoy the benefits of our technological
age. Due to the depth of feeling that the subject of mining arouses,
explorationists often find themselves at the centre of controversy and
much bitter argument. To resolve many of the differences a more
balanced approach is needed. It can be conceded that certain areas of
natural beauty should be preserved from development of any kind,
but at the same time it must be recognized that metals and minerals
are a vital necessity and that mining of them can be controlled so that
relatively little damage is done to the environment. Even in the area
of a national park a mining operation can be conducted in such a
manner that its presence may be hardly noticed.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agricola (1550). De Re Metallica (translated by H. C. Hoover and L. H.

Hoover), Dover Publications, New York, 1950.
Archer, A. A. (1974). Progress and prospects of marine mining, Min. Mag.,
130(3), 150-163.
Bignell, R. D. (1975). Timing, distribution and origin of submarine mineraliza-
tion in the Red Sea, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 84, B1-6.
Bullard, E. (1974). Minerals from the deep sea, Endeavour, 33(119), 80-85.
Jones, M. J. (ed.) (1975). Minerals and the Environment, Instn. Min.
Metall., Lond., 803 pp.
Jones, W. R. (1955). Minerals in Industry (3rd edn), Penguin Books Ltd,
England, 238 pp.
24 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Mero, J. (1965). The Mineral Resources of the Sea, Elsevier, Amsterdam,

312 pp.
MetaIlgesellschaft AG (1975). Metal Statistics 1964-1974, Frankfurt am Main,
348 pp.
Rickard, T. A. (1932). Man and Metal. A History of Mining in Relation to the
Development of Civilization (2 vols.), McGraw-Hili Book Co., New York,
1068 pp.
Rickard, T. A. (1944). The Romance of Mining, The Macmillan Company of
Canada, Toronto, 450 pp.
Scientific American (1965). Technology and Economic Development, Penguin
Books Ltd, England, 237 pp.
Siegel, F. R. (1971). Marine geochemical prospecting-present and future,
Geochem. Explor. C.I.M. Spec. 11,251-257.
Skinner, B. J. (1976). Earth Resources (2nd edn), Prentice-Hall Inc., New
Jersey, 151 pp.
Street, A. and Alexander, W. (1976). Metals in the Service of Man (6th edn),
Penguin Books Ltd, England, 346 pp.
Tooms, J. S. (1972). Potentially exploitable marine minerals, Endeavour,
31(114), 113-117.
US Bureau of Mines (1975). Mineral Facts and Problems, US Dept. Interior,
US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1259 pp.
Warren, K. (1973). Mineral Resources, Penguin Books Ltd, England, 272 pp.
 CHAPTER 2

Geological Mapping and Prospecting

2.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND

PROSPECTING

With the rapid growth and development in the fields of applied

geochemistry and geophysics there is a tendency to underestimate the
importance of geological mapping and prospecting in mineral
exploration. It is not uncommon to find examples of exploration
projects where extensive areas have been covered by soil sampling
and have hardly even been visited by a geologist. Interesting and
important targets may be missed by the neglect of a fundamental
geological approach to exploration, for there are numerous examples
of outcropping mineral occurrences which do not show up on recon-
naissance geochemical surveys. In addition to the possibility of finding
areas of mineralization, geological mapping provides the necessary
framework within which an exploration programme can be conduct-
ed. Different types of mineralization tend to occur in definite geolog-
ical environments, and features such as faults, folds, zones of altera-
tion or particular lithologies may have important bearings on
mineralization and the recognition of such features in the field at the
reconnaissance stage may assist in defining target areas for detailed
investigation by more costly methods. In short, basic geological
mapping and prospecting must be regarded as the foundation of any
thorough exploration venture.
In the 1920's and 1930's a massive prospecting campaign was
carried out over a large part of what was then the British Protectorate
of Northern Rhodesia and today is the independent nation of Zambia.
The discoveries of rich copper deposits in what is now the Copperbelt
of Zaire and Zambia were a strong stimulus to mineral exploration in
this large and at that time virtually unmapped territory. The whole
operation was conducted on the lines of a military campaign with the
object of systematically mapping and prospecting all potentially in-
teresting areas. Field parties consisting of two or more geologists
25
26 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

together with large numbers of assistants and labourers were assigned

to various parts of the country. After cutting two parallel base lines 5
miles (8 km) apart, traverses were run along cut lines at quarter-mile
(400 m) or half-mile (800 m) intervals between base lines. Geologists
working in pairs traversed alternate lines as a control to the mapping,
and flank men walking 100 m or more on either side of the traverse
lines searched for outcrops so that each traverse effectively covered a
swath of country at least 200 m wide. Samples were taken from all
mineralized outcrops and float and sent to headquarters for analysis,
panned concentrates were collected from streams, pits were dug in
areas of poor exposure and all gossans and many quartz veins were
sampled. Although the field parties worked in the bush, often in
remote areas for many months at a time, contact was maintained with
headquarters at the end of each month by a messenger service
carrying reports and samples. All information from the field was
collated at the main office where the final geological and mineral
occurrence maps were prepared. Although no producing mines were
discovered off the Copperbelt as an immediate result of this work, the
campaign produced the first detailed geological, albeit essentially
lithological, map of a large part of the country which has been
improved only in recent years. In addition to the major deposits
discovered on the Copperbelt itself, the work laid down the basic
geological framework which made subsequent major discoveries
possible.
Although no one would advocate strictly following this line of
approach today, since modern methods of geochemistry, geophysics,
remote sensing and greatly improved aerial photography have put
mineral exploration on a much sounder scientific basis than in the
1930's, it must always be remembered that discoveries are made on
the ground and not in offices or field camps. Field assistants and
samplers who are engaged in routine sampling should have impressed
upon them that the job entails far more than collecting a certain
number of samples per day. They should note all outcrops on their
traverses as a matter of course and should be taught the recognition
of common ore minerals as well as the importance of noting anything
unusual such as conspicuous iron staining. It is often advantageous to
pay a bonus for all finds of mineral showings and even finds of
outcrop in areas of very poor exposure. Any outcrops or features of
possible interest found by field assistants or prospectors while laying
out a soil sampling grid, for example, can be visited by a geologist at a
later date and examined in detail if necessary. Even in areas of poor
exposure, careful and detailed float mapping may be instrumental in
finding an ore body. In areas of Scandinavia covered by glacial till,
the tracing of the provenance of mineralized float in boulder trains by
thorough and systematic prospecting and mapping has contributed to
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 27

the discovery of a number of deposits (Grip, 1953; Hyvarinen et ai,

1973).
A good example of a recent successful intensive prospecting pro-
gramme is the discovery of the Windarra nickel deposits in Western
Australia (Robinson et ai, 1973). Using available aerial magnetic data
and the government geological maps all magnetic anomalies and
ultrabasic rocks were systematically examined on the ground by Ken
Shirley, a local prospector. As it is very difficult to distinguish
between laterite, weathered iron formation and gossan in the area,
Shirley sampled all interesting ferruginous rocks. All localities were
numbered and pegged and carefully described in a field notebook. The
samples were analyzed for copper and nickel and claims were staked
over all ultrabasics with anomalous values. Shirley recognized the
Windarra claims as the most interesting and a nickel ore body was
confirmed after further sampling, geophysical surveys and drilling
carried out by an exploration company.
The importance of geological mapping and conventional prospect-
ing in mineral exploration is pointed out in an interesting paper by
Derry (1968). Of 76 discoveries made in Canada between 1951 and
1966, during which time both geochemistry and geophysics were
being widely employed, 27 discoveries were directly attributed to
prospecting, 23 to geology, 25 to geophysics and only one to geo-
chemistry; that is, two thirds of all discoveries were due to geology
and prospecting. In other parts of the world a similar situation exists,
though the importance of the roles of geophysics and geochemistry
is often reversed, as for example in central Africa where geophysics
has met with little success and geochemistry has proved extremely
useful. In southern Africa of the 20 base metal mine discoveries made
between 1954 and 1974 only two, Selebi-Pikwe (Cu-Ni) in Botswana
and Shangani (Ni) in Rhodesia, had no surface expression (Buhlmann
et ai, 1974).
No particular technique is required for mapping in economic
geology except to be extra alert to the recognition of minerals of
possible economic interest. For reference some standard geological
symbols are given in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2. A number of simple, reliable,
chemical field tests for the identification of various elements and
minerals are given in the following section, the only equipment
required being several test tubes (2 x 20 cm is a useful size), a spirit
lamp and a number of readily available reagents.

Some useful field tests

Beryl
A useful test to distinguish beryl from quartz or feldspar is to place
the grains to be tested in a test tube, add a solution of sodium
28 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

0
,', . . '. soil cover § slote, phyllite

E:d
-- ~
olluvium §
[Z]
•
o
0
0
0
conQlomerote
D o "
hornfels

L2J
.~.~ : ::'. -:.:.',
sondstone §- - Qneiss, schist

III shole
~-~

~ limestone or dolomite (Z]

+ -+
-+ -+
-+
Qromte

~ ~
_. _ . . ,. sondy shole ~ )(

" x x

Et5d
. . . .-
Bondy limestone hypobyssol rocks

, ,
~ mosslve limestone basic rocks
J J

~ orQilioceous limestone

~ cherty limestone
0 y
y
y
Y
v
volconic rocks

[ZJ
• • breccio

FIG. 2.1. Some standard lithological symbols.

 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 29

hydroxide and boil for several minutes. Drain off the liquid, add an
aqueous solution of quinalizarin and boil for several minutes. Any
grains of beryl present will be stained an intense blue. Feldspar may
take on a violet stain, but it is not permanent and will disappear with
continued boiling.

Cassiterite
Place the grains to be tested in a test tube together with some
powdered zinc. Add dilute hydrochloric acid and leave to react for
several minutes. Any grains that become a dull silvery grey (due to a
coating of metallic tin) are cassiterite. If the cassiterite grains are
coated with iron oxides, positive results may not be obtained. This
can be overcome, however, by heating the grains in concentrated
hydrochloric acid before carrying out the test. Instead of using
powdered zinc it is convenient to place the grains to be tested in
a zinc cup to which the dilute hydrochloric acid can be added. Heavy
zinc cups can be used for many tests before they are finally etched
through by the acid. This test is diagnostic for cassiterite.

Copper
Place fragments to be tested in a test tube. Add 2-3 ml concentrated
nitric acid and boil gently for a few minutes. Dilute to double volume
with water and slowly add 1-2 ml concentrated ammonia solution. A
deep blue solution indicates copper.

Manganese oxides
Place a few drops of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution on the grains to
be tested. Effervescence without any noticeable attack of the grains
confirms the presence of one of the manganese oxides: hausmanite,
manganite, psilomelane or pyrolusite.

Nickel
Place the grains to be tested in a test tube and add 1 ml concentrated
nitric acid and 3 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid. Boil gently for
several minutes and dilute to double volume with water. Add 1 ml of
1% dimethyl-glyoxime (DMG) solution in 50: 50 ammonia and alcohol.
A scarlet precipitate indicates nickel. Iron, copper and cobalt inter-
fere to some extent with this test, but cobalt and copper give a brown
colour and ferrous iron a red-violet colour. Concentrated ammonia
can be added instead of the DMG solution. This gives a blue-green
solution if nickel is present.

Niobium
Carry out the test as for tungsten. A blue solution which disappears
on dilution indicates the presence of niobium.
30 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

LITHOLOGICAL CONTACTS

- - - -- certain

- -- -------- approximate

.................. .. .. .. inferred

1111111111 11111111 1111 1111 lin gradational

FOLDS

15 <l<l- --1&:r-- - anticline (shawing plunge)

15 <l--~X:------ syncline (showing plunge)

ft overturned anticline

n overturned syncline

plunge of minor fold axis

----3---+ 15 anticline

FAULTS
definite (showing downthrown side)

- - - - - - - - inferred

--~<~~-- wrench (showing direction of

movement)
• • • • • • thrust (teeth in upper plate)

~ shearzone

FIG. 2.2. Standard geological symbols.

 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 31

STRIKE AND DIP SYMBOLS

Cleavage or
BeddinSi Foliation Joints or veins schisfositl
35 35 35
strike and dip ~ "- '-4.... ~

horizontal
vertical
+
-+-
+ +
--+-- ~
+
---&-

overturned -4-
35

OTHER SYMBOLS

c:::.-------::. :...
.. linear trend from ............. 30 lineation
aerial photoC,;lraph <!> vertical
+-+ horizontal
..Ii!i" glacial striae
30
,/' to show dip of faults. veins,
dykes, peC,;lmatites. etc.

Letters may be used with the symbols for fu rther clarification.

For examp Ie: v
",'}s 'rain-slip
t · · cleavage
h ~'l.O mineral lineation
;Y . (hornblende)

Some of the symbols may be combined.

For example: h., lineation trend in plane of foliation

FIG. 2.2.-contd.

Phosphate
Place the grains to be tested in a test tube and add 2-3 ml concen-
trated nitric acid. Boil gently for a few minutes and dilute to double
volume. Add 1-2 ml 6% ammonium molybdate solution. A bright
yellow, cloudy precipitate indicates phosphate. On first adding the
ammonium molybdate reagent, it may appear as though a yellow
solution has formed, but the fine precipitate will soon be seen as a
cloudy suspension and as a coating on the test tube wall. The
presence of arsenates will also result in the formation of a yellow
precipitate.
32 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Titanium
Carry out the test as for tungsten. A violet solution indicates the
presence of titanium.

Tungsten
Crush the grains to be tested, mix with an equal amount of sodium
carbonate and place in a test tube. Fuse strongly for several minutes.
Allow to cool and add 6 ml water and 3 ml concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Drop two or three small granules of tin into the test tube and
boil strongly for about five minutes. An inky blue, cloudy solution,
which retains its colour after dilution with an equal volume of water,
indicates the presence of tungsten. The 'solution' is in fact a fine
precipitate which becomes apparent upon dilution and will settle out
if left for several hours.

Uranium
Place the grains to be tested in a test tube and add 2-3 ml of
concentrated nitric acid. Boil gently for several minutes and dilute
with water to two to three times original volume. Allow to settle,
decant several ml of solution to a clean test tube and slowly add
concentrated ammonia solution. A pale yellow, flocculent precipitate
indicates uranium.

Vanadium
Carry out the test as for tungsten, but add powdered zinc instead of
tin. A blue solution which turns to green and then to blue-violet
indicates the presence of vanadium.

For more thorough and detailed testing an excellent scheme for the
identification of mineral grains is given by Jones and Fleming (1965)
and is based on the systematic grouping of specific gravity, refractive
index, hardness, colour of powder, magnetic permeability and chem-
ical reaction with various concentrated acids; spot tests to confirm the
presence of a number of elements are also described. In addition to
these various testing procedures, grains of transparent minerals can
be readily identified by crushing them on a glass slide, adding a drop
of clove oil (refractive index similar to Canada balsam) and applying
routine optical mineralogical techniques with a petrographic micro-
scope. The phenomenon of fluorescence exhibited by some minerals
when irradiated by ultra-violet rays can also be of use in mineral
identification. Scheelite, hydrozincite and secondary uranium
minerals almost always fluoresce and a wide range of minerals exhibit
the property, but often only in rare instances and to varying degrees
depending upon the locality and impurities. If it is known that a
mineral from a particular locality fluoresces, it can be a valuable aid
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 33

in prospecting. Table 2.1 lists a number of minerals and their colours

of fluorescence.
In addition to the recognition of mineralization particular attention
should be paid to certain significant features depending upon the area
and environment. For example, it may be known that lead-zinc
mineralization in a certain district is associated with a shale/dolomite
contact, or that copper mineralization occurs in a definite sedimentary
unit. Another example is the recognition of potassic metasomatic
alteration which is often associated with porphyry copper deposits.
There are numerous other examples and in all instances the geologist
should pay particular heed to the features considered to be of most
importance in the area concerned. For reference a list of elements
and the types of deposits in which they occur are given in Table 2.2.

TABLE 2.1
SOME FLUORESCENT MINERALS UNDER SHORT WAVELENGTH (2500,.\)
ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT (FROM SMITH, \953).

Mineral Colour Remarks concerning fluorescence

Autunite* yellow-green very common

Calcite red, pink,
yellow, not common
rarely blue
Fluorite blue or common (better under
cream yellow long wavelength-3 OOOA)
Gummite* violet very common
Gypsum green rare
Halite red rare
Hydrozincite blue very common
Monazite emerald green rare
Powellite yellow to very common
greenish-yellow
Scapolite bright yellow, common
(Wernerite) sometimes red
Scheelite bluish-white very common-becomes yellowish
with impurities (usually Mo)
Sphalerite bright orange rare
Spodumene red common
Strontianite bluish-green not common
Torbernite* yellow-green very common
Uranophane* yellow-green very common
Willemite green common
Zippeite* yellowish very common
Zircon orange common

*Secondary uranium minerals

34 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2
LIST OF ELEMENTS AND THE TYPES OF ORE DEPOSITS IN WHICH THEY
OCCUR. THE HEADINGS SHOULD NOT BE REGARDED AS FIRM GENETIC
CLASSIFICATIONS, BUT RATHER AS A LISTING OF GEOLOGICAL
ENVIRONMENTS, AS THERE IS A GREAT DEAL OF CONTROVERSY IN THE
GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF MANY DEPOSITS. MINIMUM ECONOMIC
GRADES ARE ALSO INDICATED IN MOST CASES, BUT THESE FIGURES
SHOULD ONLY BE REGARDED AS A ROUGH GUIDE AS THE ECONOMIC
VIABILITY OF ANY PARTICULAR DEPOSIT DEPENDS UPON MANY LOCAL
FACTORS. TYPES OF DEPOSITS OF PARTICULAR IMPORTANCE ARE IN-
DICATED BY THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS.

ALUMINIUM
1. Weathering 2. Magmatic
BAUXITE* FORMED BY Alumina-rich rocks such as
WEATHERING OF anorthosites and nepheline syenites
FELDSPATHIC OR NEPHELINE- which contain more than 20% Ah03
BEARING ROCKS, ALSO OFTEN have been used as a source of
RESIDUAL DEPOSITS OVER aluminium in the USSR.
LIMESTONE AS IN JAMAICA.
(45-50% Ah03, <20% Fe 203, 3-5% 4. Metamorphic
Si02 ) The aluminium silicates andalusite,
sillimanite and kyanite (AhSiO s) are
3. Hydrothermal all potential sources of aluminium.
The mineral, alunite They are not economic at present,
(KAh(S04h(OHM, which forms as a but processes to extract alumina
hydrothermal alteration product of have been worked out.
trachytes and rhyolites in some
volcanic regions, contains up to 37%
Ah03 and could be used as a source
of aluminium.

*Bauxite is an earthy grey, brown, yellow or red-brown mixture of clays, free

silica, iron hydroxides and the aluminium hydroxides gibbsite, boehemite and
diaspore.

ANTIMONY
1. Hydrothermal
STIBNITE OCCURS IN QUARTZ-
STIBNITE VEINS. Stibnite and
other antimony minerals occur in
association with lead, lead-zinc,
silver and copper (tetrahedrite) ores
(ores generally> 4% Sb).
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 35

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

BARIUM
1. Hydrothermal 2. Sedimentary
BARITE and witherite IN VEIN Barite often occurs in limestone or
DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH shale beds where it may form
LEAD-ZINC OR FLUORITE. important deposits.
(> 93% BaS04, SG > 4· 5) 4. Magmatic
3. Weathering Barite and witherite occur in
Since barite is a resistant mineral, carbonatites, often in significant
important residual deposits may amounts, but it is generally late stage
result from the weathering of and much of it may be considered to
sedimentary or vein deposits. be hydrothermal.

BERYLLIUM
1. Pegmatites 2. Pneumatolytic
OCCURS IN GRANITIC Beryl and other beryllium minerals
PEGMATITES AS BERYL occur in quartz-muscovite and
(Be3AhS~018)-also as other quartz-topaz greisens associated
berylosilicates which may be of with cassiterite and wolfram. Not an
importance. Beryllium minerals also economic source of beryllium at
occur in alkaline pegmatites, but present.
none of the associations with
alkaline rocks has proved
economic. (Saleable ore> 10% BeO,
grades worked> 0·1% BeO)
3. Metamorphic
Beryl occurs as possible 'skarn-type'
deposits in limestones and schists.
IMPORTANT FOR EMERALDS
where traces of Cr give the beryl its
green colour.
BISMUTH
1. Hydrothermal 2. Pegmatites
Generally occurs in veins associated Native bismuth, bismuthinite and
with minerals of Sn, Cu, Ag, W, Au. bismutite occur in some pegmatites.
Most commercial Bi is obtained as a Small amounts are occasionally won
by-product of lead refining and by small-workers from these
copper, gold, tin and tungsten pegmatite sources.
mining. With the exception of a few
very small deposits, there are no
mines worked for Bi alone. The main
minerals are native bismuth,
bismuthinite (BbS3), bismutite
(BbCOs.H20).
36 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

BORON
1. Sedimentary 2. Volcanogenic
BORATES SUCH AS BORAX Boric acid (sassoline) (H3 B03) also
(Na2B4 0 7 .10H 20), KERNITE occurs around fumaroles and in
(Na2B4 0 7 .4H20) AND waters of hot springs of volcanic
COLEMANITE (Ca2~OIl.5H20) areas. Not an economic source at
OCCUR IN PLAYA-DEPOSITS present.
DERIVED FROM OLD SALT
LAKES (>45% B20 S required). Also
occurs as borates such as ulexite and
boracite in lenses within evaporite
deposits.

CADMIUM
1. Hydrothermal 2. Sedimentary
Mainly associated with lead-zinc Associated with lead-zinc
deposits, rarely as greenockite (CdS) mineralization as for hydrothermal
in vein deposits (> 0·1 % Cd required deposits.
to be worthwhile as a by-product).

CARBON (DIAMONDS AND GRAPHITE)

1. Magmatic 3. Weathering
Diamonds occur in kimberlites Important alluvial diamond deposits
(economic grades depend on quality occur in many parts of the world.
and size of stones, but usually> 0·4- 4. Hydrothermal
1·8 carats per tonne; 5 carats = 1 g) Graphite may occur in vein deposits
Graphite sometimes occurs in some of which are economic sources
igneous rocks. of good quality graphite.
2. Metamorphic 5. Pegmatites
Graphite is a common constituent of Small amounts of graphite sometimes
many schists, limestones and occur in pegmatites.
gneisses. Sometimes the graphite
content can be quite high (grades
usually> 25% C to be economic;
pencil graphite > 83% C; reactor
graphite 97-99% C).

CHROMIUM
1. Magmatic 1. Magmatic (Contd.)
CHROMITE OCCURS IN CHROMITE SEAMS OR PODS
LAYERED ULTRABASIC ARE GENERALLY REQUIRED
INTRUSIVES AND IN ALPINE TO BE ECONOMIC, BUT
ULTRABASIC BODIES. PURE DISSEMINATED CHROMITE
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 37

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

CHROMIUM (Contd.)
1. Magmatic (Contd.) 2. Placers
ORES ARE WORKED IN Being a resistant mineral chromite
FINLAND. (Metallurgical grade has been concentrated in detrital
>42% Cr2 03 and Cr:Fe>2·S:1, sands at a few localities, but none of
high grade Cr: Fe > 3 : 1 and these deposits is of real economic
Cr2 03 > SO%; refractory grade importance.
Cr:Fe<2·S:1.)

COBALT
1. Hydrothermal 2. Sedimentary
Cobalt occurs in vein deposits as the Minor amounts of cobalt often occur
arsenide smaltite (CoAs2) and the in stratiform sulphide deposits which
sulpharsenide cobaltite (CoAsS) may be syrlgenetic in origin.
associated with Ag, Ni and Cu. Cobaltiferous pyrite and sulphides
such as linnaeite (C03 S4) and
3. Magmatic carrolite (CUC02 S4) occur with
Cobaltiferous pyrrhotite may occur copper sulphides. (>0·2% Co
in nickel sulphide deposits such as at generally required for recovery as a
Sudbury, Ontario. by-product.) Manganese nodules
4. Volcanogenic from the seabed often contain
Cobaltiferous pyrite sometimes significant amounts of cobalt and
occurs in massive sulphide deposits may be an important future source.
in sedimentary-volcanic associations. S. Weathering
Lateritic cobalt deposits analogous to
lateritic nickel deposits sometimes
form over cobalt-rich basic and
ultrabasic rocks. Asbolite is a cobalt-
rich manganese wad found in such
deposits.

COPPER
1. Sedimentary 2. Hydrothermal (Contd.)
THE LARGE STRATIFORM GENERALLY ASSOCIATED
COPPER DEPOSITS IN SHALES WITH GRANODIORITE AND
AND SANDSTONES ARE A QUARTZ MONZONITE
VERY IMPORTANT SOURCE OF INTRUSIONS ARE EXTREMELY
COPPER. (Grades typically vary IMPORTANT SOURCES OF
from O·S to 5·0%, but at least 1% is COPPER. (Grades typically vary
usually required to be economic.) from 0·2 to 1·0%, but at least 0·5% is
2. Hydrothermal usually required to be economic.)
THE LARGE LOW-GRADE Copper minerals occur in a wide
PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS range of vein deposits often
38 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

COPPER (Contd.)
2. Hydrothermal (Contd.) 4. Magmatic
associated with zinc, lead, gold and Chalcopyrite occurs with pyrrhotite
silver. SOME VEIN DEPOSITS and pentlandite in magmatic
ARE IMPORTANT COPPER segregation deposits such as at
ORES. Sudbury, Ontario, and at many of the
3. Volcanogenic smaller Archaean nickel deposits.
Copper occurs in massive sulphide 5. Metamorphic
deposits associated with volcanic Sulphide minerals occur in many
rocks such as the cupriferous pyrite skarn deposits around igneous
deposits of Cyprus and the massive intrusions. Most of these deposits
sulphide deposits of the Canadian are small and irregular, but some are
Shield. Sulphides include pyrite, important sources of copper.
pyrrhotite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite Sulphide minerals include pyrite,
and galena. (Copper contents sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite and
typically range from 0·5 to 2·0%.) bornite.

FLUORINE
1. Hydrothermal 2. Pegmatites
VEIN DEPOSITS OFfEN Fluorite occurs in many pegmatites,
ASSOCIATED WITH LEAD-ZINC but it is not an important source.
AND BARIUM. (25-40% CaF2
4. Magmatic
required, > 5% CaF2 as a by-product; Small amounts of fluorite. occur in
acid grade 97-98% CaF2 ; some granites. No economic deposits
metallurgical grade > 60% CaF2 .)
known.
Also late-stage hydrothermal
deposits associated with some 5. Sedimentary
carbonatites. Fluorite cements are known in some
sandstones. No economic deposits
3. Pneumatolytic
known.
Fluorite often occurs in gneisens
with cassiterite, topaz and
tourmaline. Not an important source.

GERMANIUM
1. Hydrothermal 2. Sedimentary
Ge occurs in some vein-type deposits Ge occurs in quite high
as the minerals germanite-Cu3(Fe, concentrations. in certain coal ashes.
Ge, Zn, Ga) (S, AS)4-and renierite-
(Cu, FeMFe, Ge, Zo, Sn) (S, AS)4.

GOLD
1. Sedimentary 1. Sedimentary (Contd.)
GOLD OCCURS IN ANCIENT BE CLASSED AS FOSSIL
CONGLOMERATES WHICH CAN PLACERS. Very finely disseminated
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 39

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

GOLD (Contd.)
1. Sedimentary (Contd.) 2. Hydrothermal
gold may occur in argillaceous GOLD OCCURS IN QUARTZ
limestones as at Carlin, Nevada. VEINS, often with sulphides,
(> 10 g/t, lower grades sometimes sometimes with copper, silver,
worked.) bismuth and tungsten minerals. Some
3. Placer vein deposits contain gold tellurides.
Alluvial gold deposits are quite GOLD OFfEN OCCURS IN
common and SOME ARE PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
IMPORT ANT SOURCES. (generally <0·5 g/t) WHICH
CONSTITUTE AN IMPORTANT
4. Volcanogenic SOURCE-RECOVERED DURING
Traces of gold sometimes occur in SMELTING AND REFINING.
massive sulphide deposits and can be
recovered as a by-product during
smelting and refining.

IRON
1. Sedimentary 2. Magmatic
PRECAMBRIAN IRON Large magmatic segregations of
FORMATIONS (taconite, itabirite, magnetite may form important iron
jaspilite) ARE EXTREMELY ore deposits AS AT KIRUNA,
IMPORTANT SOURCES OF IRON SWEDEN. Associated with basic
ORE. IRON OCCURS AS and syenitic intrusions (grades up to
HAEMATITE AND MAGNETITE, 70% Fe, often contaminated with Ti
also as siderite, limonite, pyrite and and P).
iron silicates. (20--65% Fe, ores
worked at 30%, but > 60% required 3. Metamorphic
for export.) Skarn-type deposits of magnetite
Phanerozoic deposits include the often associated with basic and
oolitic iron ores containing syenitic intrusions (grades up to 70%,
chamosite, goethite, haematite, often deleterious contaminants such
siderite and the black-band iron as P and S).
mudstones containing siderite «50% 4. Weathering
Fe). IMPORTANT SOURCES IN Tropical weathering of iron-rich
SOME INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES rocks may result in formation of
(ores worked at 30% Fe). laterite iron ores. CAN BE AN
Bog iron deposits formed by IMPORTANT SOURCE.
precipitation of ferric oxides and
hydroxides in bogs and lakes. 5. Hydrothermal
Generally small and low grade-only Haematite of probable hydrothermal
of minor economic significance. origin occurs as replacements in
sediments such as limestone, also
occurs in veins. Often an economic
source.
40 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

LEAD
1. Sedimentary 2. Hydrothermal
IMPORT ANT STRATIFORM VEIN DEPOSITS IN WHICH
LEAD-ZINC ORES OCCUR IN GALENA AND OTHER LEAD
CARBON ATE SEDIMENTS. MINERALS MAY OCCUR WITH
Galena sometimes occurs SPHALERITE, CHALCOPYRITE,
disseminated in sandstones. (Grades TETRAHEDRITE, SILVER
usually> 5% Pb to be economic.) MINERALS, FLUORITE, BARITE
ARE IMPORTANT SOURCES OF
3. Volcanogenic
LEAD. EXTENSIVE
Small amounts of galena occur in
REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS MAY
some massive sulphide deposits in
OCCUR IN COUNTRY ROCKS,
volcano-sedimentary sequences.
PARTICULARLY CARBONATES.
4.Metamorphic
Galena may occur in contact
metamorphic deposits with other
sulphides such as chalcopyrite,
pyrite, sphalerite and bornite.

LITHIUM
1. Pegmatites
Occurs as a number of lithium-
bearing minerals in many granitic
pegmatites. Minerals include
spodumene (LiAISh06), amblygonite
(Li(F,OH)AIP04), petalite
(LiAIS40to) and lepidolite (lithium
mica). (Saleable ore: >4% Li02 .)

MAGNESIUM
1. Sedimentary 2. Hydrothermal
THE MAIN SOURCE OF Magnesite (MgC03) and brucite
MAGNESIUM METAL IS SEA (Mg(OHM formed as a result of
WATER WHICH CONTAINS hydrothermal alteration of rocks
ABOUT 0·5% MgCb. Magnesium such as serpentinites which are rich
salts used in industry are obtained in magnesium silicates. They may
from evaporite deposits which may also be formed as a result of the
contain minerals such as epsomite action of hydrothermal fluids on
(MgS04.7H20), kieserite limestones and dolomites. Used as
(MgS04.H20) and carnallite sources of metal, but main uses as
(Mg02.KO.6H20). industrial minerals. (Grade required:
>40% MgO.)
3. Metamorphic
Periclase (MgO) and brucite found in
some contact metamorphosed
carbonate rocks.
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 41

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

MANGANESE
1. Sedimentary 2. Weathering
MANGANESE OXIDE IMPORTANT ORES ARE
MINERALS- PYROLUSITE, FORMED BY THE WEATHERING
PSILOMELANE, BRAUNITE, AND SECONDARY
MANGANITE, WAD*-OCCUR IN ENRICHMENT OF LOWER
LARGE IMPORTANT GRADE PRIMARY DEPOSITS.
SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS THE MINERALS IN THESE
SOMETIMES ASSOCIATED WITH LATERITIC DEPOSITS INCLUDE
PYROCLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND WAD*, BRAUNITE,
SOMETIMES WITH PSILOMELANE, HAUSMANITE,
SEDIMENTARY IRON DEPOSITS RHODOCHROSITE.
(ores worked at 20% Mn, saleable
4. Hydrothermal
ore: >45% Mn).
Some manganese minerals such as
Smaller bog-manganese deposits may
rhodochrosite, rhodonite and
form by the precipitation of man-
hausmanite may occur in vein
ganese oxides in lakes and swamps.
deposits. Rarely of any importance.
3. Metamorphic Many vein-like deposits are of
The metamorphism of low-grade doubtful hydrothermal origin.
sedimentary or residual deposits may
result in workable deposits of
braunite, hausmanite and other
manganese minerals.
Some manganese minerals such as
rhodonite, rhodochrosite and
hausmanite are formed by
metasomatism or contact
metamorphism, but are of little
importance as ores.
* W AD-a mixture of oxides and hydrous oxides of manganese analogous to
limonite.

MERCURY
1. Hydrothermal
Cinnabar occurs in epithermal
deposits as disseminations and small
veins often in association with
pyrite, native mercury, stibnite and
realgar. (Ores generally 0·6-2'0% Hg,
very rarely up to 6%.)
Small amounts of mercury may also
occur in 'grey copper' ores where it
may be produced as a by-product,
though it is generally considered a
deleterious contaminant.
42 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

MOLYBDENUM
1. Hydrothermal 2. Magmatic
MOLYBDENITE OCCURS IN Molybdenite often occurs
DEPOSITS IMTIMATELY disseminated in acid igneous
ASSOCIATED WITH ACID intrusives.
IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS SUCH
3. Pegmatites
AS AT CLIMAX, COLORADO,
Molybdenite may occur in
WHERE MOLYBDENITE
pegmatites which are often rich and
OCCURS IN QUARTZ VEINLETS
may contain large, coarse
IN GRANITE. MANY PORPHYRY
molybdenite crystals. Due to the
COPPER DEPOSITS ALSO
small size of such deposits they are
CONT AIN MOLYBDENUM
not an important source and are
WHICH IS A VALUABLE BY-
generally sub-economic.
PRODUCT. (Economic grades
usually> 0·06% MoS 2 .)
Molybdenite often occurs in deep-
seated veins associated with
scheelite, wolframite, topaz and fluorite.
4. Metamorphic
Molybdenite occurs in some contact
metamorphic deposits together with
other sulphides and sometimes
scheelite. These occurrences are not
of economic importance.
NICKEL
1. Magmatic 2. Weathering
MASSIVE SULPHIDE DEPOSITS Tropical weathering of nickel-rich
CONTAINING PYRRHOTITE, ultrabasic rocks may result in the
PENTLANDITE AND OTHER formation of important lateritic
MINOR SULPHIDES MAY BE nickel ores with silicate minerals
ASSOCIATED WITH NORITIC such as garnierite and genthite as in
INTRUSIVES AS AT SUDBURY, Cuba and New Caledonia. (Grades
ONTARIO, OR WITH SMALLER generally vary from 0·3% to 3%, but
ULTRABASIC BODIES IN may reach 10%.)
ARCHAEAN BLOCKS AS IN
WESTERN AUSTRALIA OR IN 3. Hydrothermal
'MOBILE BELTS' ADJACENT TO Minor amounts of nickel sulphides
ARCHAEAN BELTS AS IN and arsenides occur in a number of
MANITOBA. Small minor deposits vein deposits associated with cobalt,
have been found associated with silver and copper. Only of minor
younger basic/ultrabasic intrusives. importance.
(Grades vary typically from 0·5-5%
Ni, usually 1· 5% required to be
economic.)
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 43

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

NIOBIUM
1. Magmatic 2. Weathering
THE NIOBATE MINERAL LARGE RESERVES OF
PYROCHLORE OCCURS IN PYROCHLORE OCCUR IN
CARBONATITES AND OTHER ELUVIAL DEPOSITS OF
ALKALINE ROCKS AND IS NOW RESIDUAL SOIL FORMED OVER
THE MAIN SOURCE OF CARBONATES IN TROPICAL
NIOBIUM. CARBONATITES REGIONS. (Grades enriched with
REPRESENT IMMENSE respect to parent carbonatite.)
POTENTIAL RESERVES. Columbite also occurs in some
Columbite also occurs in some eluvial deposits formed from
granites and alkaline rocks. pegmatites.
(Economic grade at least 0·2%
Nb2 0 5.)
3. Pegmatites
Columbite-(Fe, Mn)Nb2 0 6-oCCurs
in granitic pegmatites often in
association with cassiterite and beryl.
Once an important source. Often a
by-product of tin mining.

PHOSPHORUS
1. Sedimentary 2. Magmatic (Contd.)
THE MOST IMPORTANT occur in association with alkaline
SOURCES OF PHOSPHATE ARE complexes and carbonatites. AN
THE EXTENSIVE BEDDED IMPORTANT SOURCE IN SOME
ROCK PHOSPHATE OR P ARTS OF THE WORLD. (Rocks
PHOSPHORITE DEPOSITS SUCH at 5% P 2 0 5 can be worked under
AS THOSE IN NORTH AFRICA favourable circumstances.)
OR THE UNITED STATES. 3. Weathering
THESE DEPOSITS ARE OF Weathering of apatite-bearing rocks
MARINE ORIGIN AND
PHANEROZOIC IN AGE. Late may result in residual accumulations.
Important deposits have formed over
Precambrian and freshwater deposits
do occur. Some rock phosphate carbonatites in some parts of the
world. (Material> 10% P 20 5
deposits are due to diagenetic
replacement of existing sediments. worked.) The leaching of guano
(> 30% P 20 5 required.) deposits on some desert islands has
resulted in enriched and valuable
2. Magmatic deposits.
Apatite is a common accessory of
many igneous rocks. Phosphorus is 4. Pegmatites
enriched in alkaline rocks in Concentrations of apatite occur in
particular and apatite-rich rocks and some pegmatites and can sometimes
even rocks formed wholly of apatite be worked.
44 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

PLATINUM
1. Magmatic 2. Placer
NATIVE PLATINUM, THE A number of the minerals of the Pt-
ARSENIDE, SPERRYLITE, group metals occur in alluvial
TOGETHER WITH MANY OTHER deposits derived from ultrabasic
LESSER KNOWN PLATINUM- bodies containing Pt-group elements.
GROUP MINERALS OCCUR IMPORTANT DEPOSITS OCCUR
DISSEMINATED IN BASIC AND IN THE USSR.
ULTRABASIC ROCKS SUCH AS
3. Hydrothermal
IN THE BUSHVELD COMPLEX.
Small amounts of Pt-group elements
PLATINUM ALSO OCCURS IN occur at a few hydrothermal copper
MAGMATIC NICKEL SULPHIDE deposits. The origin of such
DEPOSITS SUCH AS SUDBURY, mineralization may be due to the
ONTARIO. (Grades worked range hydrothermal leaching of Pt-bearing
from 4-12g/t Pt-group, production as basic rocks.
by-product from lower grades.)

POTASSIUM
1. Sedimentary 2. Hydrothermal
Potassium minerals such as sylvite Alunite (KAl3(S04MOH)6) is formed
(KO), carnallite (KO.Mg02 .6H20), as a hydrothermal alteration of
kainite (KCl.MgS04.3H2 0) and poly- trachytes and rhyolites. It can be
halite (K 2 S04.MgS04.2CaS04.2H20) used as a source of potash.
occur in many evaporite deposits
which are the major source of
potash.

RARE EARTHS
1. Magmatic 2. Placer
Monazite and other rare earth Monazite occurs as an accessory
minerals occur in carbonatites which mineral in many acid and alkaline
can be an important source. (> 2% rocks and important detrital deposits
RE2 0 3 usually required to be may be formed. Monazite sands are
economic, much lower grades can be worked at a number of localities
worked as a by-product.) Quite high (> 3% monazite is economic).
rare earth concentrations can occur
in apatite and can be extracted as a
by-product of phosphate production
from apatite.
3. Pegmatites
Monazite occurs in some
pegmatites-sometimes an economic
source.
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 45

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

SILVER
1. Hydrothermal 2. Sedimentary
The major part of silver production Silver is often produced as a by-
is obtained as a by-product from product from stratiform lead-zinc
lead, zinc, copper and gold ores. and copper deposits. Silver is also
Silver minerals including native produced from auriferous
silver, argentite (A~S), stephanite conglomerate deposits where it may
(AgsSbS4), pyrargyrite (Ag3 SbS3) and occur in natural alloy with gold.
proustite (Ag3AsS3) occur in vein 3. Volcanogenic
deposits, some of which are Small amounts of silver sometimes
important primary silver ores. Silver occur in massive SUlphide deposits
minerals also occur in association and can be recovered as a by-
with tin, copper, cobalt and nickel
product.
minerals in some vein deposits.
4. Placer
Silver forms a natural alloy with gold,
and argentiferous gold, known as
electrum, is an important source of
silver.

SULPHUR
1. Sedimentary 2. Volcanogenic
ELEMENTAL SULPHUR Elemental sulphur is found in
OCCURS IN BEDDED DEPOSITS workable quantities in areas of
ASSOCIATED WITH recent volcanism and hot spring
EVAPORITES AND OFTEN activity.
PETROLEUM. THESE DEPOSITS Pyrite in massive sulphide deposits is
ARE THE MAIN SOURCE OF often worked for its sulphur content.
SULPHUR. (Grades > 15% S are worked, but
small amounts of copper and other
3. Other base metals are usually required to
Sulphur dioxide is recovered during make the operation economic.)
the smelting of sulphide ores to
produce SUlphuric acid for industrial
use.

TANTALUM
1. Pegmatites 1. Pegmatites (Contd.)
TantaIite «Fe, Mn)Ta2 06) occurs in series with columbite, the mineral of
granite pegmatites, particularly those intermediate composition being
that are Li-bearing, and is the main known as columbo-tantalite.
source of tantalum. It often occurs in 2. Magmatic
association with cassiterite and beryl.
TantaIite occurs in some alkaline
TantaIite forms a solid solution
granites which are a potential source.
46 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

TANTALUM (Contd.)
3. Weathering
Tantalite is a resistant mineral and
small eluvial and alluvial deposits
may form.

TIN
1. Weathering 2. Hydrothermal
CASSITERITE IS A STABLE Tin porphyries are an important type
MINERAL AND IMPORTANT of deposit and are closely associated
ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS MAY with dacitic porphyry intrusives. The
FORM BOTH ON LAND AND mineralogy is complex with
OFFSHORE. Of lesser importance si~cant amounts of silver in
are eluvial deposits which form by addition to W, Pb, Zn, Cu, Sb, Bi
the weathering of veins and and Au. Sulphides are common and
pegmatites-an important source of many of the Sn-bearing sulphides
tin in some parts of the world. such as stannite (Cu2SnFeS4) occur
(Grades down to 0·05% Sn02 can be in addition to the more common
worked.) cassiterite. MAY BE IMPORTANT
ORES, AS IN BOLIVIA.
3. Pneumatolytic Stanniferous quartz and quartz-
Cassiterite occurs in quartz and muscovite veins of simple
greisen veins closely associated with mineralogy occur in some parts of
granite intrusions. Accompanying the world closely associated with
minerals include wolframite, granites-not an important source.
chalcopyrite, tourmaline, topaz,
(Grades >0·5% Sn02 to be economic
fluorite and arsenopyrite. Minerals underground.)
such as sphalerite, galena, argentite,
pitchblende and stibnite may occur 4. Pegmatites
in outer zones of the same deposits Cassiterite occurs in pegmatites
away from the deeper Sn-bearing associated with columbite, tantalite,
lodes. MAY BE IMPORTANT beryl and lithium minerals. A minor
ORES, AS IN CORNWALL. source of tin.

TITANIUM
1. Placer 2. Magmatic
THE MAIN SOURCE OF llmenite occurs with magnetite in
TITANIUM IS FROM ILMENITE large masses considered to be
AND RUTILE BEACH SANDS magmatic segregations associated
WHICH OCCUR IN SEVERAL with basic igneous rocks (mainly
PARTS OF THE WORLD. (Saleable gabbros and anorthosites)-AN
concentrate: > 52% Ti02 for IMPORTANT SOURCE OF
ilmenite.) TITANIUM. Rutile also occurs in
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 47

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

TITANIUM (Contd.)
2. Magmatic (Contd.) 3. Pegmatites
similar associations with syenites, Rutile occurs in some pegmatites
gabbros and anorthosites and may be with apatite and ilmenite and may be
an important source. an economic source.
4. Metamorphic
Rutile occurs in a wide range of
metamorphic rocks, but rarely in
significant concentrations. Not an
economic source at present.

TUNGSTEN
1. Hydrothermal 2. Metamorphic
Wolframite «Fe, Mn)W04) occurs in Many skarn deposits associated with
low to high temperature veins where acid intrusions contain scheelite
it is associated with cassiterite, (CaW04) and are an important
chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, source of tungsten.
bismuthinite, scheelite, quartz and
4. Pneumatolytic
other minerals. (Ores worked at 0·5%
Wolframite occurs with cassiterite in
W03 , saleable concentrate: > 60% some greisen veins closely associated
W03 .)
with granitic intrusions.
3. Weathering
5. Sedimentary
Wolframite is a resistant mineral and
Some tungsten deposits of possible
eluvial and alluvial deposits are
sedimentary origin have been
formed by the weathering of primary described.
tungsten deposits. Scheelite is a less
resistant mineral, but does occur in
some eluvial deposits. (Grades at
0·1% W03 are worked.)

URANIUM
1. Sedimentary 1. Sedimentary (Contd.)
PRIMARY URANIUM MINERALS WERE PROBABLY DEPOSITED
OCCUR IN SOME ANCIENT BY CIRCULATING
PRECAMBRIAN GROUNDWATERS. OFTEN
CONGLOMERATES (BLIND ASSOCIATED WITH V AND Se
RIVER TYPE). URANIUM (COLORADO TYPE)
MINERALS OCCUR IN SOME Uranium minerals may also occur in
SANDSTONES, GRITS, calcretes. (> 0·1 % U 3 0 a, grades of
CONGLOMERATES AND 0·03% U 30 a worked as a by-
MUDSTONES OF DIFFERENT product.)
AGES. THE MINERALS ARE Uranium occurs in quite high
SOMETIMES SECONDARY AND concentrations (> 500 ppm) in some
48 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

URANIUM (Contd.)
1. Sedimentary (Contd.) 2. Hydrothermal
phosphatic and carbonaceous Uranium minerals occur in some
sediments, but extraction is not vein deposits often associated with
economic at present. Cu, Co, Ni, Ag and Au. MAY BE
3. Pegmatites IMPORTANT DEPOSITS.
Numerous uranium minerals may 4. Magmatic
occur in granitic pegmatites. SOME Uranium minerals may occur
ARE IMPORTANT DEPOSITS. disseminated in granitic rocks-not
an economic source at present.

VANADIUM
1. Sedimentary 2. Weathering
Vanadium is often associated with Secondary vanadium minerals such
petroleum and bitumen. May be an as vanadinite (pbsO(V04M and
important source as at Minasraga, descloisite (Pb(Zn, Cu)(V04)(OH»
Peru, where patronite (VS4) occurs occur in the oxidized parts of some
with asphalite. lead-zinc deposits, sometimes in
Uranium deposits of the Colorado lateritic overburden.
type often contain vanadium in
minerals such as carnotite 3. Magmatic
V3 + replaces Fe3+ in some early
(K20.2U203.V20s.2H20) and are
important sources. magnetites and can be an economic
source (0·5-2·0% V20 S).
ZINC
1. Hydrothermal 2. Sedimentary
ZINC OCCURS IN CLOSE STRATIFORM LEAD-ZINC
ASSOCIATION WITH LEAD IN DEPOSITS IN CARBONATE
MANY VEIN DEPOSITS. ALSO ROCKS ARE IMPORTANT
OFfEN ACCOMPANYING SOURCES OF ZINC.
SILVER AND COPPER. LARGE
REPLACEMENTS OF COUNTRY 4. Metamorphic
ROCK, PARTICULARLY Sphalerite may occur with other
CARBONATES ARE COMMON. sulphides in contact metamorphic
Occasionally secondary minerals in deposits-CAN BE IMPORTANT
oxidized zones are important ores. SOURCE. Franklinite and secondary
(Ore grade > 5% Zn.) zinc minerals such as zincite (ZnO)
and willemite (Zn2 Si04) occur in
3. Volcanogenic unique deposits at Franklin
Sphalerite occurs in massive sulphide Fumance, New Jersey.
deposits in volcano-sedimentary
sequences. CAN BE IMPORTANT
ORES. (Ores can be worked at 2-3%
Zn if other products produced.)
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 49

TABLE 2.2 (Contd.)

ZIRCONIUM
1. Weathering 2. Pegmatites
Zircon (ZrSi04) is a resistant mineral Both zircon and baddeleyite occur in
occurring in acid and alkaline some pegmatites and can be an
igneous rocks and certain economic source.
metamorphic rocks. Both alluvial and 3. Magmatic
eluvial deposits are formed. SOME Zircon and baddeleyite may occur in
BEACH SANDS ARE AN alkaline rocks including some
IMPORTANT SOURCE OF
ZIRCON. Both zircon and carbonatites and may be economic
as a by-product.
baddeleyite (Zr02) occur in some
eluvial deposits over alkaline
complexes-may be economic as a
by-product. (Saleable product > 65%
Zro2 .)

The prospector should also be alert to any unusual vegetation

changes, which might be due to the toxic effects of mineralization, or
to the presence of certain indicator plants .which have been recog-
nized as valuable prospecting aids in various regions (see p. 173).
Also the recognition of gossans is an important aspect of prospecting.
Gossans are defined as accumulations of yellow, red, brown or black
limonite with other oxides, metal oxysalts, silica and silicates formed
as a result of the leaching and weathering of sulphide bodies. True
gossans can be very difficult to distinguish from ironstones and other
iron oxide accumulations such as laterites or ferricretes. Table 2.3
lists some important features of gossans, but it should be remembered
that there are no hard and fast rules for identifying true gossans. For
more detail the reader is referred to the classic study of gossans made
by R. Blanchard (1968).
It might be felt that as more and more parts of the world are
covered by detailed prospecting and mapping, such methods will have
less and less relevance to mineral exploration. While this is largely
true, it is astonishing how major discoveries with surface showings or
surface evidence are still made in areas thought to have been
thoroughly mapped. This is particularly so for minerals such as
sphalerite which can be very difficult to recognize in small amounts in
outcrop and low grade mineralization such as that which typifies
large porphyry copper deposits which may have been overlooked by
earlier workers or else thought to be of little significance. As the
importance of conventional prospecting, geochemistry and geophy-
 TABLE 2.3
SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF GOSSANS

True gossan False gossan Laterite

Field relations Generally prominent outcrop ridge Often prominent ridge or spine, Often forms flat pavements over
and structural or spine reflecting configuration but may be recognizable as a a wide area. Sometimes as
attitude of parent sulphide body, though definite sedimentary formation. prominent hummocky spines or
width is often exaggerated. ridges.
Colour Often extreme local variation in Generally dull, uniform, dark Generally dull, uniform, dark
colour-red, yellow, brown, black. brown. brown or red-brown.
Cellular structure often pseudo-
morphs, original sulphides and
gangue minerals forming 'box-
works'. Sometimes cellular
structure poor or absent. Some
characteristic boxworks-
Pyrite: irregular configu-
Structural ration, continuity and thickness May have cellular structure, but Often well-developed pisoolitic
and textural Pentlandite: regular and widely it is generally fine and of even concretionary structure. Some-
characters spaced partitions expressing (I II) texture. times massive and blocky.
cleavage. Occasionally cellular.
Pyrrhotite: Typical six-sided,
often internal radiating partitions.
Chalcopyrite: rectangular,
often thick walled.
Bornite: spherical, triangular.
Sphalerite: acutely angular
intersections of partitions.
 Generally high base metal values.
Some typical values-
Ni gossans: 0·1-2% Ni, 0·05-1% Generally low base metal values
Cu. «100 ppm Cu, <200 ppm
Geochemical Cu-Zn gossans: < 50 ppm Ni, May have high base metal values Ni, <300 ppm Zn), but
characteristics 100-3000 ppm Cu, 50-2000 ppm similar to true gossans. lateritized ultramafic rocks
Zn. may have high base metal
Massive sulphide gossans: contents (> 1000 ppm Ni,
(Pyrite or pyrrhotite + minor Cu, > 500 ppm Cu, > 500 ppm Cr).
Zn). <50 ppm Ni, 1000-5000
ppm Cu, 500-3000 ppm Zn.
Pyrite gossans: < 50 ppm Ni,
< 100 ppm Cu, < 100 ppm Zn.
Iron oxides, hydrated iron oxides,
silica, various silicates. Rare
residual sulphides and gangue
assemblages may occur. Occasion-
ally oxidate minerals after
original sulphides occur. These Iron oxides, hydrated iron oxides,
Mineralogical may inc1ude- Iron oxides, hydrated iron oxides, minor hydrated aluminium oxides,
characteristics Copper: malachite, azurite, silica, various silicates. sometimes manganese oxides and
cuprite, tenorite, chrysocolla, occasionally minor amounts of
dioptase. silicates.
Lead: cerrusite, minium,
anglesite, leadhillite.
Zinc: smithsonite, hydrozincite,
hemimorphite, willemite.
Nickel: green nickel blooms
(annabergite, morenosite, gaspeite)
52 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

sics diminishes with the discovery of near surface ore bodies by the
intensive application of these methods, mineral exploration will be
forced to devolve more and more on geology. The deeper deposits
will be discovered by 'wildcat drill-holes', the best siting of which will
depend upon a thorough appreciation and understanding of the
geological processes which control the mineralization being sought.
Exploration costs will increase and there will have to be a greater
degree of interdependence between geology and the indirect ap-
plication of geophysics and geochemistry.

2.2 TRADITIONAL PROSPECTING METHODS

With the continuing development and refinement of modern geo-

chemical prospecting there is a growing tendency to neglect old
traditional methods. In certain environments, however, traditional
prospecting can be as effective and, in some cases, more effective
than modern methods when applied to prospecting for heavy stable
minerals such as cassiterite, columbite, gold, tantalite and wolfram. In
the case of diamond prospecting traditional methods have never been
supplanted, though they have been refined considerably.
Probably the oldest method of prospecting is the panning of stream
sediments for gold. Owing to its very high specific gravity and
distinctive colour, gold is readily detected in very small amounts by
panning. The tiny specks of gold found in the pan are generally
referred to as 'colours' and the prospector assessed the potential of a
stream by the number of colours in the pan at each sample site. The
method was extended to the panning of soil samples between streams
and the potential of quartz veins was assessed by crushing and
panning the vein material.
Panning is not difficult, but it requires a certain amount of skill to
do it well. It is not easy to describe in words and it is best to learn it
from someone who is practised at it, but the basic method is as
follows:

1. Fill the pan nearly full and remove large stones by hand and
throwaway after briefly examining for anything of interest.
2. Fill with water, swirl around with the hand and make sure all
material is wet. Further large fragments can be removed by hand
at this stage and rejected after examining and feeling for heft.
3. Rock the pan from side to side with a slight rotational movement
and without tipping. This gives heavier particles a chance to
settle.
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 53

4. Continue the motion above and tip slightly away from you.
Scrape a thin layer of the lighter material out of the pan with the
hand.
5. Continue rocking motion while tipping the pan slightly forward
allowing the water to wash the lighter particles out of the pan. It
will be necessary to add more water from time to time.
6. Continue above process until only a small quantity of material is
left.
7. Carefully pour off the remaining water until there is only
sufficient to cover the small amount of material left in the pan.
Swirl this water around to wash over the concentrate once and
the remaining lighter particles will be swept off the 'heavies'
which can be scraped to one side and collected.

Panning should be carried out with a proper prospecting pan. This

is a circular thin sheet-steel pan 25-45 cm in diameter and about 10 cm
deep with straight sides sloping at about 40° to the base and a slight
groove running about half-way round the pan on the inside 2-3 cm
below the rim. Aluminium prospecting pans are available, but they are
not very satisfactory as they are not as strong as the steel ones.
Prospecting by collecting and panning soil samples is generally
referred to as loaming and the samples as loam samples. The method
is widely used in diamond prospecting in which the heavy kimberlite
'indicator minerals' high-Mg ilmenite, pyrope garnet and chrome
diopside are sought. To illustrate the general procedure of a loaming
survey an example of a tin prospecting programme in south-west
Uganda is given below.

Tin prospecting by loaming

Soil samples were taken from depths of 30-50 cm filling a 20 cm x
30 cm calico cloth sample bag so that it could just be tied securely
making sure to exclude any rock fragments greater than 2 cm. Each
sample, which weighed approximately five kilograms, was carefully
panned and the concentrate split into the following size fractions:
+bn, -bn+bn, -bn+8 mesh, -8mesh+16 mesh and -16 mesh.
Magnetic impurities were removed with a strong hand magnet and the
presence of cassiterite tested by tinning in zinc cups with dilute
hydrochloric acid. The cassiterite grains in each size fraction were
counted and mUltiplied by an appropriate weight factor determined
experimentally and a total weight of cassiterite in milligrams was
obtained for each sample. The results of a survey carried out in the
above manner are shown in Fig. 2.3. Instead of giving cassiterite
content in terms of weight, results could have been expressed simply
54 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

----800 __- -
-----400---

o
~'~~~~-L'
25 _ _ _ _ _ _ 50m
~, • !oOmphng point

values In milligrams of cOSSIte.-lte per 5 kg somple

FIG. 2.3. Example of loam sampling for tin from part of a survey at Burama
Ridge, Ankole, Uganda.

as a grain count for the different size fractions, which is the type of
presentation that is normally used in diamond prospecting.
The area in which the work was carried out was particularly suited
to the method owing to the coarse nature of the soil and the concen-
tration of tin in the coarser size fractions (Fig. 2.4). The efficiency of
the panners was tested with 10 artificial samples made up by placing
varying amounts of different sized cassiterite grains in soils known to
be barren. The results (Fig. 2.5) show that the panners' recovery in
the coarser size fractions is extremely good and in the 10 test
samples, which range from ppm Sn equivalents of 17-1432, the
average loss by the panners was only 22% (Table 2.4).
The results of this loaming survey show that cassiterite contents in
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 55

140

120

E 100 100
c:i.
c:i.

-
80 90
.5 ;;e
~
c
!!
c
60 ...>-
CD
80
0 >
0
0
c
(J)
40
...
0
CD
10

20 60

+84 +164 +304 -304 + 1/8" +8- +16- -16-

groin size groin size
FIG. 2.4. Distribution of tin in soils FIG. 2.5. Recovery of cassiterite by
from Burama Ridge, southwest panning.
Uganda (based on seven samples).

soil equivalent to 10 ppm Sn or less can be detected by panning 5-kg

samples. Owing to the high stability of cassiterite and consequent low
dispersal of Sn in the secondary environment, the geochemical
analysis of the fine fractions is very often completely ineffective in Sn
prospecting, particularly when searching for deposits of simple
mineralogy such as stanniferous pegmatites and quartz-cassiterite
associations. To obtain meaningful results in the area described, for
instance, geochemical analysis would have had to be carried out on
the - 8 + 30 mesh fraction, necessitating grinding of the samples. In
regions such as Tasmania or parts of Cornwall where a considerable
proportion of the Sn occurs in the finer size fractions, geochemical
sampling has definite advantages and may prove to be the only
practical method. If the cassiterite predominates in the + 30 mesh
fraction, however, traditional panning methods may be much more
effective than modern geochemical techniques.

Summary of the loaming method

The advantages of loaming surveys are that unskilled and semi-skilled
personnel can be used, results are immediately available in the field
and equipment costs are low. The main disadvantages are the large
size of the samples, particularly if they have to be carried any
distance and the relatively low output per man-day in treating the
samples (a skilled panner should be able to process up to two samples
56 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 2.4
ACTUAL CASSITERITE CONTENT IN TEN 5-KG TEST SOIL SAMPLES COM-
PARED TO CONTENT FOUND BY P ANNERS

Actual content Content found

%
ppm Sn* Number of grains ppm Sn* Number of grains Lost

I@S mesh
17 3@16mesh 10 I@Smesh 41

3@Smesh
61 13@16mesh 29 3@S mesh 52

6@S mesh 4@S mesh

S3 10@16 mesh 56 7@16mesh 32

2@l/Sin 2@I/Sin
222 11@S mesh 209 lO@Smesh 6
6@16 mesh 5@16mesh
2S0 llS@16 mesh 154 65@16mesh 45
3@I/Sin 3@I/Sin
461 27@S mesh 417 24@S mesh 10
19@16 mesh 13@16mesh
7@I/Sin 4@l/Sin
7S9 36@S mesh 612 33@S mesh 22
37@16mesh 37@16mesh
13@l/Sin 13@l/Sin
S16 IS@Smesh 796 16@S mesh 2

ll@l/Sin ll@l/Sin
956 36@Smesh 940 36@S mesh 2
25@16mesh IS@16 mesh
ll@l/Sin 10@I/Sin
1432 84@S mesh 132S 79@Smesh 7
24@16mesh 22@16mesh

*ppm Sn equivalent

per hour}_ In countries where labour is cheap, however, these disad-

vantages are not really a problem. Also in regions with a tradition of
small-worker mining it is generally quite easy to find skilled panners.
Loaming surveys are particularly suited to gold and tin prospecting
owing to the ease with which gold and cassiterite can be identified in a
concentrate. Scheelite is also easy to identify as it fluoresces under
short wavelength ultra-violet light. Wolfram is more difficult to iden-
tify, but it can be stained a canary yellow by boiling in concentrated
nitric acid for 15 min (this also applies to scheelite). Ilmenite grains
take on a dull grey or brownish coating if boiled in concentrated
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND PROSPECTING 57

hydrochloric acid for about 20 min. Other minerals may be more

difficult to identify quickly, but they can often be recognized under a
binocular microscope with practice, and chemical spot tests can be
used to aid identification. In addition geochemical analyses of the
panned concentrates can be undertaken.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bancroft, J. A. (arranged by Guernsey, T. D. ) (1960). Mining in Northern

Rhodesia (a chronicle of mineral exploration and mining development).
Unpublished Company Report, British South Africa Co.
Bateman, A. M. (1950). Economic Mineral Deposits, John Wiley and Sons
Inc., New York, 916 pp.
Blain, C. F. and Andrew, R. L. (1977). Sulphide weathering and the evaluation
of gossans in mineral exploration, Minerals Sci. Engng., 9(3), 119-150.
Blanchard, R. (1968). Interpretation of leached outcrops, Nevada Bureau of
Mines Bull., 66, Reno, Nevada, 196 pp.
Buhlmann, E., Philpott, E. E., Scott, M. J. and Sanders, R. N. (1974). The
status of exploration geochemistry in southern Africa. Geochemical
Exploration 1974, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 51-64.
Compton, R. R. (1962). Manual of Field Geology, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
New York, 378 pp.
Derry, D. R. (1968). Exploration. CLM. Bull., 61, 200-205.
Flinter, B. F. (1955). A brief guide to the identification of the dark opaque and
semi-opaque minerals known to occur in Malayan cassiterite concentrate.
Geol. Surv. Malaya, Note No.8.
Grip, E. (1953). Tracing of glacial boulders as an aid to ore prospecting in
Sweden. Econ. Geol., 48, 715-725.
Hosking, K. F. G. (1957). The identification-essentiaIIy by staining tech-
nique-of white and near white mineral grains in composite samples, The
Cambome School of Mines Mag., 37,5-16.
Hyvarinen, L., Kauranne, K. and Yletyinen V. (1973). Modern boulder tracing
in prospecting. In Prospecting in Areas of Glacial Terrain, Instn. Min.
Metall. Lond., 87-95.
Jones, M. P. and Fleming, M. G. (1965). Identification of Mineral Grains.
Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 102 pp.
Kreiter, V. M. (1968). Geological Prospecting and Exploration (Rus.sian
translation), Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 383 pp.
Lamey, C. A. (1966). Metallic and Industrial Mineral Deposits, McGraw-HilI
Book Co., New York, 567 pp.
Lindgren, W. (1933). Mineral Deposits, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
930pp.
Park, C. F. Jr. (1964). Is geologic field work obsolete? Econ. Geo/., 59,
527-537.
Park, C. F. Jr. and MacDiarmid, R. A. (1975). Ore Deposits, W. H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco, 530 pp.
58 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Raguin, E. (1961). Geologie des Gites Mineraux, Masson & Cie., Paris, 613 pp
Robinson, W. B., Stock, E. C. and Wright, R. (1973). The discovery and
evaluation of the Windarra nickel deposits, Western Australia, paper
presented at Western Australia Conference 1973, Aus. I.M.M.
Smith, O. C. (1953). Identification and Qualitative Chemical Analysis of
Minerals, Van Nostrand, New York, 357 pp.
Zeschke, G. (1970). Mineral Lagerstatten und Exploration, Band 1, Ferdinand
Enke Verlag, Stuttgart, 351 pp.
 CHAPTER 3

Photogeology and Remote Sensing

Remote sensing includes any detecting or mapping techniques carried

out from aircraft or spacecraft. Thus, all airborne geophysical
methods are included together with aerial photography, imaging sys-
tems and air sampling methods. In this chapter, however, airborne
geophysical methods will be excluded since they are described in
Chapter 6.

3.1 PHOTOGEOLOGY

Photogeology can be defined simply as the interpretation of geology

from photographs. As this interpretation is based mainly on aerial
photography, most people would restrict the definition of photo-
geology to the use of aerial photographs. The earliest attempts at
photogeological interpretation in the late 1800's, however, were made
from land-based photography and even today photographs taken on
land may be employed usefully in specialised cases such as the
geological interpretation of inaccessible mountain slopes, cliff faces
or open pit walls.

Aerial photographs
The first aerial photographs were taken in France in 1858 from a
balloon and some years later use was made of balloon photography
for intelligence purposes in the American Civil War. Intermittent use
of aerial photography was made throughout the late 1800's and early
1900's, but it was not until the First World War that aerial photo-
graphy became really important. After the First World War, the
science of photogrammetry revolutionised map making and made it
possible to produce accurate surveys of little known and remote areas
of the world. Strictly speaking photogrammetry is simply the art of
making measurements from photographs, but in general usage it is
restricted to the making of maps from aerial photographs.
59
60 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Today aerial photographs are usually taken from an aircraft flying

at altitudes between 800 and 9000 m depending upon the amount of
detail required. Photographs may be taken at different angles varying
from vertical to low oblique (excluding horizon) to high oblique
(including horizon), but for geological purposes vertical photographs
are by far the most important. The scale of the photographs depends
upon the terrain clearance and focal length of the camera used and is
given by the expression:
Scale = fo~al length
terralD clearance
For example, a survey flown at an altitude of 5000 m over country
with a mean elevation of 1000 m using a camera of focal length 20 cm
would give photographs at an average scale of:
0·2
4000 = 1 : 20 000

It is immediately apparent from this that the scale of the photograph

will vary with topographic relief, areas of higher elevation being at a
larger scale than lower lying areas. The formula gives the scale of the
negative and the scale of the final prints can be increased by making
enlargements. A wide range of cameras have been used for aerial
photography with negative formats ranging from 5·7 x 5·7 cm (2·25 x
2·25 in) to 45·7 x 45·7 cm (18 x 18 in), but for precise survey work
large formats are preferred and the standard aerial survey camera
used in Britain and North America produces a negative 22·5 cm
square (9 x 9 in.) from which contact prints are made. This is the
standard aerial photograph (Fig. 3.1) from which most photogeologi-
cal interpretation is made. The centre point on the photograph is
known as the principal point and is located at the intersection point of
lines joining opposite fiducial marks which are images produced on
the edges of each negative by little markers fixed to the camera body.
One of the most important features of aerial photographs is that
they can be viewed in pairs to produce a stereoscopic effect. This is
due to parallax differences caused by photographing the same object
from two different positions. To achieve this the series of pho-
tographs taken along a flight line have to overlap each other by at
least 50%. If the overlap is less than 50%, there will be a gap on each
photograph which cannot be viewed stereoscopically. To ensure
complete stereoscopic cover an overlap of 60% is aimed at. If this is
achieved, points on the ground under the principal points on each
photograph will appear near the edges of adjacent photographs as
shown in Fig. 3.2. A line joining all the principal points along a flight
line is known as the base line. It will be appreciated that the base line
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 61

level clock altimeter counter

principal point

~X

X Number X
Title Date

FIG. 3.1. Standard aerial photograph.

+ + +
Ft Pz ~

FIG. 3.2. Three consecutive photographs along a flight line to illustrate how
the principal point on a photograph should appear near the edges of adiacent
photographs.

is very rarely a straight line due to the aircraft deviating from an

absolutely straight flight path. For normal stereoscopic vision ad-
jacent photographs on the base line are viewed with a stereoscope as
shown in Fig. 3.3. In addition to overlap along the flight path overlap
between adjacent flight lines is also necessary to achieve full photo-
graphic coverage; side-lap, as this is known, usually varies between
20 and 30%.
62 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

base line

FIG. 3.3. Two photographs set up for correct stereoscopic viewing.

Taking good aerial photographs can be quite difficult as it is

necessary to fly very accurately and as smoothly as possible along
straight lines at a constant altitude. Weather conditions have to be
very good with minimal cloud cover and atmospheric haze. To avoid
long shadows the photographs should not be taken too early or too
late in the day. In certain instances and particularly in areas of very
low relief, however, low sun-angle photography (LSAP) can be
extremely useful to bring out subdued features. In addition it is often
necessary to adjust the position of the camera in the aircract to
ensure that the photographs are parallel to the flight line (Fig. 3.4).

0) Camero position adjusted for true flight path

b) Camera pOlition not adjusted for true flight path

FIG. 3.4. Effects of a cross-wind on the survey aircraft. (a) Camera position
adjusted for true flight path and (b) camera position not adjusted for true
flight path.
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 63

Photogrammetry
In many parts of the world one of the most important functions of the
aerial photograph is to provide a substitute for a good topographic
map. Even where good base maps are available, it is generally
advantageous to use aerial photographs for locating oneself ac-
curately on the ground as the photographs generally have more detail
than all but the best maps. Photogrammetry has become highly
specialized using expensive precision instruments for producing
extremely accurate and detailed maps from aerial photographs.
Latest techniques, using a process known as differential
rectification, result in the production of an orthophoto, which is essen-
tially a topographic map on which the various features are shown
photographically. Although the exploration geologist cannot be
expected to have a detailed knowledge of photogrammetry, it is
important for him to know some of the basic principles in order to
produce adequate base maps if required.
The simplest type of 'map' produced from aerial photographs is the
uncontrolled print laydown. To produce a print laydown a strip of
photographs across the central part of the area is selected and
alternate photographs laid down in order on a table. The edges of the
photographs are trimmed and they are carefully joined together with
rubber-base gum in their correct relative positions by matching pho-
tographic detail from one photograph to another. The strip can be
turned over and the backs of the photographs joined more securely
with cellulose tape. Next the alternate photographs of an adjacent
strip are trimmed and carefully joined to the first strip in their correct
relative positions. It may be found that it is more difficult to match up
this strip as these photographs have to coincide not only with each
other, but also with the photographs of the first strip. If any dis-
crepancies are found, it is best to ensure that there is a good match up
along the outer part of the strip as it will become progressively more
difficult to add further strips if this is not done. The print laydown is
then built up in this manner from the central strip by adding further
strips along either side. It should be noted that it is only necessary to
use half the photographs to produce the print laydown if the survey
has been flown with 60% overlap. Sometimes there are places where
the overlap is poor and in such cases it may be necessary to use some
of the other photographs to complete the print laydown. Survey
departments commonly make up print laydowns consisting of 30 or
more photographs covering rectangular blocks of ground. These are
numbered and photographed and single prints are made available for
sale to the public. Sometimes a much more elaborate form of print
laydown is made by cutting the corners and edges off the pho-
tographs, which are then glued down on a board in a mosaic. This is
64 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

known as a photomosaic and can produce a very even print if the

photographs are carefully processed to ensure that the tones match
up evenly. The production of a photomosaic is a very laborious
process, however, and an ordinary print laydown is adequate for most
purposes.
Uncontrolled print laydowns may be quite inaccurate and difficult
to join together if there is much variation in scale and displacement
caused by tilt and topographic relief. It is possible to make cor-
rections for these displacements so that accurate photogrammetric
maps can be produced. Figure 3.5 shows how displacements are
caused by topographic relief. Points A and B are equidistant in plan
from the point vertically below the camera lens, but point B is at a
higher elevation than point A. The result in the camera is that the
image of point B is further away from the centre of the photograph

FIG. 3.5. Diagram to show how elevation differences cause displacement of

the images in an aerial photograph.
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 65

than that of point A. When the camera is level, the image of the point
vertically below the camera lens, known as the plumb point, coincides
with the principal point. Displacements caused by relief are all radial
from the plumb point. Figure 3.6 shows the effect of tilt and it can be
seen that the plumb point is displaced from the principal point.
Displacements caused by tilt are radial from the isocentre, a point
midway between the plumb point and the principal point. Tilt dis-
placements are much more difficult to correct than relief displace-
ments and require elaborate and expensive equipment. Fortunately,
on most aerial photographs tilt is only a minor problem and distances
between plumb point, isocentre and principal point are generally very
small. For this reason displacement can be considered as being radial
from the principal point and quite accurate maps can be prepared by
the method known as a radial line plot.

i,ocenlre

A B

FIG. 3.6. Diagram to show the basic effects of tilt on an aerial photograph.
66 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

To produce a radial line plot the principal point on each photograph

is marked accurately with a pin prick and a cross carefully scratched
on the photograph with the pin. If a yellow or red grease pencil is
rubbed across the pin prick and scratches, they will show up very
clearly. Then the adjacent photographs are examined under a stereo-
scope and the positions of the principal points carefully transferred to
the adjacent photographs by pricking with a pin. The next step is to
select a number of pass points near the edges and corners of the
photographs. These are any points with sufficient photographic detail
to be identified accurately on the adjacent photographs of the same
strip and photographs of adjacent strips. U sing a stereoscope these
pass points are transferred carefully from one photograph to another
within the same strips and onto photographs of the adjacent strips
and marked with a pin prick. A short radial line from the principal
point on each photograph is scratched through each pass point and a
grease pencil rubbed across the scratches so that they show up
clearly. The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 3.7 which shows pass
points marked on six photographs from two adjacent strips.
A piece of plastic tracing medium is cut for each strip of pho-
tographs. Then starting with the central strip of photographs a point is
marked on the plastic sheet near one end and a line drawn through it
along the centre of the plastic sheet. The first photograph on the
central strip is then positioned under the plastic sheet with its prin-
cipal point coincident with the point already marked on the plastic
sheet and the principal point of the adjacent photograph coinciding

,.,
'" I
/
/ /

p.'
I
+e' 2 ~
-p.'
2
+~' --e' ~

~ \8 ~ /e Ic , 0'

c/
'~ \8
\ 7 ~ i
0/
/

~
+ ~ ~ ~
+~ P..
"- \
/
"
// \

FIG. 3.7. Six photographs from two adjacent strips with principal points
(P 1 - P4 and P\- P~) and pass points (A, B, C, D) marked for a radial line plot.
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 67

with the line drawn on the sheet. The position of this second principal
point is marked on the line and all the radial lines marked on the
photograph are traced on the plastic sheet. The photograph is put to
one side and the second photograph in the strip is positioned under
the plastic sheet with its principal point coincident with the second
marked point and the principal point of the previous photograph
coinciding with the central line. It will probably be found that this
point does not coincide with the position of the first principal point
marked on the tracing medium. This does not matter as long as the
principal point of the second photograph coincides with its position as
marked from the first photograph. The radial lines are traced as in the
case of the first photograph and the position of the third principal
point marked on the strip. This photograph is put to one side and a
line drawn between the second and third principal points. It will
probably be found that these three principal points do not lie on a
straight line, but this is quite normal. The third photograph is posi-
tioned under the sheet with its principal point coincident with the
third principal point marked on the tracing medium and the principal
point of the previous photograph coinciding with the line drawn
between the second and third principal points. The procedure used
with the first two photographs is repeated and the whole process is
continued with all the photographs of the strip. The photograph
numbers used should be written on the strip for identification and
further plots on strips of plastic tracing medium are made up in this
manner for all strips of photography being used in the compilation.
An example of a short strip made up for a radial line plot is shown in
Fig. 3.8.

*'
pG" pOInt

pr inc ipol point

x
RUN 161-+165

FIG. 3.8. Example of a radial line plot made up for a strip of five photo-
graphs.
68 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

At this stage the scale of the compilation is decided upon and

adjustments can be made to reduce or enlarge the various strips to the
required scale. The simplest procedure, however, is to make a map
with the same scale as the photographs and in this case the actual
scale of the completed map will be the scale of the first photograph in
the central strip. It is only possible to make a map to an accurate
scale if two or more survey points appear on the photographs and this
is easiest if two points appear on the central strip. To produce a final
map to the scale of the photographs it is now necessary to join all the
strips which have to be brought to the scale of the central strip. (The
scale of each strip is fixed by the first photograph used in each plot
and it is generally found that the strips vary slightly in scale.) The
procedure adopted is illustrated in Fig. 3.9. The central strip is placed
under the middle of a sheet of plastic tracing medium, large enough
for the final map and all the principal points and pass points marked.
Then two pass points A and B are selected and the distance between
them measured accurately. It will be found that the corresponding
pass points A' and B' on the adjacent strip are either further apart or
closer together than the points A and B on the first strip. All principal
points and pass points on the adjacent strip have to be adjusted to the
same scale as the central strip. An easy way to do this is to fasten a
piece of paper to a drawing board and draw a straight line with the
points A and B marked at their correct spacing. The plot of the
adjacent strip is placed on the board with A' coinciding with A and
fastened with a drawing pin so that the strip can be rotated around the
points A "and A'. The strip is rotated so that each point on the plot lies
on the line AB in turn and corrected points are marked in direct
proportion to their distance from A either towards or away from A
depending whether A'B' is less or greater than AB. For example, if
AB is 50 cm and A'B' 45 cm and a specific pass point 27 cm away
from A, B' will be moved 5 cm away from A and the pass point 3 cm
(5/45 = 3/27) away from A. When this is completed, the second plot
can be positioned under the large sheet of tracing medium and the
corrected pass points placed in coincidence with the corresponding
pass points of the central strip and all corrected principal points and
pass points transferred to the final compilation sheet. This process is
continued with successive strips on both sides of the central strip
until the compilation is complete. If a scale different to the pho-
tographs is used, the central strip has to be adjusted to the correct
scale in the manner described above using ground control points
appearing in the photographs and then all subsequent strips adjusted
to that scale. A simpler procedure is to complete the compilation at
the scale of the photographs and then photographically reduce or
enlarge the compilation to the scale required.
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 69

~I~
~

- -••
164
* .\165/
~~~----__~~0~______~~0~'
%0
~~~~

SECOND STRIP

A'

219 220 221 222

• • • o

CENTRAL STRIP

**
FIG. 3.9. Method of joining adjacent radial line plots. The pass points A' and
B' on the second strip have been adjusted to fit the corresponding pass points
A and B on the central strip. All the other pass points and principal points on
the second strip have to be adjusted accordingly.

Detail can now be plotted on the final compilation by placing the

photographs under the tracing medium in turn and continuously
adjusting their positions so that there is a best fit between three
adjacent control points on the photographs and on the compilation. If
necessary, additional control points can be added accurately by
choosing points of detail appearing on two adjacent photographs in a
strip, placing them in turn under the compilation sheet so that their
principal points coincide with the principal points on the compilation
sheet and tracing radial rays from the principal points through the
control points. The points of intersection of rays from the adjacent
70 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

photographs will fix the control points accurately. If there is a

considerable difference in scale between the compilation and pho-
tographs, a plotting instrument known as a sketchmaster can be used.
Figure 3.10 shows the basic principle of a vertical sketchmaster. The
instrument allows the photograph being used to be viewed at the same
time as the compilation map. By raising or lowering the height of the
photograph above the table level and changing the viewing lens if
necessary the photograph image can be adjusted to match the scale of
the compilation. It is then a simple matter to trace detail onto the final
map. Detail can be transferred more accurately by a more expensive
but still relatively simple instrument known as a radial line plotter. The
production of a radial line plot is a laborious process and it is not
practical to make a compilation of more than six strips of ten
photographs each by the above procedure.
If required in the compilation, it is possible to measure elevation
differences from the photographs with a simple instrument known as
a parallax bar. This consists of two horizontal glass plates with a
small dot engraved in the centre of each at either end of an adjustable
bar. The separation between the plates can be altered by a coarse
adjustment screw and a fine adjustment screw operating a micrometer
which can be read accurately to a hundredth of a millimetre. To
operate the parallax bar, set the micrometer to mid-point and place it
on two photographs being viewed with a stereoscope so that the bar is

odJultab .. leo-

tabl. op

FIG. 3.10. Basic principle of the vertical sketchmaster.

 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 71

parallel to the photographic base line. With the coarse adjustment

alter the separation of the plates until the dots lie over a point of
known elevation. When viewed through the stereoscope, the dots
should fuse and appear to float above the stereomodel. With the fine
adjustment alter the plate separation and the dot will appear to float
up or down depending on the direction of adjustment. Carefully float
the dot up or down using the fine adjustment until the dot rests on the
point of known elevation. Read the micrometer. Now float the dot up
or down with the fine adjustment until it rests on the point whose
elevation is to be determined and read the micrometer again. The
height difference 6.h between the two points is given by the relation:
6.h = (H - h)6.p
W
where H is the altitude of the photography, h the approximate mean
elevation of the terrain covered by the photographs, 6.p the parallax
difference and W the mean difference in millimetres between the
principal point and transferred principal point of the adjacent photo-
graph measured on both photographs. This formula is adequate if
elevation differences are small, but it becomes inaccurate with large
elevation differences. A more accurate determination can be made if
there are two control points with known elevation by calculating a
correction factor C which is equal to 6.hl6.p where 6.h is the elevation
difference and 6.p the parallax difference. For example, if two points
at elevations 520 m and 710 m respectively produce a parallax
difference of 5·15 mm, the correction factor C becomes 36·9 m/mm.
Thus, if two points of unknown elevation produce parallax
differences of 3·21 and -1·85 (negative because the micrometer
reading was less than the reading for the point of elevation 520 m), the
correct elevations become:
520 + 36·9(3·21) = 638 m
520 - 36·90·85) = 452 m
This method is not absolutely accurate as the correction factor C will
vary with topography. For most accurate work it is necessary to
determine C for a number of different elevation ranges.
The difference in parallax is due to displacement caused by varia-
tions in topographic relief. For example, if a hill appears on an aerial
photograph, the image of its top point will have a greater radial
displacement from the principal point than the image of a point near
its base. On two consecutive photographs the two points should be
the same distance apart, but because the higher point has a greater
radial displacement relative to the lower point, the distance between
72 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

the higher points on the two photographs will be greater than the
distance between the lower points. This difference in separation
measured parallel to the base line is known as the absolute parallax of
the two points. Points of higher elevation will produce a greater
absolute parallax than points of lower elevation and it is the absolute
parallax we measure with the parallax bar.

Geological interpretation
In areas of good exposure a considerable amount of geological
information can be obtained from aerial photographs. Different rock
types may produce strong tonal and/or textural contrasts because of
differences in erosion levels and patterns, colour and reflectivity,
differences in vegetation cover, variations in depth of weathering and
amount of soil cover and structure. Even in areas of poor exposure
the underlying geology is often reflected in vegetation patterns and
may show up very clearly on the aerial photographs. Photogeological
interpretation can be made from print laydowns, but it is always best
to view the photographs in stereo pairs. This is best done by placing a
piece of clear tracing medium over one of the photographs and
fastening it down along one edge with tape so that it can be lifted up.
Annotations can then be made on the tracing medium while viewing
the photographs with a stereoscope. The standard photogeological
symbols that are commonly used are shown in Fig. 3.11.
Both relief and tone are important properties in photogeological
interpretation, though neither are absolute quantities. Relief depends
very much on the relative resistance of rocks to erosion and the
amount of erosion that has taken place. Variations in erosion level
may stand out clearly when the photographs are viewed stereo-
scopically since even small differences in topographic relief appear
greatly exaggerated on the stereomodel. Tone is important as subtle
variations may show up different rock types. However, tone is very
variable as it is affected by light conditions, the season of the year,
the time of day, amount of haze in the atmosphere, effects of
processing, etc. Although tonal contrasts are more important than
absolute tones, it can be stated as a general rule that acid igneous
rocks have lighter tones than basic ones and sediments such as
quartzites, limestones and sandstones have light tones while mud-
stones and shales have darker tones.
Lineaments may be defined as any alignment of features on an
aerial photograph. The various types recognized include topographic,
drainage, vegetation and colour alignments and it is generally useful
to distinguish the different types in the initial interpretation. It is
extremely important to mark only the natural ones and to exclude
artificial alignments such as cut lines, tracks, old field boundaries,
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 73

Bedding scarps Bedding traces

<10° (dip slopes absent or short)
1'\
,- <10"
f\ 10-25°

t\' 25-45° r 10-25°

"
>45°<90°
tr" 25-45°

-It+- vertical ,xn-- >45°"90°

+ horizontal

••••••••••••••••• certain
Lithological boundary
•• •• •• •• •• uncertain

Linear features
d faultU}, dyke (d), joint(j},vein(v}
v

------
/' --::-:;::. ...- foliation

_.
General lineaments Folds
.,..._.-._'_.- t .... antiformal
t ;>

d drainage
t topographic
J, .... synformol
;>
Of
v vegetation

FIG. 3.11. Standard photogeological symbols.

animal paths, etc. This is generally fairly easy to do, but it is

sometimes difficult to differentiate them. For example, old burn
patterns caused by bush fires travelling with the prevailing wind may
be confused with natural vegetation alignments.
Bedding is shown by lineaments which are generally few in number
and occur in parallel groups. If particular beds are more resistant than
the rocks on either side, they will show up as clear topographic
lineaments. One feature of bedding lineaments is that, even if they are
broken by streams, they are generally persistent and can be traced
through the disruptive features. If a bed forms a ridge, it will usually
have a dip slope from which the dip can be estimated. It must always
74 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

be remembered, however, that dips will appear much steeper on the

stereomodel than they really are due to vertical exaggeration. For
example, dips of 50° or 60° may appear almost vertical and shallow
dips of 15° to 20° will seem to be 45°. With practice dips can be
estimated reliably in ranges of <10°,10-25°,25-45° and >45°<90°. If
there are no dip slopes, it may still be possible to estimate dips from
bedding traces. Vertical beds cross streams and hills without any
deviation, but dipping beds will show bedding traces with V-shaped
deviations as they cross valleys. The pointed end of the V always
indicates the direction of dip and the sharper the angle of the V, the
flatter the dip.
Foliation may be indicated by lineaments and it can be generally
distinguished from bedding by the fact that the parallel lineaments
reflecting foliation tend to be very numerous and impersistent. Bed-
ding lineaments are much more common and more easily recognized,
however, as lineaments due to foliation are often very subdued and
indistinct. In fact, it is worth remembering that in areas where
bedding is not discernible in the field and only foliation can be
observed, the bedding can often be recognized on an aerial photo-
graph which takes in a large area of view and shows long subtle,
topographic lineaments which often characterize bedding traces and
cannot readily be seen on the ground.
Straight lineaments which appear as slight negative features
generally represent faults or joints. If there is no evidence of dis-
placement, they should normally be recorded as joints. An exception
to this rule would be a major lineament which can be traced for some
length. Even in the absence of evidence of displacement, such a
lineament almost certainly represents a fault. Joints or faults parallel
to bedding may be difficult to recognize, but, when they cut across
clear bedding lineaments, they are usually unmistakable. Jointing
patterns may also assist in the identification of certain rock types. For
example, the characteristic jointing in granites often shows up
through dense vegetation cover.
Folds are easily recognized on aerial photographs and it is often
possible to plot the positions of the axial traces and to make estimates
of the amount of plunge. Steeply plunging folds have well rounded
noses and the bedding can be traced around in a continuous curve,
but gently plunging folds will show up as two bedding lineaments
meeting at an acute angle (the nose) to form a single lineament.
Structurally complex areas with more than one phase of folding may
also be readily discernible on aerial photographs.
Veins and dykes produce lineaments very similar to joints and
faults and may be indistinguishable from them. If the veins or dykes
are wide enough, however, the vein material or dyke rock may
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 75

produce a tonal or relief contrast with the country rock and they are
then quite distinctive. Quartz veins and acid dykes often produce
light-coloured lineaments and basic dykes dark ones, but, as the
relative tone depends very much on the nature of the country rock,
positive identifications cannot be made purely from the photographs.
There are cases on record of 'definite dolerite dykes' which turned
out to be large quartz veins in the field! Pegmatites and amphibolite
bands are similar to veins and dykes in appearance, but once again
positive identifications can only be made after carrying out checks in
the field.
In the absence of marked relief changes and distinctive topographic
lineaments different rock types may be shown by changes in vegeta-
tion patterns. For example, soils underlain by calcareous rocks in the
tropics often support a much thicker and greener vegetation than soils
underlain by other rock types and this shows up very clearly on the
photographs. The poor, shallow soils which often develop over shales
support a thinner vegetation than soils over other rock types with
dwarfed trees which are often quite conspicuous on the photographs.
In central Africa the large mounds formed by termites are readily
apparent in areas of thinner vegetation which results in a charac-
teristic 'peppercorn' texture over areas underlain by shales. The pale,
brown, sandy soils which develop over granites in the tropics vary in
thickness and trees tend to grow in clusters giving a characteristic
spotted or mottled texture. There are numerous other examples which
vary according to the rock type and climatic environment. In addition
to vegetation changes which may reflect major lithological
differences, minor variations in lithology across the bedding are often
reflected by subtle vegetation variations which show up as vegetation
alignments paralleling the bedding.
It must always be remembered that photogeology is an aid to field
mapping and not a substitute for it. Regional geological structures are
often much clearer on photographs, which take in a wide synoptic
view, than they are on the ground where only detailed features can be
seen, but identification of rock types cannot reliably be made from
photographs alone. Broad classifications can be made and lithologies
on a photogeological map, for example, should be designated as:
intrusive A, sedimentary unit B, metamorphic unit C, etc. It is
acceptable to add: probably granite, probably limestone, probably
mica schist, etc. depending upon the confidence of the observer, but
definite rock types should only be given after verification in the field.
It is generally the aim iri photogeology to determine the solid
geology, but occasionally it is useful to map transported overburden.
This is particularly important in areas where geochemical prospecting
is being undertaken and it is valuable to be able to distinguish areas
76 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

with residual superficial cover from areas with transported cover such
as glacial drift or alluvium. This is generally very easy to do from
aerial photographs as transported overburden obliterates the underly-
ing geology, it is associated with diagnostic features (drumlins, mor-
aines, river terraces, sand dunes, etc.) related to the mode of trans-
port and it usually has sharp boundaries.
In addition to providing general geological information aerial photo-
graphs may contain clues directly related to mineralization. The
recognition of veins and pegmatites has already been mentioned.
Another important feature is the zone of inhibited vegetation growth
which often occurs over shallow ore bodies where the ground is
'poisoned' by the anomalous metal content. Good examples of this
are the so-called 'copper clearings' in Zambia associated with copper
deposits. These are often difficult to distinguish from other natural
clearings, but in areas of virgin bush the investigation of all unusual
clearings recognized from the careful examination of aerial photo-
graphs has proved successful in a number of cases. J. W. Norman
(1969) has given a useful summary of features related to different
types of targets (Table 3.1). Some examples of photogeological inter-
pretation are shown in Figs. 3.12-3.17. .

Colour photographs
Since the eye can distinguish many more subtle changes in colour
than it can in grey tones, colour photographs would appear to offer a
distinct advantage over black and white ones in photogeological
interpretation. To some extent this is true, but there are a number of
disadvantages which have prevented the widespread use of colour
aerial photography. One obvious reason is cost since colour photo-
graphs are several times more expensive than black and white ones.
Another factor is the difficulty in reproducing slight variations in
shade consistently in the processing of prints. There is also a con-
siderable attenuation of colour in the atmosphere, with the blue end of
the spectrum suffering greater loss than the red end. At the altitudes
at which aerial photographic surveys are usually flown (4000-6000 m)
the colour differentiation on ordinary colour photographs is greatly
reduced. This is not true for the infra-red end of the spectrum,
however, and false colour (usually shades of blue and red) infra-red
photography has proved extremely useful in photogeological work.
Lineaments, variations in water content and vegetation changes
which are not readily apparent on ordinary black and white photo-
graphs are often very clear on these false colour photographs.
In photogeological interpretation colour photographs are more
difficult to annotate than black and white ones and, although more
detail is recorded by the colour variations, this can be a distraction
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 77

TABLE 3.1
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT FEATURES ON AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
RELATED TO DIFFERENT TARGETS IN MINERAL EXPLORATION*

Type of target Some air photograph characteristics

Circular depression. Stunted or reduced vegetation.

Diamond pipe Drainage towards centre with a main escape stream.
Vegetation inhibited over suitable host rock or contact.
Sulphides Gossan colours in bare soil.
Linear expression-usually obvious when discordant with
strike in stratified rocks. If thinner than theoretically
Veins, including detectable at photograph scale, they may still be detec-
pegmatites ted by a linear interruption of relief (especially fault-
filled veins), by a local scattering of obvious minerals
(e.g. white quartz), by the interruption of drainage, and
local changes in the wallrock.
Fracture traces in vicinity of current or recent igneous
Steam activity.
Traced by position in strata sequence. May be detected
Bedded deposits by colour (e.g. iron ores) or vegetation changes (e.g.
phosphatic ores) or be related to a more easily detec-
ted horizon above or below.
Abandoned channels shown by old meander patterns,
the dark tones of organic silts, and a contrasting
vegetation pattern. Barred rivers-a sudden linear
Placer deposits change of tone that is light in colour over the im-
pounded alluvium.
Riverine plains-micro-relief related to proportions of
coarse granular materials and fine silt in column.
Contact deposits Possible environments mapped by tracing igneous in-
trusions cutting suitable host rocks (e.g. limestone).
Shown as old erosional surfaces with dense drainage
Bauxite pattern

*From I. W. Norman (1969).

unless the extra data recorded are related to geology. In mineral

exploration, however, colour photography may be extremely valu-
able. Alteration zones and weathering effects often produce colour
anomalies which are readily apparent on colour photographs. Prob-
ably the most spectacular examples of this are associated with some
of the porphyry copper deposits in Arizona in the southwest United
78 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIo. 3.12. An area in central Zambia. Four lithologies can be recognized by

the distinctive tones and textures due to differences in vegetation and type of
topography. The regional strike is also apparent from the clear 'grain'.
Feldspathic quartzites and meta-arkoses (A) have a more subdued topo-
graphy and support larger trees than the mica schists (C) and metavolcanics
(D), which have thinner vegetation and a more rugged dissected topography.
The quartzite (B) stands out very clearly as a major topographic lineament
with a much lighter tone. The dip appears almost vertical owing to the
exaggeration of the stereomodel, but it is approximately 700N. Note the 'V' in
the outcrop caused by the stream cutting through the dipping bed with the
pointed end of the 'V' indicating the direction of dip.
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 79

FIG. 3.14. An area in northwestern Zambia. Three distinct lithologies can be

recognized: quartzites (B) dip off basement gneisses (C) which support
vegetation with a darker tone than the vegetation over a sequence of schists
and carbonate rocks (A). The quartzites form very distinct dip scarps with
dips of 30-60°. Note the 'V' pointing in the direction of dip at 1 where the
streams cut through the quartzite ridge, possibly following fault lines although
no offset can be seen. A cut line can be seen at 2.

FIG. 3.13. An area in northwestern Zambia. This is a good example of

different lithologies causing recognizable and distinct vegetation changes.
Carbonate rocks (B) support a thicker, more luxuriant and greener vegetation
which has a darker tone than the vegetation over pelitic rocks (A and C).
With the exception of the prominent outcrop ridge at 1 which shows a dip of
approximately 60 N, there are no other distinct lineaments on this stereo pair
0

to indicate strike and dip. Numerous termite mounds, typical of this part of
Africa, can also be seen.
80 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIG. 3.15. Folded basement rocks in central Zambia. Differential weathering

of a sequence of quartzites (A) and muscovite-kyanite schists (B) has
resulted in the more resistant quartzites forming prominent, sinuous ridges
which are very distinct on the photograph and stand out clearly on the
stereo model.
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 81

FIG. 3.17. An area of basement rocks in eastern Zambia. The light-toned

area (A) is underlain by granite gneiss, while the darker-toned areas (B) are
underlain by quartz-mica schists. Faulting is marked by strong lineaments
and some offsetting of the contacts. Dip scarps in the schists are due to more
resistant quartz-rich layers.

States. Weathering of both the mineralized and surrounding alteration

zones under the arid conditions there has produced very clear, large
reddish areas around the ore bodies.

Multi-band photography
A certain amount of work has been done with multi-band photo-
graphy where separate photographs are taken simultaneously through
a number of lenses each fitted with different narrow band filters. The
reflectance of .different types of soils, rocks and vegetation often

FIG. 3.16. An area just to the northwest of an important copper deposit in

northwestern Zambia. Schists and graphitic phyllites (A) form slight topo-
graphic relief which is quite clear on the stereomodel. Carbonate rocks (B)
support slightly darker and thicker vegetation. The clearing at 1 is a natural
copper clearing due to a very high copper content (thousands of ppm) in the
soils. Rows of prospecting pits put down to follow up the geochemical
anomaly in the clearing can be seen as faint E-W lines. The cut line (2) marks
a licence boundary and roads can be seen at 3 and 4. The lighter ground with
slightly higher relief immediately to the northwest of the copper clearing
indicates the presence of schists and phyllites.
82 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

varies slightly with different spectral bands and the study and com-
parison of the various spectral band photographs offers a new
dimension in photogeological interpretation. However, differences are
generally too small to be readily discerned by eye and machine-
assisted techniques are required to emphasize the differences. Since it
is rather cumbersome and expensive, multi-band photography is not
widely used.

3.2 SIDE-LOOKING AIRBORNE RADAR (SLAR)

This powerful remote imaging system was originally developed for

military purposes, but it has been available for civilian use for some
time now. A fan-like radar beam is projected down and sideways
from an aircraft and the reflected signals used to produce an image
whose density is related to variations in terrain. Although the image is
produced as a series of scans on a radar screen, instruments are used
which enable these images to be recorded photochemically on photo-
graphic paper. The net result is a rather stark photograph not unlike a
conventional aerial photograph (Fig. 3.18). The swath covered by
typical SLAR imagery varies from 2 to 50 km and, although the
scanning is oblique, the instrumentation converts it into an image
which is essentially planimetric. The image is scanned to the right or
left of the flight line so there is a gap in the imagery immediately
below the aircraft.
Although SLAR images superficially resemble aerial photographs,
there are some major differences. Vegetation variations do produce
slightly different radar responses, but a SLAR image essentially
shows the ground as it might appear on a conventional photograph
stripped of vegetation. Displacements caused by relief are to the side
towards the imaging aircraft and are not radial about the centre as in
the case of an aerial photograph. In addition all radar shadows fall
away from and are normal to the flight line. These shadows are
complete black areas with no information on SLAR images, whereas
most areas of shadow on aerial photographs are partially illuminated
by diffused lighting. Subtle changes in colour and texture, which are
readily apparent on aerial photographs, are not discernible on SLAR
images.
SLAR produces excellent images which can be taken at any time of
the day or night and are unaffected by cloud cover. In a relatively
short time a single aircraft can provide good coverage of uniform
images over wide areas that would require thousands of conventional
aerial photographs. Although SLAR imagery can be used for geolo-
gical interpretation, the information that can be obtained is much
 ."
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8><
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ttl
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FIG. 3.18. An example of SLAR imagery clearly showing San Cristobal volcano, field boundaries, roads and a small 00
\H
town in Nicaragua. Taken through cloud cover from 6,000 m. The direction of imaging (top to bottom) can be seen from
the highlighted slopes which face the aircraft. (Courtesy of Hunting Geology and Geophysics Ltd.)
84 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

more limited than that obtained from conventional aerial photo-

graphy. For this reason the most important use of SLAR imagery is to
provide good base maps in areas where persistent cloud cover is a
major problem.
Since SLAR instrumentation is extremely complex, the equipment
is very costly and it is not as widely used as it might be. However, its
value has been reduced by satellite imagery which has provided a
virtually complete catalogue of cloud-free photographs for almost all
parts of the world. Nevertheless, SLAR imagery has proved to be and
continues to be extremely useful for providing good base maps for
areas of the world such as Central America and Papua New Guinea.

3.3 SATELLITE PHOTOGRAPHS AND IMAGERY

Ever since the first high altitude photographs of the earth were
brought back from rockets fired into and above the upper atmosphere,
it has been realized that apart from its obvious military value space
photography would offer a new and exciting dimension in remote
sensing with applications in cartography, agriculture, meteorology,
forestry and geology. This was emphasized by the spectacular colour
photographs that were brought back by the United States' Gemini
space missions in the 1960's. With the advances in electronics and
communications technology attendant on the United States' space
programme of the 1960's, it became possible for orbiting satellites to
monitor the earth by continuously transmitting remarkably clear
electronically scanned images. The first civilian use of this technical
achievement was one of the Nimbus series of weather satellites
launched in 1966. In July 1972 NASA launched a satellite known as
the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-l). This was fol-
lowed by ERTS-2 in 1973. In 1975 NASA changed the names to
LANDSAT-l and LANDSAT-2. The satellites were designed to pro-
vide virtually complete 'photographic' coverage of the entire world.
They circle the earth in a sun synchronous polar orbit at an altitude
of more than 900 km so that they cover the same ground on an 18-day
cycle. The images are scanned by a multi-spectral scanner (MSS) on
four spectral bands, visible green (5000-6000 A), visible red (6000-
7000 A) and two invisible infra-red bands (7000-8000 A and 8000-
11 000 A). The images are reproduced on photographic paper and are
available for the four spectral bands plus two false colour composites.
Band 6 (7000-8000 A) is probably best for geological purposes. Each
standard image covers an area of 32 500 km2 at a scale of ap-
proximately 1/1000000. The photographs, which are available for
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 85

almost all parts of the world below a latitude of 80°, can be ordered
from the Eros Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA. In
addition to the standard 1/1 ()()() ()()() scale photographs, transparencies
(positive and negative) and enlargements at scales of 1/500 ()()() and
1/250 ()()() are available. False colour composite images can also be
obtained. These often show up features not readily apparent on the
ordinary black and white images. Viljoen et at (1975) give some superb
examples of LANDSAT false colour imagery. LANDSAT-l images,
which have a high sun angle, are preferable for most geological
purposes, but low sun angle LANDSAT-2 images can be useful to aid
interpretation in structurally complex areas.
LANDSAT images may be interpreted by standard photogeological
techniques, though the images do not come in stereo pairs. A pseudo-
stereoscopic effect may be obtained by viewing two different spectral
bands (band-lap stereo) of the same image or by examining the images
of the same view taken at different times (time-lap stereo). In addition
there is a certain amount of side-lap which improves with latitude.
This gives a true stereo image over a narrow strip of the photograph,
but only the largest topographic features produce appreciable effects.
Although object resolution is generally of the order of 90-100 m, it
may be slightly better if there is a strong contrast. These satellite
images are ideal for outlining regional geological features and, by the
same token that features not readily apparent on the ground are often
very clear on aerial photographs, the satellite images, which take in a
much wider view, often outline geological features not readily ap-
parent on aerial photographs. Figure 3.19 shows a LANDSAT image
of part of northern Zambia and it is remarkable how clearly it shows
the regional geology (Fig. 3.20).
A lot of work has been done with LANDSAT imagery and one of
the main avenues of approach has been the use of the different
spectral bands to enhance features of interest. With computer-assisted
techniques small contrasts in spectral reflectance may be enhanced
and compared. In mineral exploration this technique has been used to
try and outline areas of hydrothermal alteration associated with
porphyry copper deposits (Schmidt, 1976), but only limited success
can be claimed for it so far.
Satellite imagery is unlikely to play a direct role in mineral dis-
covery as mineral deposits are such small targets in relation to the
areas scanned. As aids in geological mapping and in defining favour-
able areas for mineralization, however, satellite images are extremely
valuable. Developments in the field are so rapid that with improve-
ments that can be expected in satellite imagery in the near future
much more useful data will soon be available when new series of
satellites are launched.
86 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIG. 3.19. LANDSAT-l image of an area in northern Zambia shown in Fig.

3.20. Various beds and structures in the Plateau Series sediments are very
clear on the satellite image.

3.4 THERMAL IMAGERY

This is a technique that was first developed for military purposes to

enable observers to 'see' in the dark using infra-red wavelengths in
the range 8-13lLni. A rotating mirror assembly systematically scans
the ground and reflects infra-red rays to an infra-red sensor. The
output from the sensor is amplified and printed as a variable density
image very similar in appearance to an ordinary aerial photograph.
Aircraft fitted with a thermal imaging device can fly a survey to
produce coverage in the same manner as for a conventional photo-
graphic survey. Since thermal emission varies greatly with the time of
day or night, however, surveys are normally flown just before dawn.
Geological features not apparent on ordinary photographs often
show up quite clearly on thermal imagery (Fig. 3.21). The thermal
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 87

lOGE

+
+ +

LU APULA RIVER lOGE

c=::::J Alluvium

C] Luapula Beds (sholes ,sandstones,limestones)

c=J Plateau Series (arl!l1ltl!S and argillites)

~ ACid volcanics
o ,
SOKm
1++ + I Granite I

FIG. 3.20. Geology of part of northern Zambia (after Geological Survey of

Zambia).

capacity of the ground is strongly affected by moisture content and

features such as fault zones, for example, can often be recognized on
thermal images by virtue of the moisture contents being higher than
the surrounding area. Any areas of abnormal heat flow may also show
 00
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i
z

I
~
.'

FIG. 3.21. Pre-dawn thermal infra-red scanner image (left) compared to a conventional aerial photograph (right) of the
;
same area. The geology consists of poorly exposed, flat-lying dolomites in- the Transvaal and it is impressive how the
thermal imagery shows up the jointing pattern (A) and small faults (B), most of which are not visible on the aerial
photograph. (Courtesy of Spectral Africa Pty. Ltd., Randfontein, South Africa.)
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 89

up and can be useful in searching for potential targets for geothermal

energy. There is often an increased heat flow due to ore bodies and
some workers have suggested that thermal imagery might be useful
for outlining potential mineralized areas. However, the heat flow is
generally too small to be detectable at the surface and can only be
measured below ground level.
A new development in thermal imagery is the planned launching of
a satellite by NASA in 1979 to be known as the Heat Capacity Map-
ping Mission (HCMM). This satellite will provide thermal imagery
of the earth in the same manner as the more conventional imagery
provided by LANDSAT. These images will no doubt be a useful com-
plement to LANDSAT imagery as an aid to mineral exploration.

3.5 OTHER REMOTE DETECTION METHODS

In the last ten years considerable attention has been paid to the
detection of vapour in the atmosphere from aircraft and spacecraft by
detecting absorption spectra in reflected solar radiation. The biggest
use so far is probably monitoring pollution over and in the vicinity of
industrial areas by measuring the amount of N02 and S02 in the air.
The method may have some value in prospecting as S02 and other
gases may be associated with certain sulphide deposits. The most
useful vapour from the prospecting point of view is probably mercury
as it is known that mercury vapour is emitted from many mineral
deposits. The absorption wavelengths for mercury, however, are
heavily absorbed by the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere and
very little solar radiation in this waveband reaches the earth's surface.
This may be unfortunate from a prospecting point of view, but it is
hardly unfortunate for other reasons as this radiation in the ultra-
violet part of the spectrum is highly dangerous to most living things.
A common gas with an absorption spectrum in the visible region
between 5000 and 6000 A is iodine vapour. Barringer Research in
Canada has devised instrumentation for the detection of iodine
vapour in the atmosphere (Barringer, 1%9) and tests have been
carried out to see if it might have some application in prospecting. It
is known that chloride brines are associated with some forms of ore
deposition and it is highly likely that other halogens will also be
present. Iodine is also associated with oil-field brines.
The basic instrumentation developed is known as correlation spec-
trometry. Solar radiation is passed through a spectrometer from a
telescope looking down on the earth and is made to vibrate across the
diffraction grating by an oscillating refractor plate. The desired
wavelengths selected by the diffraction grating are passed on to an
90 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

optical correlation mask placed at the usual exit slit of the spec-
trometer. This mask is a photographic replica of the iodine spectrum.
If iodine vapour is present in the light-path, then the absorption
spectrum will correlate with the optical mask. As this spectrum
vibrates across the mask, a beat will be produced which can be
detected on a photomultiplier tube. The principle of the correlation
spectrometer can be applied to many other gases including N02 and
S02. To date the method has shown little promise in practical mineral
exploration. The remote detection of iodine shows up concentrations
of kelp seaweed along coastlines and pollution control by the moni-
toring of S02 and N02 has already been mentioned.
More recent developments include the extension of spectral cor-
relation techniques into the infra-red region of the spectrum and the
development by the US Geological Survey of a technique for
measuring solar stimulated luminescence of materials on the earth's
surface. Another interesting technique, first developed by R. J. P.
Lyon (1965), measures the infra-red emission spectra of rocks and
soils. Present instrumentation can roughly differentiate broad classes
of silicate rocks from an aircraft with a reasonable degree of reli-
ability. Development work in these techniques is continuing and,
although they are of dubious value in mineral exploration at the
present time, it is possible that further research may result in remote
detection methods which could make contributions to mineral dis-
covery.

3.6 AIR SAMPLING METHODS

Minute mineral particles from rocks and soil are carried up into the
atmosphere by air currents. In addition metallo-organic compounds
are dispersed by humus and vegetation and are present in the atmos-
phere in minute amounts. Above and in the vicinity of mineral
deposits there can be expected to be a greater concentration in the
atmosphere of particles with a metal content related to the mineral
deposit. Weiss (1971) has described a technique patented by him for
collecting these aerosol particles from an aircraft and subsequently
analyzing them for their trace element content. The sample collector
consists of an aluminium frame 30 cm square around which are
wound 450 turns of 0·1 mm nylon thread. This frame is towed on a
rope behind the aircraft with a ground clearance of 60-90 m. Mter a
short exposure, the sample collector is hauled back on board, placed
in a plastic bag and another sample collector passed out from the
aircraft. The nylon threads are removed in the laboratory, ashed and
analyzed spectrographically. More detailed analyses can be carried
out by drawing the nylon threads through a small nylon micro-web
 PHOTOGEOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING 91

pad. It is possible to analyze the particles concentrated on the pad by

an electron probe. Test flights have been flown over a number of
areas with positive results. It is claimed that mineralized outcrops can
be located within an area of 2-3 km 2 in survey areas of many tens of
thousands of square kilometres.
Another air sampling system has been developed by Barringer
Research in Canada and is known under the trade name, AIR-
TRACE@. Details of the equipment have not been published, but is is
far less cumbersome than Weiss's method and positive results are
claimed for it. Air is drawn into the AIRTRACE@ sampler on board an
aircraft flying at an altitude of 60 m; the metals detected directly in-
clude Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni and Ag in addition to Hg vapour. The AIRTRACE@
system placed on board a survey aircraft carrying geophysical
equipment can provide additional information which may be useful in
assessing the geophysical anomalies. For instance, an EM conductor
associated with trace elements in the atmosphere might rate a higher
priority than one that showed little or no response on AIRTRACE@.
Although more research is being undertaken in air sampling
methods and improvements can be expected, it is highly unlikely that
they will ever supplant more conventional work on the ground. As ore
bodies become more difficult to detect and discover, it is hard to
conceive how a method which at best locates targets to areas of
several square kilometres can play a significant role in future dis-
covery.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allum, J. A. E. (1%6). Photogeology and Regional Mapping, Pergamon Press

Ltd., Oxford, 107 pp.
Allum, J. A. E. (1970). Consideration of the relative values of true and
infrared colour aerial photography for geological purposes, Trans. Instn.
Min. Metall .. Lond., 79, B76-87.
American Society of Photogrammetry. (1960). Manual of Photographic In-
terpretation, Washington D.C., 868 pp.
Arnold, C. R., Rolls, P. J. and Stewart, J. C. J. (1971). Applied Photography,
The Focal Press, London and New York, 510 pp.
Barringer, A. R. (1%9). Remote sensing techniques for mineral discovery,
P2per 20, 9th CMM Conference, London.
Eardley, A. J. (1942). Aerial Photographs: Their Use and Interpretation,
Harper and Brothers Publishers, New York, 203 pp.
Greenwood, J. E. G. W. (1965). Air photographs in economic mineral
exploration, Geol. Surv. Canada, Paper 65-6, 43-49.
Gregory, A. F. and Moore, H. D. (1975). The role of remote sensing in
mineral exploration with special reference to ERTS-l, Cl.M. Bull., May
1-6.
Kilford, W. (1973). Elementary Air Survey. Pitman and Sons, London, 363 pp.
92 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Lueder, D. R. (1959). Aerial Photographic Interpretation, McGraw-Hill Book

Co., New York, 462 pp.
Lyon, R. J. P. (1965). Analysis of rocks by spectral infrared emission (8-25
microns), Econ. Geol., 60, 715-736.
Lyon, R. J. P. and Lee, K. (1970). Remote sensing in exploration for mineral
deposits, Econ. Geol., 65, 785-800.
Miller, V. C. and Miller, C. F. (1961). Photogeology, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 248 pp.
Moffit, F. H. (1964). Photogrammetry, Instructional Textbook Co., Scranton,
Pa., USA, 455 pp.
Norman, J. W. (1969). The role of photogeology in mineral exploration,
Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 78, BI0I-107.
Reeves, R. G. (ed.) (1968). Introduction to Electromagnetic Remote Sensing,
American Geol. Institute, Washington.
Schmidt, R. G. (1976). Exploration for porphyry copper deposits in Pakistan
using digital processing of LANDSAT-l data, Jour. Research U.S. Geol.
Surv., 4, 27-34.
Smith, J. T. (ed.) (1968). Manual of Color Aerial Photography, American
Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church, Virginia, 550 pp.
Talvitie, J. and Paarma, H. (1973). Reconnaissance prospecting by photo-
geology in northern Finland. In Prospecting in Areas of Glacial Terrain.
Instn. Min. Metall., London., 73-81.
Viljoen, R. P., Viljoen, M. J., Grootenboer, J. and Longshaw, T. G. (1975).
ERTS-l imagery: an appraisal of applications in geology and mineral
exploration, Minerals Sci. Engng., 7(2), 132-168.
Weiss, O. (1971). Airborne geochemical prospecting, Geochem. Explor.
C.I.M. Spec. 11,502-514.
 CHAPTER 4

Geochemical Prospecting

Geochemistry is simply defined as a study of the chemistry of the

earth and its component parts. The main tasks of the pure geochemist
are: (i) to determine the abundances of the elements and their
isotopes in the earth and (ii) to study the distribution and migration of
different elements in the various components of the earth (rocks,
minerals, air, oceans, etc.). The science of geochemistry is very young
and has largely developed during the present century. The application
of geochemistry to prospecting is even younger, dating from pioneer-
ing work carried out in the USSR in the 1930's. Further developments
took place in North America and elsewhere in the 1940's, but it was
not until the 1950's that geochemistry really became the common and
important prospecting tool it is today.

4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS

If one looks at a table of the average amounts of the various elements

in the crustal rocks of the earth (Table 4.1), only eight elements have
abundances greater than 1% and, of those eight, oxygen and silicon
together make up almost 75% of the earth's crust. Aluminium, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium follow in decreasing
order with aluminium at approximately 8% and magnesium at 2%.
These elements combine in varying proportions to form the various
common silicate minerals of which the vast majority of rocks are
composed. If we look at the table of crustal abundances again, we see
that the common base metals such as copper, lead, zinc and nickel are
quite rare, each forming less than 100 ppm and in the case of lead as
little as 15 ppm of the earth's crust. Tin forms only 3 ppm, tungsten
1 ppm and gold is much rarer than we might think at 0·005 ppm. It is
quite clear that ores of some of these metals, which might have
grades of many per cent, are highly anomalous features in the crust.
For instance, a sulphide ore containing 15% lead and a rich gold ore
93
94 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.1
AVERAGE CRUSTAL ABUNDANCES OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS IN PARTS
PER MILLION (AFTER MASON, 1958)

Element ppm Element ppm Element ppm

Oxygen 466000 Yttrium 40 Caesium 1

Silicon 277200 Lithium 30 Holmium 1
Aluminium 81300 Neodymium 24 Europium 1
Iron 50000 Niobium 24 Thallium 1
Calcium 36300 Cobalt 23 Terbium 0·9
Sodium 28300 Lanthanum 18 Lutetium 0·8
Potassium 25900 Lead 15 Mercury 0·5
Magnesium 20900 Gallium 15 Iodine 0·3
Titanium 4400 Thorium 10 Antimony 0·2
Hydrogen 1400 Samarium 7 Bismuth 0·2
Phosphorus 1180 Gadolinium 6 Thulium 0·2
Manganese 1000 Praseodymium 6 Cadmium 0·2
Fluorine 700 Scandium 5 Silver 0·1
Sulphur 520 Hafnium 5 Indium 0·1
Strontium 450 Dysprosium 5 Selenium 0·09
Barium 400 Tin 3 Argon 0·04
Carbon 320 Boron 3 Palladium 0·01
Chlorine 200 Ytterbium 3 Platinum 0·005
Chromium 200 Erbium 3 Gold 0·005
Zirconium 160 Bromine 3 Helium 0·003
Rubidium 120 Germanium 2 Tellurium 0·002
Vanadium 110 Beryllium 2 Rhodium 0·001
Nickel 80 Arsenic 2 Rhenium 0·001
Zinc 65 Uranium 2 Iridium 0·001
Nitrogen 46 Tantalum 2 Osmium 0·001
Cerium 46 Tungsten 1 Ruthenium 0·001
Copper 45 Molybdenum 1

grading 50 g/tonne both represent a concentration of 10000 times

over the average crustal abundances. On the other hand, the ore of a
common metal such as iron grading 60% represents a concentration of
only 12 times the average crustal abundance. These concentration
processes take place because of the differing chemical and physical
properties of the various elements which permit segregation into
distinct mineralogical phases or associations.
In 1922 Goldschmidt proposed a geochemical classification of the
elements (Table 4.2) under four headings: siderophile (association
with metallic iron); chalcophile (affinity for sulphur); lithophile (affinity
for oxygen); and atomophile (affinity for elemental state). The
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 95

TABLE 4.2
GOLDSCHMIDT'S GEOCHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS

Siderophile Chalcophile Lithophile Atomophile

Fe Co Ni Cu Ag Li Na K Rb Cs H N (C) (0)
Ru Rh Pd Zn Cd Hg Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Inert gases
Os Ir Pt Ga In Tl B AI Sc Y
Au Re Mo (Ge) (Sn) Pb Rare earths
Ge Sn As Sb Bi (C) Si Ti Zr Hf Th
C P S Se Te (P) V Nb Ta
(Pb) (As) (W) (Fe) (Mo) (Cr) 0 Cr W U
(H) F Cl Br I
(Tl) (Ga) (Ge)
(Fe) Mn

classification is essentially empirical, but it does have a firm theoreti-

cal basis. For instance, the ionization potential of an element is a
rough guide to its geochemical classification. Elements with low
ionization potentials such as Na, K, Ca and Mg are lithophile,
elements with high ionization potentials such as Ni, Co and Au are
siderophile and elements with intermediate ionization potentials such
as Cu, Zn, Pb and Ag are chalcophile. Some elements are borderline
cases and appear in more than one group. When this occurs, the
element is shown in brackets under the group(s} of secondary affinity.
This system was mainly a result of the study of the distribution of
elements in meteorites, which are presumed to have solidified from a
liquid state, and the classification really refers to the behaviour in
liquid-liquid equilibria between melts. For this reason the
classification is not always a true guide to the elemental association in
minerals that have formed in the earth's crust by processes such as
metamorphism, sedimentation or weathering. In addition to the
effects of pressure and temperature the affinity of an element is also
dependent upon the chemical environment. For example, metallic iron
is a major constituent of many meteorites, but in the earth's crust
where abundant oxygen is present iron is strongly lithophile and
native iron is only known to occur at a few sites, one of the better
known being at Disko Island, Greenland. Chromium is strongly litho-
phile, but in iron meteorites, where there is little oxygen available,
chromium enters the sulphide phase.
Although many minerals exhibit covalent bonding or partial
covalent bonding between the constituent atoms, the majority of the
common minerals can be considered as ionic structures. For this
96 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

·C~

1·5
·Rb
.Au
K· ·SO
·Ag
·Pb
Sr. .Lo
·fig ·Ce
.Th
No, C .Cd
Cu o· ·Bi ·U
·Sn
.Pb
.Mn
Zn.Fe TiJ~b Hf· Zr .Bi
·Li Cu;.... Co M~ To,Nb
Ni ·Mg C ,Fe TI .Sb W·Mo
oCr .Mn V·
Ge. ·Cr
0·5 ·AI ·Se
·Si ·Se
·Be .p

+I +2 +3 +4 +5 +6

FIG. 4.1. Diagram showing the ionic radii of various elements. Ordinate:
ionic radius (A); abscissa: valency.

reason ionic size or radius is of great importance in atomic sub-

stitution and elemental associations in different minerals. Figure 4.1
shows the relationship between ionic radius and valency for a wide
range of cations. Substitution is quite common in minerals with ionic
structures between ions whose ionic radii do not differ by more than
20%. Indeed, some rarer elements are accepted so readily into the
structures of the minerals of more abundant elements that they never
form distinct minerals of their own. For example the substitution of
Rb for K and Hf for Zr is so widespread that no discrete Rb or Hf
minerals have ever been described. The valencies do not have to be
the same provided electrical balance is maintained by substitution of
an additional ion or ions. For example Ca2+ substitutes for Na+ in
plagioclase feldspar because A13+ substitutes for Si4+ thus maintaining
electrical balance. If the valencies differ by more than one, sub-
stitution hardly ever takes place due to the difficulty in achieving
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 97

electrical balance. In addition little or no substitution takes place

between elements which form covalent bonds and those which form
ionic bonds. For example, Au, Ag, Cd, Cu and Hg show a strong
preference for covalent bonding and for this reason no substitution
takes place between Au or Ag and K, between Cu and Na, between
Cd and Ca or between Hg and Sr as one might expect. from the
similarities in ionic radii shown in Fig. 4.1. A certain amount of
anomalous behaviour in substitution is also exhibited by the transition
elements which include Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni and are defined
as those elements whose atoms have an incompletely filled inner shell
with more than 8 electrons. For example, some substitution does take
place between Nj2+, Mg2+ and Fe2+ and between Cr3+ and Fe3+ as
might be expected from Fig. 4.1, but both Ni and Cr show a marked
enrichment in ultrabasic igneous rocks relative to Mg and Fe. The
reasons why Ni and Cr are largely removed from a magma in the
earliest stages of crystallization are not fully understood.
Goldschmidt formulated some empirical rules about ionic sub-
stitution which are valid for purely ionic bonding:
1. If two ions have the same radius and the same charge, they will
enter a given crystal lattice with equal facility.
2. If two ions have similar radii and the same charge, the smaller
ion will enter a given crystal lattice more readily.
3. If two ions have similar radii and different charges, the ion with
the higher charge will enter a given crystal lattice more readily.
The substitution of a minor element for a major one with the same
charge and similar ionic radius is known as camouflage (e.g. Hf4+ for
Zr4 +), the substitution of a minor element for a major element with a
similar ionic radius and lower charge is known as capture (e.g. Ba2+ is
captured by K minerals), and the substitution of a minor element for a
major element with a similar ionic radius and higher charge is known
as admittance (e.g. Li+ is admitted into Mg minerals).
Although substitution and association among the elements is a
complex subject and is not fully explained by current theories, some
appreciation and understanding of it is important in exploration
geochemistry. It explains why a degree of caution must be exercised
in the interpretation of anomalous concentrations of elements in soils
and stream sediments. For example, Cu and Ni contained in the
ferro magnesian minerals of basic rocks, Zn in magnetite and spinel,
and Nb in Ti minerals often give rise to soil anomalies similar to those
over mineralized rocks. In addition elemental associations are often
of assistance where certain elements can be used as pathfinders or
indicators of the mineralization of associated elements, e.g. Hg in Cu,
Pb, Zn sulphide deposits, As in certain Au deposits, Rb in porphyry
Cu deposits and Mo in some W occurrences.
98 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

4.2 PRIMARY DISPERSION

Primary dispersion was originally defined as the distribution of ele-

ments in that part of the geochemical cycle (Fig. 4.2) concerned with
the deep-seated processes of magmatic differentiation and metamor-
phism. In exploration geochemistry, however, primary dispersion has
gradually come to have a looser definition and has become synony-
mous with the distribution of elements in unweathered rocks and
minerals whatever their origin. A knowledge of primary dispersion in
an area is often of assistance in the interpretation of both stream
sediment and soil sampling surveys. It indicates what background
ranges might be expected over specific rock types and assists in
distinguishing between anomalies due to possible mineralization and
those due to high-background unmineralized rocks. Table 4.3 gives
the mean values for a number of elements in some of the major
igneous and sedimentary rock types.
Primary dispersion can also be used directly in geochemical

FIG. 4.2. The geochemical cycle.

 TABLE 4.3
MEAN VALUES (ppm) FOR SOME IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN MAJOR IGNEOUS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES.
NUMBERS IN BRACKETS REFER TO SOURCES

Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks

Element Ultrabasic Basic Acid Alkaline Sandstone Limestone Shale Black shale

0·1 0·2 0·2 1 1-3

Antimony 0
(3) (3) (3) (3) (3) ttl
0
(l
1-2·8 2 1·5 2·5 4-15 75-225
Arsenic :r:
(3,4) (3,4) (3,4) (3) (2,3,4) (2) ttl
~
....
2-15 250-270 600-830 100-500 20-200 300-800 450-700 (l
Barium >
(3,4) (3,4) (3,4) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4) (2) t""
"Ii
0·2 0·1-1·5 3-5 2-12 1 <1-1 1-7 1 )tI
Beryllium 0
(1,4) 0,3,4) (1,3,4) (1) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4) (2) III
"Ii
ttl
0·02 0·15 0·1 0·3 0·2-1 (l
Bismuth ..,....
(3) (1,3,4) (3) (2) (2,3,4)
Z
5 5-10 15 9 9-10 10-100 0
Boron
(3) (3,4,6) (3,4) (6) (3,6) (3,4)
0·1 0·2 0·1"'{)·2 0·1 0·1 O· 2"'{)· 3
Cadmium
(1) 0,3,4) (1,3,4) (1) (3) (2,3,4)
2000-3400 200-340 2-4 1 10-100 5-10 100-160 10-500
Chromium
(3,4,6) (3,4,6) (3,6) (6) (2) (2,3) (3,4,7) (2)
150-240 25-75 1-8 8 1-10 0·2-4 10-50 5-50
Cobalt
(3,4,6) (3,4,6) (3,6) (6) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4,7) (2) ~
 TABLE 4.3 (Contd.) ....
8
Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks

Element Ultrabasic Basic Acid Alkaline Sandstone Limestone Shale Black shale
10-80 100-150 10-30 10-40 5-20 20-150 20-300
Copper ..,
(3,4) (3,4,6) (3,4,6) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4,7) (2) ttl
(")
100 340-500 480-810 570-1000 180-200 220-330 500-940
Fluorine 2
....
(4,8) (4,5,8) (5,8) (5) (5) (5,8) (5,8) 0
0·1 0·035 0·01 C
Gold ttl
en
(4) (4) (4) ....
Z
3·3 10-27 25-46 6 20-40 25-100 ~
Lanthanum
(3) (3,4) (3,4) (3) (3,4) (2) Z
ttl
0·1 ,5-9 10-30 10-40 5-10 16-20 20-400
Lead ~
t"'
(3) (3,4) (3,6) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4,7) (2)
ttl
2 10-15 30-70 28 7-29 2-20 50-60 17 ~
Lithium t"'
(1,4) (1,3,4) (1,3,4) (1) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4,7) (2)
1100-1300 2200 600-965 385 670-890
Manganese ~..,
....
(4,6) (4) (4,6) (6) (4,6)
0·08-0·09 0·04-0·08 0·03--0·1 0·03--0·05 0·4--0·5 ~
Mercury
(3,4) (3,4) (2) (2,3) (2,3)
0·3--0·4 1-1·4 2 0·1-1 0·1-1 1-3 10-300
Molybdenum
(3,4) (3,4) (3,4) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4) (2)
800-3000 50-160 2-8 2-4 2-10 3-12 20-100 20-300
Nickel
(3,4,6) (3,4,6) (4,6) (6) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4,7) (2)
 15 20 20 30-900 20
Niobium
(1,3,4) (1,3,4) (3,4,6) (1,6) (2,3,4)
0·3 0·3 0·15 0·4 0·2 0·9
Silver
(4) (4) (4) (2) (2) (2)
< 1-1 0·5-1 3-4 1-2 2-3·5
Tantalum
(1,3,4,6) (1,3,4,6) (1,3,4,6) (1,6) (3,4)
0·5 1 3
Tin
(3) (3) (3) 0
ttl
3000 9000 2300 4400 4300-4500 0
Titanium n
(4) (4) (4) (6) (4,6) :r:ttl
0·5 1 2 0·5 2 s::
....
Tungsten n
(3) (3) (3) (3) (3) >
t"'
0·001-0·03 0·6-0·8 3·5-4·8 2 3·2-4 '"d
Uranium :10
(3,4) (3,4,6) (3,4,6) (3) (3,4) 0
Cfl
'"d
50--140 200--250 20-25 34 10--60 2-20 50--300 50--2000 ttl
Vanadium n
(3,4) (3,4) (3,4) (6) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4,7) (2) >-i
50 90--130 40-60 5-20 4-25 50--300 100--1000 Z
0
Zinc
(3,4) (3,4,6) (3,4) (2) (2,3) (2,3,4) (2)
20--70 100--150 170-200 300--680 20 120--200 10--20
Zirconium
(1,3,4,6) (1,3,4) (1,3,4) (1) (3) (3,4) (2)

Sources: 1 (Vlasov, 1966); 2 (Krauskopf, 1955); 3 (Taylor, 1%4, 1966); 4 (Vinogradov, 1959); 5 (Fleischer and Robinson,
1%3); 6 (Rankama and Sahama, 1950); 7 (Shaw, 1954); 8 (Turekian and Wedepohl, l%l).-No data.

0
--
102 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

exploration. Rock sampling surveys, often referred to as lithogeo-

chemical surveys, can be carried out in a similar manner to soil and
stream sediment sampling surveys to search for anomalous metal
concentrations. Rocks are a poor sampling medium, however, since
small samples are less likely to be representative of the surrounding
area than equivalent soil or stream sediment samples and rocks have
to be crushed for analysis making the surveys more costly. Neverthe-
less, lithogeochemical surveys may be undertaken on a regional scale
to define metallogenic provinces or belts by locating rock types likely
to be associated with mineralization, or on a much more local scale to
locate blind ore bodies or extensions to known deposits by delineating
the primary dispersion haloes that are sometimes associated with
mineralization. Although lithogeochemistry is widely used in the USSR
and much success is claimed for it, the use of primary dispersion in
exploration geochemistry is a relatively new development and at present
it is difficult to assess its full value.

The search for metallogenic provinces or belts

Probably one of the oldest attempts in the application of lithogeo-
chemistry has been in the search for tin. It is well known that tin
mineralization is spatially and genetically associated with certain
granites and it would be extremely valuable to be able to distinguish
'tin' granites from barren ones. In a study of granites in the USSR
Barsukov (1957) concluded that, although 'tin' granites often con-
tained four to five times as much tin as the 3-5 ppm contained in
barren granites, there is very little difference between them. ledwab
(1955) compared a barren granite with a 'tin' granite in France by
using the Li content of feldspar and the Sn content of biotite. The
'tin' granite contained an average of 110 ppm Sn in the biotite com-
pared to only 67 ppm in the barren granite and the Li content of the
feldspar from the 'tin' granite was 141 ppm, contrasting sharply with
only 36 ppm from the barren granite. Although this would appear to
offer a simple method for distinguishing barren granites from 'tin'
granites, more detailed and thorough investigations by other workers
have failed to find any unambiguous correlation between tin content
and mineral potential. Flinter (1971) and Hesp (1971) both made
comprehensive studies of tin in granites in Australia and concluded
that the tin content is not suitable for calculating the degree of
mineralization associated with a particular granite. Beus and Sitnin
(1972) in a study of granites in the USSR, on the other hand,
concluded that a Sn content of 20 ppm or more is a good indicator of
the mineralizing potential of a granite. Thus, there is a considerable
degree of conflict in the data collected from different parts of the
world and, although much more research needs to be undertaken
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 103

before firm conclusions can be drawn, it would appear likely that

there is no geochemical criterion that can be universally applied to
distinguish 'tin' granites from barren ones.
Studies have been applied to granitic rocks for mineralization other
than tin. Brabec and White (1971) analyzed over 300 samples from the
Guichon Creek batholith in British Columbia for copper and zinc. A
number of important porphyry copper deposits are contained within
the batholith and, although copper values ranged from 1-1600 ppm,
some of the major copper deposits are located in an area of the
batholith with low copper contents and they concluded that a high
copper content of a particular intrusive phase does not necessarily
indicate its superior ore potential. In a study of granitic rocks in the
Yukon, Garrett (1973) was able to distinguish plutons known to be
associated with mineralization and likely to be associated with
mineralization from unfavourable plutons, using advanced statistical
techniques of principal-component and mUltiple-regression analysis.
The results are well shown by zinc in which 57 plutons gave low
principal-component scores and were considered as unfavourable and
15 gave high scores. Of those 15, nine were either associated with
mineralization or had mineral showings in their vicinity. Lawrence
(1974) used Rb/Sr ratios as a guide to mineralization in the Galway
granite, Ireland. He showed that the Murvey granite, which contains
sub-economic traces of molybdenite and chalcopyrite mineralization,
has Rb/Sr ratios of 4/43, well above the values for unmineralized
granite.
Regional bedrock geochemical studies have been applied to rocks
other than granites. Davenport and Nichol (1973) made a study of
some of the vulcano-sedimentary belts in the Canadian Shield in
which some important massive zinc-copper sulphide deposits occur.
They concluded that the zinc content of felsic volcanic rocks could be
used as a guide to potentially favourable areas since economically
significant mineralization occurs in volcanics with high zinc contents.
Cameron et at (1971) collected 1079 rock samples from 61 ultramafic
bodies in the Canadian Shield, some of which contain nickel mineral-
ization and some of which are barren. They divided the occurrences
into three categories: ore, minore (weakly mineralized to minor ore)
and barren (may contain minor sulphides). An analytical technique
was used which preferentially leached the sulphides and Ni, Cu, Co
and S were determined for each sample. It was found that Cu and S
were best to distinguish the three categories with Ni of lesser im-
portance and Co of little value. Discriminant function analysis was
used to treat the data and it was found that discriminant scores for
Cu, Ni and Co of 5·5 and over indicated minore and ore, though a few
barren localities gave scores over 5·5. Mean values for the different
104 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

categories gave 0·059% S for barren and 0·582% S for ore and
Cu/Ni ratios of 0·234 for ore, 0·070 for minore and 0·045 for barren.

The search for localised deposits

Varying degrees of rock alteration are commonly associated with vein
deposits and large alteration zones generally occur around porphyry
copper deposits. Even when these alteration effects appear to be
absent or weakly developed, they are often manifest as small changes
in the trace element content of the country rock in the immediate
vicinity of mineralization. In addition ore bodies may also be sur-
rounded by an aureole or primary dispersion halo of weak mineral-
ization or small concentrations of associated trace elements. Thus, if
either country rock alteration or a primary dispersion halo or both
occur with a particular ore body, it may be possible to locate a
concealed ore body by finding the outer alteration zone or primary
dispersion halo. Considerable success has been claimed for this
technique in evaluating and forecasting the ore potentials of the
deeper parts and flanks of known deposits in the USSR (Ovchinnikov
and Grigoryan, 1971). Figure 4.3 shows an example of a primary
dispersion halo around a lead-zinc ore body in skarn rocks in a
district of Middle Asia in the Soviet Union. In Chile Rb and Sr have
been used as guides to copper mineralization emplaced in andesites
(Oyarzum, 1974). Normal unmineralized andesites have a Rb/Sr ratio
of 0·2 which falls to 0·01 in the epidotized zone surrounding mineral-
ization and rises to 2·6 within the mineralized zone. Pantazis and
Govett (1973) analyzed a large number of rock samples for Cu, Zn, Ni
and Co around the Mathiati cupriferous pyrite mine in Cyprus and
used discriminant function and determinative function analysis to
treat the data. The results were somewhat inconclusive, but by using
a combination of statistical techniques it was possible to define the
mine area as a primary target.

Summary
With a few exceptions the results of primary dispersion surveys have
not proved particularly encouraging. Regional studies may work in
one area and not in another apparently similar one. In addition,
studies have shown that a number of major ore bodies such as the
Broken Hill lead-zinc deposit in Zambia have little or no primary
dispersion haloes. Far more research needs to be done in this rela-
tively new field and, although primary dispersion surveys may have
limited application in exploration geochemistry at the present time,
they may well increase in importance as our knowledge expands and
more indirect methods have to be applied with the discovery of the
shallower targets using more conventional techniques.
 Zinc Copper

50-100 ppm Cl
~
Ii
100-10,000 ppm ::e
~
()
>
t""
"I:)

~
CIJ
"I:)

~
:j
Z
Cl

oI 100 m
,

FIG. 4.3. Example of primary dispersion haloes around a lead-zinc ore body in skarn rocks in the USSR (after
Ovchinnikov and Grigoryan, 1971).
-
~
106 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

4.3 SECONDARY DISPERSION

During weathering, rocks break down by physical and chemical

processes which disperse the various elements contained in the ori-
ginal rocks into soils, stream sediments, ground waters, river waters,
the sea, the air, plants and animals. The degree of secondary dis-
persion an element may undergo is expressed by its mobility. Some
elements such as Be, Au, Sn, Si and Ti occur in or as stable minerals
which are very resistant to the effects of normal chemical weathering.
These elements have a low mobility and are generally dispersed as
clastic fragments by slow mechanical weathering into soils and stream
sediments. At the other extreme are the highly mobile elements such
as Na, K and Mg which readily enter the water-soluble phase and are
widely dispersed by ground and surface waters. Many of the elements
of interest in geochemical exploration fall between these two
extremes, but may display a wide range in mobility depending on the
environment. Secondary dispersion is of prime importance in
exploration geochemistry as it results in the various elements present
in an ore body being dispersed over a much wider 'target area', thus
enabling the presence of mineralization to be detected as an
anomalous metal content in soils, stream sediments, plants and sur-
face and ground waters.

The importance of pH and Eh

The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to the
base 10 of the hydrogen ion activity in gram-ionsllitre. It varies
from 0 for strongly acidic solutions to 14 for strongly basic or alkaline
ones. Neutral solutions, i.e. ones in which the concentrations of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are equal, have a pH of 7. Natural waters
with pH's less than 4·0 or greater than 9·0 are rare and most fall
within the range of 5·5 to 8·5. pH can be determined by special
indicator papers or solutions, but the most accurate measurements are
made with pH meters which use special glass electrodes sensitive to
hydrogen ion concentrations. For calibration purposes there are a
number of standard buffer solutions which can be made up. For
example, a 0·05M solution of potassium hydrogen phthalate has a pH
of 4·0 at 20°C and a O·OIM solution of borax has a pH of 9·2 at 20°C.
The pH of a solution varies slightly with temperature and corrections
need to be applied if very precise measurements are being made. Soil
pH is determined by measuring the pH of an aqueous slurry made up by
adding distilled water to soil in a container (50 g of soil in 50 ml of water
is commonly used).
pH is extremely important in determining the mobility of an ele-
ment in the weathering environment. Of the metallic elements only
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 107

the alkalis and alkaline earths are soluble over virtually the full pH
range. Most metals are soluble in acid solutions, but are precipitated
as the alkalinity increases. The pH at which the hydroxide of an
element precipitates is known as the pH of hydrolysis. Table 4.4 lists
the pH's of hydrolysis for some common elements and it gives a
rough indication of the solubility to be expected in nature. In additon
to pH, however, other factors, which can affect the solubility, need to
be taken into account. For instance, although the table shows that
titanium is soluble below a pH of 5, this is only so if it is released
from a weathered mineral as Ti(OH)4. Since this rarely happens and
titanium is almost always released as the insoluble dioxide, titanium is
a highly immobile element even under strongly acid conditions. In
addition the presence of certain anions may restrict or increase the
solubility range. For example, in the presence of chloride ions, both

TABLE 4.4
THE pH's OF HYDROLYSIS OF SOME COMMON ELEMENTS
(FROM BRITTON, 1955)

pH Element Environment

11
Magnesium Strongly alkaline soils
10

9
Divalent manganese
Lanthanum Sea water
8
Silver
Divalent mercury
7 Zinc River water
Cobalt Rain water
Nickel
6 Lead
Divalent iron
Copper
Titanium
5
Hexavalent uranium Peat water
4- Aluminium
3 Waters from oxidizing
sulphide deposits
Trivalent iron
2 Tin
108 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

lead and silver remain insoluble at low pH's. In the case of uranium
the formation of uranyl carbonate complexes extends the solubility of
uranium well above the pH of hydrolysis shown in the table.
In addition to pH the redox potential or Eh, which is a measure of
the reducing or oxidizing potential of an environment, is extremely
important. The oxidation potential is a relative figure and the standard
reference is the reaction:
H2=2H++2e
which is arbitrarily fixed as 0·00 V at a pressure of 1 atm and at
pH = O. The Eh values extend on either side of the zero, positive
values indicating an oxidizing potential and negative values a reducing
potential relative to the standard hydrogen half cell reaction. Oxida-
tion potentials are dependent on the concentrations of the reacting
substances and reactions involving hydrogen or hydroxyl ions are
strongly affected by pH. The range of oxidation potentials in natural
environments is restricted by the reactions:
H2 = 2H+ + 2e Eh = 0·00 V
and
Eh= 1·23V
which define the Eh range over which water is stable. Figure 4.4
shows an Eh-pH diagram on which the normal weathering environ-
ment is outlined and a number of natural environments are shown. Eh
can be measured on some pH meters, but Eh measurements are
influenced by many factors and field measurements often show a big
variation and interpretation is not always satisfactory. In the natural
environment r.edox potentials are largely dependent on the amount of
oxygen available and the amount of organic matter present. Hot,
well-drained environments to which atmospheric oxygen has ready
access have a high oxidation potential, whereas waterlogged
environments with a high organic content are strongly reducing. In
addition to removing oxygen by its oxidation to produce reducing
conditions, organic matter also has a strong tendency to adsorb
hydrogen ions and produce conditions of low pH. Thus, organic-rich
environments, such as peat bogs, tend to be acid and reducing.
Waterlogged, organic-free environments are only oxidizing where
they are in free contact with the atmosphere. Confined waters rapidly
lose their oxygen and by hydrolysis of silicates become alkaline so
that below the water table environments tend to be alkaline and
reducing.
The Eh and pH conditions of an environment are extremely import-
ant in determining the mobility of most elements of interest in
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 109

+1-4

+1-2

+1-0

+0-8
oxidising
sulphide deposits

+0-6
acid
mine
waters

W +0-2
water
sea } normal
weathering
environment

baQa and
waterlogged
soils

-0-4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
pH
FIG_ 4.4_ Eh-pH diagram showing various natural environments_

exploration geochemistry and Eh-pH diagrams have been determined

and plotted by different workers for many chemical reactions of interest
in geochemistry_ Garrels (1960) and Garrels and Christ (1965) have
dealt with the fundamentals of the subject and Hansuld (1966) has
discussed the application of pH and Eh in interpretation of geo-
chemical data_ Figure 4.5 shows the results of a soil sampling survey
over copper mineralization along a fault zone in Puerto Rico_ A Mo
anomaly coincides with the Cu anomaly at the eastern end where pH
conditions are acidic. In the central area where pH conditions are
mixed the Mo anomaly becomes more diffuse and at the western end
of the fault zone where conditions are alkaline and Mo is highly
mobile there is no Mo anomaly accompanying the strong Cu anomaly.
110 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

w E
Cu
- >4000
QJ> "> 1000 ppm

1010
(lZ1> "> 20 p.p m

_ A L K _ I " _ - - MIXED pH - I - - A C I D -

FIo. 4.5. Soil survey from the La Muda area, Puerto Rico (after Hansuld,
1966).

Adsorption
Clays, organic matter and hydrous oxides of iron and manganese all
have the ability to adsorb metallic ions and are thus very important in
determining mobility of many elements in the secondary dispersion
environment. The scavenging effects of both iron and manganese
hydrous oxides are well known and the presence of either in soils or
stream sediments can result in a marked build up of trace metal
values. Cd, Co, Ni and Zn are strongly scavenged by Mn oxides, As is
strongly scavenged by Fe oxides and elements weakly scavenged
include Cu, Mo and Pb (Nowlan, 1976). In Table 4.5 the percentages
of Cu, Pb and Zn in solution adsorbed by goethite are related to pH
and it is interesting to note that significant percentages are adsorbed
at pH values below the pH's of hydrolysis shown in Table 4.4. This
generally has a detrimental effect in exploration geochemistry as both
iron and manganese hydrous oxides may significantly restrict the
mobility of many metals with a consequent reduction in the size of
secondary dispersion haloes. Also false anomalies caused by hydrous
oxides of iron and manganese adsorbing and concentrating trace
elements from normal background sources can be confused with
significant anomalies derived from mineralized sources. On the other
hand the scavenging effects of Mn-Fe oxides have been put to
practical use. In drainage surveys collection and analysis of Mn-Fe
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 111

TABLE 4.5
ADSORPTION OF Cu, Ph AND Zn BY GOETHITE
FROM 3·2 X 1O-5M SOLUTIONS (DATA FROM
FORBES ET AL. 1976)

Metal adsorbed (%)

pH Cu Ph Zn

4·7 8 8
5·2 44 29
5·5 75 37
5·9 90 63 11
6·4 19
7·2 61

oxide concretions and coatings for their trace element content may
result in better anomaly-background contrast than that obtained from
conventional sediment surveys.
Nowlan (1976) showed in a survey in Maine that anomaly contrast
may be significantly increased by analyzing Fe-Mn oxides. This is
particularly true for the weakly scavenged elements such as Cu. It
would appear that scavenging of the weakly scavenged elements only
takes place when they are present in above-normal amounts, whereas
elements such as Zn are so readily scavenged that there is little or no
enhancement of contrast. Carpenter et al (1975) showed in test
surveys over mineralized areas in the south-west United States that
anomaly-background contrast was enhanced for both Zn and Cu in
Fe-Mn oxide coatings, but in the case of Pb anomaly-background
contrast was much better in -80 mesh sediments. In addition the
ratios Zn/Mn and Cu/Mn in the Fe-Mn oxide coatings enhanced the
downstream detectability of mineralization.
Clay minerals are strong adsorbents and will hold various cations
by virtue of unsatisfied electric charges both at crystal edges and
within the lattice layers. The cation exchange capacity is measured in
milliequivalents per 100 g (me/IOO g) and varies from 3-15 for kaolin
to 10-40 for illite to over 100 for montmorillonite and vermiculite
(Grim, 1953). In addition to the clay minerals many other fine-grained
minerals or colloidal particles have the ability to adsorb cations. The
amount of adsorption increases as the grain size of the adsorbent
decreases and the amount of a substance adsorbed from solution
increases with the concentration of the adsorbate in solution. In
addition highly charged ions are adsorbed more readily than those of
lower charge.
Organic matter can adsorb considerable quantities of trace ele-
112 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

ments and expressed in terms of cation exchange capacity organic

carbon may reach values up to 500 me/tOO g which is considerably
higher than the cation exchange capacity of montmorillonite. Govett
(1960) has shown that there is strong positive correlation between the
organic carbon content of soils in Zambia and their cation exchange
capacity. There is also positive correlation between organic carbon
content and total Cu in background areas. In both anomalous and
background areas there is a very strong positive correlation between
readily extractable Cu and organic carbon content. Chowdhury and
Bose (1971) undertook some experimental studies on the adsorption
of various metals by 'humic acid' at pH 5. They showed that the
maximum metal holding capacity of 'humic acid' is of the order of
40 me/tOO g and that Pb attains equilibrium with a minimum concen-
tration in solution followed by Cu, Zn, Ni and Co. The release of
metals retained by the 'humic acid' was also determined at pH's rang-
ing from 5 down to o. This showed that the Pb is most strongly held
with 60% retained at pH 3·5 compared to 32% Cu, 15% Zo, 11% Ni
and 7% Co. At pH 2·5,35% of the Pb is still held, but virtually all the
Cu, Zo, Ni and Co has been released; Pb is only totally released into
solution at pH 1. The manner in which organic matter adsorbs is only
poorly understood, though the formation of metallo-organic com-
plexes such as porphyrins is known to playa part. Nevertheless, from
a practical point of view the role of organic matter in secondary
dispersion is extremely important. Marked concentrations of trace
metals can occur in poorly drained, organic-rich soils and it is very
difficult to decide whether anomalies in such environments are due to
mineralized sources or an unusual build-up from high background
rocks.

Dispersion processes
Many different agencies are responsible for dispersion of elements in
the secondary environment, but dispersion processes can be dis-
cussed under three main headings: mechanical, solution and biogenic.

Mechanical processes
Clastic fragments derived from the weathering of rocks are dispersed
principally through the agencies of gravity, water, wind, ice and
animals. Overburden on hill slopes tends to move downwards under
the influence of gravity and movement may be extremely slow as in
the case of soil creep or rapid and sudden as in the case of large
landslides. In mountainous terrain there may be considerable move-
ment of material down steep slopes forming thick deposits of collu-
vium or talus at the foot of slopes. The use of talus as a sampling
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 113

medium in mountainous regions can be of value in reconnaissance

geochemical surveys, particularly in arid areas where there may be
little or no stream drainage (Maranzana, 1972). Even in relatively
well-drained mountainous areas talus sampling can be a useful
method for reconnaissance work (Hoffman, 1977).
Flowing surface waters carry suspended particles and move larger
clastic fragments along the bottom, both eroding and transporting
overburden and weathered rock. Sheetwash or surface run-off carries
material over the land surface, generally only eroding and transporting
the finest particles, but on steep hillsides considerable amounts of
coarse material may be carried and deposited as alluvial fans at the base
of slopes. Much of the surface water eventually finds its way into
gulleys, streams and rivers where erosion and transportation are often
accelerated. Fast flowing, turbulent waters erode and transport material
more effectively than slower moving waters and, as the velocity
decreases, transported sediment is deposited, often at considerable
distances from its place of origin. Very sluggish and slow moving water
in swamps and lakes carries very little sediment in suspension and such
environments are mainly centres of deposition from inflowing waters.
Glaciers can be important agents of erosion and transportation.
During the Pleistocene large areas of Eurasia and North America
were covered by continental ice sheets, which has resulted in the
development of dispersion patterns very different from unglaciated
areas. Boulders may be carried for hundreds of kilometres by
glaciers, but most of the basal till formed during the glaciation and
deposited under the ice sheet consists of clay-sized particles (rock
flour), cobbles and boulders of local origin transported no more than
one or two kilometres and generally very much less. Sometimes
several basal till layers occur and are due to the cyclic advance and
retreat of the ice sheet. Mineral fragments and particles from ore
deposits are often well preserved in the basal till just above bedrock
and may form wide dispersion trains or fans in the direction of ice
movement. Figure 4.6 shows the dispersion of copper values in the
basal till 'down-ice' from an ore deposit in Quebec. In glaciated areas
thick ablation till deposits formed by the final melting and retreat of
the ice sheet together with fluvio-glacial sediments deposited by melt
waters often cover large areas and render ordinary geochemical
methods ineffective. In such areas deep sampling methods have to be
used to obtain samples from the basal till in which dispersion patterns
of interest may occur.
Wind is another agent of mechanical dispersion, but is of very little
practical value in geochemistry. In fact, thick deposits of wind-blown
sand and loess in arid regions generally render geochemical prospec-
ting methods totally ineffective. In the vicinity of mining or industrial
114 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

H3'1

16 12
6

Direction of oloClation
<
glacio- Iacuslrme
deposits

outline of 1000 p.p.m Cu

in -80# heavy

5mL
minerals

o 50m

FIG. 4.6. Dispersion 'down-ice' in basal till from the Louvem deposit, Val
d'Or, Quebec (after Garrett, 1971).

centres wind-borne particles may result in widespread contamination

and make the application of geochemical methods very difficult.
Various burrowing animals move soil and overburden, but are
generally insignificant as agents of mechanical dispersion. Notable
exceptions to this are termites which form large mounds in tropical
regions and are known to bring mineral particles up from the water
table to which they require access to survive. Some gold deposits in
Rhodesia have been discovered as a result of prospecting termite
mounds (West, 1970) and d'Orey (1975) gives an interesting example
of the location of copper mineralization in Mozambique concealed
beneath transported overburden by sampling and analyzing material
from termite mounds.

Solution process
Under the influence of weathering forces numerous constituents of
the original rocks and minerals pass into solution and are carried
away by surface and ground waters to be eventually precipitated or
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 115

redeposited because of adsorption or changes in pH, Eh and chemical

environment. This results in the elements of interest in ore deposits
being dispersed over a wider area which can vary from a narrow zone
little larger than the sub-outcropping mineralization to extensive
lateral dispersion characterized by hydromorphic anomalies which
may be considerably removed from the source areas. In stream
sediments, which are the products of mechanical processes of dis-
persion, the trace element content of interest in geochemical pros-
pecting may be largely due to the transport of metals in solution and
subsequent adsorption by the fine-grained sediments and coprecipita-
tion with Fe and Mn oxides. It is only in the case of stable minerals
such as gold, cassiterite and monazite that the elements of interest
are mainly present in discrete clastic mineral grains.

Biogenic processes
Plants take up numerous trace elements together with their normal
nutrients from the soil. When the plants die and decay, the more
soluble constituents are removed by groundwaters and the less solu-
ble constituents may accumulate to an appreciable extent in the
humus layer. Thus, plants can play an important role in secondary
dispersion. Certain bacteria, algae and other micro-organisms have a
big influence on dispersion in the secondary environment. Some
anaerobic bacteria derive their energy from oxidising iron compounds
and there are others that can reduce sUlphates to sulphides (Baas
Becking and Moore, 1961). Marked concentrations of heavy metals
have been found in certain algae (Cannon, 1955) and there is evidence
that some micro-organisms can precipitate metals (Lovering, 1927).
Some higher organisms also appear capable of concentrating heavy
metals. The oxygenating compound in the blood of some arthropods
and molluscs is based on the copper-bearing substance haemocyanin
analogous to the iron-bearing haemoglobin. Up to 2·3% Zn and 0·6%
Cu has been found in the soft parts of oysters living in seawater
slightly contaminated with Zn and Cu from old mine tailings off the
coast of British Columbia and up to 3% Zn and 660 ppm Cu has been
found in oysters taken from the Atlantic Ocean (Boyle and Lynch,
1968). Both coal ash and petroleum contain concentrations of many
different elements and it is not unlikely that they were accumulated
by the original organisms, particularly in the case of petroleum.

Thus, there are numerous dispersion processes in the secondary

environment which result in the formation of many different types of
anomalies. The most important of these are: residual anomalies,
mechanically transported anomalies, hydromorphic anomalies, stream
sediment anomalies, lake sediment anomalies, vegetation anomalies
and water (stream, lake and groundwater) anomalies.
116 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Residual anomalies form wherever rocks weather in situ and solu-

tion processes have not removed the elements of interest so that
anomalies in the overburden lie directly over their sources. Such
anomalies occur in all parts of the world, but are particularly common
in non-glaciated regions where geochemical methods have proved
highly effective because of the simple relationship between a residual
anomaly and buried ore. Nevertheless, there are many complicating
factors and interpretation may not always be straightforward. Both
mechanical and chemical processes can result in strong concen-
trations of trace elements in the overburden that may be due to
weakly mineralized or even unmineralized sources. The reverse may
also occur and the partial leaching out of elements of interest from
the overburden may result in a weak anomaly overlying good
mineralization. Some of the problems are illustrated by Fig. 5.12, in
the next chapter, which shows a marked build up of Zn values in the
overburden owing to the effects of tropical weathering and the
accumulation of secondary Zn minerals derived from thin, sporadic
wille mite veinlets in dolomitic limestone. Table 4.6 compares the Zr
and Nb content of residual soils overlying the Sukulu carbonatite in
Uganda with the Zr and Nb values in bedrock obtained from the same
pits as the soil samples. The higher Zr and Nb values in the soil are
due to a mechanical enrichment of the zirconiferous minerals, zircon
and baddeleyite, and niobium-bearing mineral, pyrochlore, which are
resistant to weathering and have become concentrated in the soIls
formed by a process of leaching of the carbonates and weathering and
consequent breakdown of the various silicate minerals which made up
the parent carbonatite rock.
The dangers and pitfalls in evaluating the mineral potential from a
residual anomaly are illustrated in Fig. 4.7 which shows profiles
across two occurrences of copper mineralization in different parts of
Zambia discovered as a result of geochemical prospecting. Deposit B
consists of good copper mineralization totalling about 8 million tonnes
at 2·8% eu in porous sandstones and conglomerates. Leaching has
penetrated to depths of 30 m and more resulting in a marked depletion
of copper in the weathered overburden. As a result there is only a
poor soil anomaly with maximum values of 280 ppm eu and low
background to anomaly contrast. Deposit A consists of low-grade
mineralization with very poor continuity at different stratigraphic
levels in dolomite, tillite and shale. Accumulations of malachite occur
near the base of the weathered overburden and there is a very good
soil anomaly with maximum values well over 1000 ppm eu and
marked background to anomaly contrast.
Mechanically transported anomalies occur wherever clastic frag-
ments of the source rocks or minerals have been moved by agents of
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 117

TABLE 4.6
COMPARISON OF Nb AND Zr CONTENT IN ppm OF
BEDROCK AND SOIL SAMPLES TAKEN FROM PITS
IN THE WEST VALLEY, SUKULU CARBONATlTE,
UGANDA

Zr content Nb content

Pit no. Bedrock Soils Bedrock Soils

04X 20 595 50 933
H7 270 315 520 1050
04Z 45 455 180 770
B9 375 326 250 1237
06V 130 705 100 1080
Ll 20 403 300 1610
06X 50 1033 320 1595
D7 55 444 350 1555
BI 10 580 20 2830
04B 50 773 2100 3370
06B 500 348 2000 1367
Dl 10 352 210 2408
D3 130 510 500 1848
06J 10 678 100 985
021 200 366 185 1392
Average 125 526 479 1602

mechanical transport. The most widely documented of these occur in

glacial overburden, but soil creep, landslip, sheetwash and wind can
all result in transported anomalies. If an anomaly has been trans-
ported, the location of the primary source may involve a long and
detailed search in the reverse direction of transport. In the case of
gravity transport the sense of movement is usually obvious from the
direction of ground slope, but in the case of glacial transport the local
direction of ice movement is not always so obvious, though it is
generally known in regional terms. Glacial boulder trains may be
many kilometres long, but it is unusual for geochemical dispersion
trains in glaciated regions to be more than 1 or 2 km long owing to the
effects of dilution which make the odd erratic mineralized boulders at
some distance from a mineralized source virtually undetectable by
geochemical sampling of the overburden. A good example of this is
given by Kauranne (1959).
Hydromorphic anomalies are due to solution processes, hence the
name 'water-formed'. Elements carried away in solution may be
 1000
00
-
Anomaly A
!!
..,
'0
..
.5
c3 500
E
;
g
<i.
<L g]
Anomaly B
Z
~
Z
~
O~I---------------------------------------------- ~
~
13-8m x 0-8% Cu 0-7m x 1% Cu ~
Poor mineralization in shale, tillite and dolomite Good mineralization in sandstones
oI 500 1000 and canglomerates,
, I heavily leached to depths of 30 metres
metres

FIG. 4.7. Residual anomalies over two copper deposits in Zambia both discovered as a result of geochemical
prospecting.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 119

precipitated or deposited again when the environment changes, result-

ing in lateral dispersion from the parent source. The amount of
transport may vary considerably from short distances which result in
a marginal widening of a residual anomaly due to hydromorphic
processes to long distances where the anomaly may be considerably
removed from its parent source. Hydromorphic anomalies are often
characterized by a marked build up of metal content so that the
anomalous values may be misleadingly high. The cations are also
generally loosely held by simple adsorption on organic matter, clays
and iron oxides so that hydromorphic anomalies are characterized by
a high proportion of cold-extractable metal (cxMe).
Figure 4.S gives an example of a hydromorphic anomaly in central
Ireland. The zinc values have been hydromorphically dispersed in the
near-surface soils by seepage and drainage down gentle slopes over a
distance of SOO m from the source, whereas lead, which has a much
lower mobility, has suffered very little hydromorphic dispersion.
Figure 4.9 shows a hydromorphic copper anomaly associated with a
residual anomaly in central Zambia. The residual soil anomaly falls
off downslope towards seasonal swampy ground with a high organic
content where there is a sudden and spectacular build up of copper
values in the soils some 900 m from the source. There is also a good
cold-extractable eu anomaly over the swampy ground which is com-
pletely absent over the mineralization. Another example of a hydro-
morphic anomaly is given in Fig. 4.10 which shows an extremely long
hydromorphic eu anomaly along a watercourse in northwestern
Zambia. The area is covered by thick unconsolidated desert sands,
though present climatic conditions are far from arid with an average
annual seasonal rainfall of 950 mm. There are few rock exposures and
the area has little topographical relief with drainage typified by long
swampy watercourses Oocally known as dambos) up to 2 km wide in
which a central channel is usually defined, though flow is generally
sluggish. In addition to anomalous eu values (up to SOOO ppm) Zn and
Ni values are also anomalous with maximum values of 440 and
555 ppm respectively. All metals show an increase in concentration
downstream in reverse order of normal drainage dispersion patterns
with a gradual build up of values throughout the length of the dambo.
The soils have a high organic content and there is extensive pre-
cipitation of iron oxides with a considerable development of laterite
down the centre of the dambo. Insufficient follow-up work was done
to decide whether the anomaly might be due to a mineralized or
unmineralized source, though it is considered likely that the source
could be unmineralized basic igneous rocks. Such an anomaly is an
extremely ill-defined target for follow-up work and illustrates the
problems in dealing with some hydromorphic anomalies.
 ~
-
-N-
t
I
>-l
~
2
....
~ttl
til

Z
~
___ 100 ___
ppm- Pb In sed

_.-- - fpm Zn In SOil

V\~~
~'" \;. ~
sompIQ:d on ~ ~ '/ .
illiTh >QUO'"
gncl 0 1 45cmeo,;:p In) , . \ I
, (
=burozn
>1OOOppm lrI ot bcso 0 1 s~
~)' ''''
090 ,,",plh 3 ~m) ~~ ,
dl'"(unogrl dlrQ:c t lOn ~....
PIOn)Or'" drill - hohl
"\(f ~
"" ---...
L~
"'"
-- - - . ( -.-Q-=>

FIG. 4.8. Example of a hydromorphic zinc anomaly from central Ireland.

 E
Q.
1000 J ,~ Q,
o
1\ III
I ,
..,
N
I ,
I
I
,,
I ,
I
( ,
t
, ,,,..,Total Cu In olllrburden .'
I
::I I
, jusl above bedroek ::
U , , '1'
I \ Cl
E 500 I \ :0:
ci I
,
\
:N'
I
ci
( \
:~:
g
, l. ____ .... ,,/
"".",..-------- - , :t:
I
,
:-,,;:
~
~
"C

1 •••• ~
l11
a ;=:::, " .. ,...... ..~ ........... " ........ "".~.. "". .''' ....... ,~, .. ''''.'' .. ,.. ,= (')
poorly drained ::l
rlasonably well drained ground slasonally swampy ground z
Cl
weo;y ~ w ... '*:::::: .. - - '" ~urden
mineralozed bedrock
bed

aI 500 1000
I I
metres

FIG, 4,9, Example of a hydromorphic copper anomaly associated with a residual anomaly over a copper occurrence in N
-
central Zambia.
122 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

' II'

J
l
,

_.... >200
>600} ppm Cu
. Swampy watercourse
(dambo)

..,:1
,,
o, 10

, ,
.
FIG. 4.10. Example of hydromorphic anomalies from northwestern Zambia.

It must be emphasized that it is erroneous to assume that if a

geochemical anomaly is shown to be hydromorphic, it indicates an
unmineralized or poorly mineralized . source. Some hydromorphically
transported anomalies are associated with good ore deposits, but
equally, there are many others that have been shown to be due to
unmineralized, high-background rocks.
Stream sediment anomalies form when mineral deposits or source
rocks are eroded and the erosional products are swept into stream
beds and deposited as sediment. In the case of resistant ore minerals
such as cassiterite or beryl the elements of interest are contained in
clastic mineral grains and such a stream sediment anomaly is really a
type of mechanically transported anomaly. In the case of less stable
source minerals, the elements of interest may be contained in clay-
sized particles derived from the chemically weathered products of the
source deposit or they may be due to adsorbed ions on organic matter
and fine mineral particles. In addition much of the anomalous metal
content may be held with precipitated Fe and/or Mn oxides.
In the typical stream sediment anomaly the concentrations of the
elements of interest decrease downstream away from the source as
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 123

more and more barren material enters the stream bed and contributes
to the total sediment. In well dissected areas undergoing active
erosion mineralized soUrces often give rise to long dispersion trains
making stream sediments a good sampling medium for reconnaissance
surveys. Figure 4.11 shows a stream sediment anomaly in eastern
Uganda which led to the discovery of some bodies of carbonatite.
Lake sediment anomalies are similar to stream sediment anomalies
in as much as both clastic ore grains and adsorbed and chemically
precipitated metals may occur in the sediments. Unlike many streams,
however, lakes are mainly centres of deposition. Materials brought in

NIOBIUM LANTHANUM

o. 2
I "
3 4
• .
5
K,lomelres

6 (J
p p.m

• >300 corbonollie
• 201·:300
• 101·200
o <100
(J d,scovered as
a resull of lhe survey

FIG. 4.11. Stream sediment anomalies which led to the discovery of

carbonatite in eastern Uganda.
124 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

by running water are mostly deposited as deltaic sediments near the

point of entry and only the finest particles are carried into the centres
of lakes. Thus, lake bottom sediments tend to be muds and, if water
circulation is poor, there may also be an accumulation of organic
matter.
Lake environments vary considerably depending upon many fac-
tors such as size, depth, climatic conditions, nature and volume of
incoming water, etc. In temperate regions with hot summers and cold
winters lake waters become stratified in winter and summer owing to
temperature differentials between surface and bottom waters. When
this happens, water circulation is restricted to the near-surface
waters. In the spring and autumn the temperature differences even
out and water circulation may extend to the bottom of the lake
providing it is not exceptionally deep; in very deep lakes the bottom
waters may be permanently stagnant. Lakes in tropical regions often
have a poor and irregular circulation except for those at high altitudes
where there is enough heat loss to prevent stratification so that waters
in these lakes may circulate continually.
Although lake sediments are affected by many factors so that
anomaly patterns may not only vary considerably from lake to lake
but even within a single lake, lake sediment sampling may be a useful
reconnaissance exploration method in certain regions of the world.
This is particularly true for glaciated areas with poor drainage and
numerous lakes. Both near-shore and centre-lake sediments can be
used, though centre sediments are preferred as near-shore sediments
are often largely subaqueous bank soils. Nevertheless, Minatidis and
Slatt (1976) found in a survey of part of the Kaipokok region of
Labrador that near-shore lake sediments can be a guide to anomalous
areas. In addition organic-rich muds are generally the best sampling
medium. Lakes with rocky, sandy bottoms do not lend themselves to
lake sediment surveys. Good accounts of lake sediment sampling are
given by Allan (1971), Allan et al (1973), Hoffman and Fletcher (1976)
and Cameron (1977). One problem with lake sediment surveys is that
interpretation may be difficult because of all the variables that can be
involved. A good knowledge of the drainage, water circulation,
chemical environment, regional geology, influx of sediment and
general limnology (study of lakes) is required if the source of a lake
sediment anomaly is to be tracked down. As a word of caution it must
be remembered that spurious anomalies are not uncommon in lake
sediments. For example, Cameron (1977) showed that Ni and Co
derived from unmineralized metasedimentary rocks produced very
strong anomalies in lake sediments in an area in the Northwest
Territories, Canada.
Vegetation anomalies are caused by plants taking up trace elements
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 125

from the soil and concentrating them in leaves, stems, twigs, bark,
etc. Whether or not a vegetation anomaly will be present over a
mineral deposit depends on a number of factors. Different plant
species vary widely in their uptake of elements and an anomaly may
be shown by some plants and not by others growing on the same site.
Trace element contents in plants may vary seasonally and different
organs of the plant generally vary in their ability to concentrate
metals. In addition it is important for the element of interest to be in a
soluble form available to the plant. In certain circumstances the
detection of vegetation anomalies can be a useful method in explora-
tion geochemistry and vegetation surveys are described and discussed
in Section 4.8.
Water anomalies in wells, springs, rivers and lakes form whenever
chemical weathering of mineral deposits or source rocks results in
elements of interest passing into solution. The metal content of most
natural waters is present mainly as simple cations, but a certain
amount may also be present as ions adsorbed on suspended mineral
particles or organic matter or as suspensions of very fine insoluble
mineral particles. The concentrations of trace elements are normally
very low with most being present at a few ppb (where 1 billion = 1<f)
or tens of ppb. The detection of natural water anomalies (hydro-
geochemistry) can be a useful method in exploration geochemistry.
One of the main problems is that anomalies can be extremely variable
and dispersion erratic owing to loss of metals at so-called pre-
cipitation barriers which may occur whenever the Eh, pH or chemical
environment changes. Hydrogeochemical surveys are briefly des-
cribed in Section 4.8.

Pathfinder elements
In geochemical exploration it is sometimes advantageous to use an
associated element as an indicator of the element sought. Such an
indicator element is known as a pathfinder. There may be a number of
different reasons for deciding to use a pathfinder in an exploration
programme. In the case of rare elements a more common and abun-
dant associated element may not only be easier to analyze, but may
result in a much better definition of possible targets. An example of
this is As which has been used as a pathfinder for Au in various parts
of the world. For example, James (1957) carried out surveys over gold
mineralization in Rhodesia and found that the As content of soils was
on average 400 times the Au content over known gold mineralization
which was well defined by As anomalies. Another type of pathfinder
is one that is chosen simply on the grounds that it is easier and
cheaper to analyze. An example of this is the use of Pb or Zn as
pathfinders for fluorite. Before the specific-ion electrode technique for
126 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

the analysis of F was developed, F analyses were slow and costly

and, since small amounts of galena and other minerals generally
accompany fluorite mineralization, geochemical exploration for
fluorite could be undertaken by analysing for Pb and other base
metals. Pathfinders may also be chosen on the grounds of their wider
dispersion than the main element thus presenting a larger 'target'.
Obvious candidates for this type of pathfinder are gases which may
diffuse upwards through rocks and overburden and thus provide a
means of detecting buried and concealed mineralization. Gaseous
pathfinders that have been used include Rn for U, He for U and
hydrocarbons, Hg vapour for various base metal ores and S02 for
sulphide deposits in general (McCarthy, 1972). These pathfinders
probably have the best potential for future work and are briefly
described below.
Radon gas is part of the decay series of both uranium and thorium,
but whereas Rn-220 derived from thorium only has a half-life of
54·5 s, Rn-222 derived from uranium has a half-life of 3·8 days and
thus any radon detected in groundwater or soil gas will be largely due
to the presence of uranium. Since Rn is an a-emitter, its detection in
a gas sample simply involves the detection of a -particles. One
method of carrying out Rn soil gas surveys is to use an instrument
known as a radon emanometer. To carry out a measurement a
perforated tube is pushed into the soil to a depth of 1-1·5 m and a
sample of gas is drawn into a chamber containing a zinc sulphide
a-particle detector. H any Rn-222 is present in the gas sample,
a-particles given off as it decays cause a fluorescence of the zinc
sulphide which is detected by a photocell. Radon in water samples
can be measured by drawing air through the water into the detection
chamber of the instrument. Another technique of alpha detection
involves the use of special cellulose nitrate films which are sensitive
to a-particles and are unaffected by /3-particles, 'Y-radiation or light
(Basham and Easterbrook, 1977). In the TRACK ETCJI® method
patented by the Terradex Corporation of the United States a-sen-
sitive films are fastened in the bottom of plastic cups which are
placed in an inverted position in holes in the ground. Left undisturbed
for a period of 3-4 weeks any Rn that diffuses into the cup will be
recorded on the film when it decays and releases a-particles. Any
other a-emitters that may be present in the soil will not register on
the film as they are unable to penetrate the plastic cup or traverse the
full air space in the cup. The films are sent to the laboratory where
they are treated and the etched tracks counted. Results are quoted in
terms of tracks per square millimetre (T/mm2). TRACK ETCH@ has
an advantage over the radon emanometer in that the Rn is measured
over a long period of time and is thus much more likely to give
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 127

consistent results. Radon emanometers measure the Rn content of a

small volume of gas at one moment in time and results are often
extremely erratic and may show poor repeatability. Beck and Gin-
grich (1976) give an account of a TRACK ETCH® orientation survey
over uranium mineralization in northern Saskatchewan clearly show-
ing that the method can detect uranium mineralization at depth (Fig.
4.12).
Helium atoms are formed whenever a-particles, given off during
radioactive decay, lose their charges. There are eleven a-emitters in
the U-238 decay series, nine in the U-235 decay series and eight in the
Th-232 decay series. Thus, He can be expected to accumulate to an
appreciable extent in minerals, groundwaters and soil gases over U
and Th deposits. Helium is also known to accumulate in some petroleum

o ..........
r-- -
:Il
~ 50
CII
E

100 I~

o 100
, 200 t radioactive
metres
t intersections
FIG. 4.12. Track etch anomaly over uranium mineralization in Saskatche-
wan (after Beck and Gingrich, 1976).
128 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

and natural gas traps and so He has potential as a pathfinder for both U
(Dyck, 1976) and hydrocarbons. Being a noble gas, however, He is not
easy to analyze and requires a mass spectrograph. Until recently these
were costly pieces of equipment, but less expensive field instruments for
the detection of He are now available. A number of surveys using He as
a pathfinder for U have been conducted with varying degrees of success
in various parts of the world, but owing to its widespread occurrence,
derivation from both Th and U and its inert properties, it is not nearly as
useful as Rn-222 for U exploration.
Numerous and different types of base metal deposits may contain
Hg either as discrete Hg minerals or in trace amounts within the
lattices of various ore minerals, though complex Pb-Zn-Ag ores
usually contain the highest levels. Portable spectrometers are avail-
able (Robbins, 1973) to measure the quantity of Hg in a gas sample
and can be used for carrying out surveys of Hg content in soil gas in
the same manner as the radon emanometer is used for Rn. The
instrument is extremely sensitive and very low levels of Hg can be
detected, though in wet, organic-rich soils the response may be poor
as such soils tend to retain Hg. In addition to detecting Hg vapour in
soil gas, ordinary soil sampling surveys can be carried out for Hg, but
the samples should not be force-dried before analysis as this may result
in loss of Hg. Friedrich and Hawkes (1966) give an example of the use
of Hg as a pathfinder in an area in Mexico. Although Hg would
appear to offer a good tool for detecting concealed ore deposits, only
limited success can be claimed for it to date. In many instances when
it has been demonstrated that a base metal deposit is associated with
a Hg anomaly, the ordinary base metals in the deposit give equally
good and often better anomalies. Also the Hg content of ore minerals
in different deposits can be extremely variable as shown by Sears
(1971), who determined the Hg content of 600 ore samples from three
gold mines and 24 base metal mines in Quebec, and Jonasson and
Sangster (1974) who determined the Hg content of sphalerite from 66
sulphide deposits all over Canada. In addition elemental Hg may
remain locked in the sulphides and not be released unless the deposits
are undergoing active weathering. Nevertheless, the detection of Hg
vapour does have potential as a method for locating blind sulphide
deposits (McNerney and Buseck, 1973) and it is probable that suc-
cessful discoveries based on Hg vapour detection will be made in the
future.
The oxidation of sulphide minerals results in the formation of S02
which, therefore, has potential as a pathfinder for shallow sulphide
deposits in general. Various methods are available for the analysis of
S02, one of the more commonly employed being correlation spec-
trometry (see Chapter 3). The use of S02 is unlikely to be as
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 129

important a method as Hg 'sniffing', however, since S02 will only be

released by oxidizing sulphides. Meyer and Peters (1973) give an
example of an S02 anomaly over massive sulphides in Newfoundland.
Although it is not strictly a geochemical method, it is worth
mentioning that dogs have been successfully trained to 'sniff out'
sulphides concealed by overburden. It is not known what gases the
dogs detect but it is thought not to be S02 or H 2S. Nilsson (1973) and
Hyvarinen et al (1973) give some interesting examples of the use of
dogs for prospecting in glaciated regions of Scandinavia.
In addition to the use of gases for detecting metallic ore deposits,
the detection of various hydrocarbons is used in geochemical
exploration for petroleum. These are not strictly pathfinders as they
represent major components of the numerous hydrocarbons con-
tained in oil or gas deposits. Although this technique has been used
for surface prospecting for petroleum, it is of most use in offshore
work and in evaluating potential oil-bearing strata from studies of the
various hydrocarbon gases in boreholes.
In addition to the more common pathfinders, research has been
undertaken by various workers on a wide range of indicator elements.
Iodine vapour has been proposed as a possible pathfinder for both
metallic ore deposits and petroleum (see Chapter 3), but no success
can be claimed for it to date. Palladium and iridium have been used to
evaluate Ni gossans (Travis et ai, 1976) and rhenium has been
proposed as a pathfinder for porphyry coppers (Coope, 1973), though
there is no evidence yet that it is a feasible method. Some workers
can be criticized for completely losing sight of the purpose of a
pathfinder. There is no point in using a pathfinder if the major element
of interest is easier to analyze and produces anomalies as good or
nearly as good as the proposed pathfinder. Learned and Boissen
(1973) used Au as a pathfinder for porphyry Cu mineralization in
Puerto Rico and, although the Au anomalies could be claimed to
define one of the sites of Cu mineralization somewhat better than the
Cu anomalies, it does seem to defeat the main aims in using a
pathfinder element.

Summary
The dispersion of elements in the secondary environment is depen-
dent on a great number of variables and a wide variety of anomalous
patterns can develop, some of which may be related to mineralization
and some of which may not be. There is an extremely large literature
on geochemical exploration and countless case histories for
numerous different elements have been documented. Basically,
exploration geochemistry is a simple technique, but interpretation
may not be so easy as there are numerous variables and few general
130 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.7
SUMMARY OF THE DISPERSION OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS IN THE SECON-
DARY ENVIRONMENT AND APPLICATIONS IN EXPLORATION

ANTIMONY
Soils: 5 ppm.
Waters: 1 ppb.
Mobility: Low.
Uses: Geochemical prospecting for Sb has been undertaken.
but is not very important. Both Sainsbury (1957) and
Chakrabarti and Solomon (1971) describe surveys for
Sb. It has also been used as a pathfinder for gold
(James. 1957) and may produce coincident anomalies
over some base metal deposits (Hawkes. 1954).

ARSENIC
Stream sediments: 1-50 ppm.
Soils: 1-50 ppm.
Waters: 1-30ppb.
Plant ash: 1-2 ppm. >10 ppm may indicate mineralization. Con-
centrations up to 1% observed in certain plants
growing over mineralized zones.
Mobility: Fairly low. readily scavenged by iron oxides.
Uses: Has been mainly used as a pathfinder for Au and Ag
vein-type deposits.

BARIUM
Soils: 100-3000 ppm. Anomalous concentrations over barite
mineralization >5000 ppm. Peaks at many percent.
Waters: 10ppb.
Mobility: Low.
Uses: Has been used in geochemical prospecting for barite.
but dispersion limited by low mobility.

BERYLLIUM
Stream sediments: <2 ppm. Values >2 ppm may delineate areas of beryl
mineralization.
Soils: <2-6 ppm. Values > 10 ppm may define beryl-bearing
pegmatites. Peak values> 100 ppm over rich zones.
Mobility: Low to moderate.
Uses: Be has been used in geochemical exploration for beryl
deposits (Debnam and Webb. 1960; Reedman. 1973).
Similar anomalous values may occur over un-
mineralized alkaline rocks (Reedman. 1974).

BISMUTH
Soils: < 1 ppm. Values> 10 ppm may define Bi mineralization.
Mobility: Low.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 131

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

BISMUTH (Contd.)
Uses: Little work has been done with geochemical prospec-
ting for Bi. Most Bi is produced as a by-product of
other ores and there are only a few very small
deposits that have been worked for Bi alone. Sur-
veys in Zambia show peak values of 200 ppm over
Bi-bearing vein deposits. May also have value as a
pathfinder for certain vein Au deposits.

CADMIUM
Soils: < I-I ppm. Values over a few ppm are anomalous and
may be due to mineralization containing traces of
Cd.
Mobility: High-closely follows Zn.
Uses: As in the case of Bi, Cd is produced as a by-product of
other ores (lead-zinc) so that there has been little
work done on prospecting for Cd. It has been used
as an aid in lead-zinc prospecting to distinguish
between anomalies likely to be due to mineralization
(Zn + Cd) from those unlikely to be due to mineraliza-
tion (Zn only). Surveys in Ireland have shown that this
can be misleading since very high Cd values
(>200 ppm) have been found with a Zn anomaly
apparently unrelated to mineralization and low Cd
values (a few ppm) are associated with a strong Zn
anomaly related to good mineralization.
CHROMIUM
Stream sediments: 5-1000 ppm.
Soils: 5-1000 ppm. Values >lOOOppm may be due to
chromite mineralization, but can also be due to un-
mineralized ultrabasic rocks.
Mobility: Low, but may be high under high Eh and pH con-
ditions if released as the chromate ion.
Uses: Has been used in chromite prospecting where values
> 1% Cr in residual soil overlie chromite-bearing
rocks, but chromite is so readily identified in heavy
mineral concentrates that geochemical prospecting
for chromite is rarely necessary. Has been used as a
pathfinder for uItrabasic rocks which may contain
Pt-group metals.

COBALT
Stream sediments: 5-50 ppm.
Soils: 5-40 ppm. Anomalous concentrations over mineraliza-
tion > 100-500 ppm.
132 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

COBALT (Contd.)
Waters: 0·2 ppb.
Plant ash: 9 ppm.
Mobility: Moderately high, but readily scavenged and held by
Fe-Mn oxides.
Uses: Has been used for Co prospecting, but, since Co is
generally produced as a by-product of other metals,
surveys are rarely conducted for Co alone. Useful as
an ancillary element in surveys for other base
metals which may be accompanied by Co mineral-
ization.

COPPER
Stream sediments: 5-80 ppm. > 80 ppm may be anomalous.
Soils: 5-100 ppm. Anomalies> 150 ppm may indicate mineral-
ization. High background basic rocks can give rise to
values of many hundreds of ppm.
Waters: 8 ppb. > 20 ppb may be anomalous, but hydrogeo-
chemistry rarely used for Cu owing to limited
mobility.
Plant ash: 90 ppm. Values> 140 ppm may be anomalous.
Mobility: High at pH's below 5·5, low at neutral or alkaline pH.
Also may be adsorbed by organic matter and copre-
cipitated with Fe-Mn oxides, but Cu is less readily
scavenged by Fe-Mn oxides than other base metals
(e.g. Co, Zn, Ni).
Uses: Stream sediment and soil sampling surveys have been
widely used in all parts of the world in Cu prospec-
ting and there is a large literature on the subject.
Biogeochemical methods have also been used with
some success. To help distinguish anomalies due to
unmineralized basic rocks from anomalies likely to
result from mineralization the Co/Ni ratio has been
used in soil surveys. A high Co/Ni ratio (> 1) indicates
that anomalous Cu values are more likely to be due to
mineralization than Cu anomalies accompanied by low
Co/Ni ratios.

FLUORINE
Soils: 200-300 ppm. Anomalies over mineralization
> 1000 ppm with peaks at many thousands of ppm.
Waters: 50-500 ppb. Values> 1000 ppb in river waters may be
due to mineralization.
Mobility: Fairly low.
Uses: Geochemical surveys have been undertaken for fluorite
in various parts of the world using soils, ground-
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 133

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

FLUORINE (Contd.)
waters and river waters as sampling media. F now
commonly used as a direct indicator, but Pb and/or
Zn generally used as pathfinders before advent of
specific-ion electrode analytical technique (Farrell,
1974, Friedrich and Pluger, 1971).
GOLD
Soils: < 10-50 ppb. Values > 100 ppb may indicate mineral-
ization.
Waters: 0·002ppb
Mobility: Generally extremely low under neutral, alkaline and
reducing conditions, but may be moderately high with
formation of complex ions under oxidizing conditions
in both acid and alkaline environments (Lankin et ai,
1971).
Uses: A number of soil surveys using Au as a direct indicator
of Au mineralization have been conducted in various
parts of the world with considerable success. Before
cheap and sensitive AAS (see p. 185) analytical method
for Au was available, the use of pathfinders such as As
and Sb was common, but not used so widely nowadays
(Brown and HiIchey, 1974).
HELIUM
Atmosphere: 5·2 ppm by volume.
Waters: 4·76 x 10-8 cm3 STP/g (Clarke and Kugler, 1973).
Mobility: Extremely high as an inert gas dissolved in waters and
diffusing through overburden and fractures in rock.
Uses: Pathfinder for U and hydrocarbons using both soil gas
and He dissolved in groundwaters.

LEAD
Stream sediments: 5-50 ppm.
Soils: 5-80 ppm. Values> 100 ppm may indicate Pb mineral-
ization.
Waters: 3ppb.
Plant ash: 70 ppm.
Mobility: Low.
Uses: Geochemical surveys for Pb using soils and stream
sediments have been successfully employed all over
the world. Biogeochemical and hydrogeochemical
surveys have also been used with a certain amount
of success. Owing to the low mobility of Pb, Zn is often
a better indicator of Pb or Pb-Zn mineralization. Pb
has been used as a pathfinder for barite and fluorite
mineralization.
134 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

LITHIUM
Stream sediments: 10-40 ppm.
Soils: 5-200 ppm.
Waters: 3ppb.
Mobility: Moderate to high.
Uses: Stream sediment and soil surveys have been used in
regional reconnaissance prospecting for various
pegmatite deposits since complex Li-bearing peg-
matites generally contain minerals of interest such as
beryl, cassiterite, pollucite, columbite, in addition to
the Li minerals which are of potential economic value.
Rarely used.

MANGANESE
Stream sediments: 100--5000 ppm.
Soils: 200-3000 ppm.
Waters: <1-300 ppb.
Plant ash: 4800 ppm.
Mobility: Usually very low, may become mobile under acid,
reducing conditions as divalent ion.
Uses: Soil and vegetation surveys have been conducted in
prospecting for Mn ores, but Mn is more commonly
used as an ancillary element in geochemical surveys
to aid interpretation.

MERCURY
Stream sediments: <10-100 ppb
Soils: < 10-300 ppb. Values> 50 ppb may indicate mineraliza-
tion such as Pb-Zn-Ag ores.
Soil gas: 10-100ng/m', >200ng/m' over base metal ores.
Waters: 0·01-0·05 ppb. Values > 0·1 ppb may be due to Hg
mineralization. Hg in waters' readily adsorbed by sol-
ids, so waters are not good prospecting medium.
Mobility: Generally low, but high as vapour phase.
Uses: Has been used successfully in prospecting for Hg ores
using stream sediments and waters (Dall'Aglio, 1971)
and soils. Also used as a pathfinder of base metal
ores (Friedrich and Hawkes, 1966). The vapour
phase which can be detected in very small amounts
in soil gas or the atmosphere has potential as a
pathfinder of many ores (McNerney and Buseck,
1973). However, this is only true if Hg is present in
elemental state. Many ores which contain Hg in
sulphides may not release any Hg vapour unless
undergoing weathering.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 135

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

MOLYBDENUM
Stream sediments: < 1-5 ppm. > 10 ppm may indicate Mo mineralization.
Soils: < 1-5 ppm. > 10 ppm may indicate Mo mineralization.
Waters: < 1-3 ppb.
Plant ash: 13 ppm. Very high Mo concentrations (> 1%) have been
found in the ash of certain plants growing over Mo
deposits.
Mobility: Generally high, but is low under acid and reducing
conditions when it is readily adsorbed by iron oxides
and clay minerals.
Uses: Stream sediment, soil and vegetation surveys have all
been successfully employed in prospecting for Mo
deposits. Mo is also used as a pathfinder for por-
phyry Cu deposits.

NICKEL
Stream sediments: 5-150 ppm.
Soils: 5-500 ppm. > 500-several thousand ppm may indicate
mineralization.
Waters: <1-10 ppb.
Plant ash: 65 ppm.
Mobility: Fairly high.
Uses: Stream sediment, soil and vegetation surveys have all
been successfully employed in pro~pecting for Ni (e.g.
Philpott, 1974). The Ni/Cr ratio has been used to
distinguish between soil anomalies likely to be due to
mineralization from those due to un mineralized ultra-
basics. A Ni/Cr ratio < 1 indicates no mineralization
(Cox, 1974). Cu anomalies> 200 ppm usually accom-
pany Ni anomalies in soil over mineralization. High
Ni values similar to those over mineralization may
occur over unmineralized basic or ultrabasic rocks. Ni
has been used as a pathfinder for kimberlites in dia-
mond prospecting where country rocks are low in Ni.

NIOBIUM
Stream sediments: 5-200 ppm. Values > 200 ppm may indicate Nb-bearing
minerals.
Soils: 5-200 ppm. Values > 200 ppm may indicate Nb-bearing
minerals.
Mobility: Low.
Uses: Both stream sediment and soil surveys have been
successfully employed to locate pyrochlore-bearing
carbonatites (Bloomfield et ai, 1971; Reedman, 1974)
and columbite-bearing pegmatites. Unmineralized or
poorly mineralized alkaline rocks may give high
values in stream sediments and soils.
136 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

PHOSPHORUS
Stream sediments: 100-3000 ppm.
Soils: 100-3000 ppm. Values > 5000 ppm may indicate phos-
phate-rich rocks.
Mobility: Despite the fact that P is essential to life and is taken
up by plants from soils, P generally occurs only in spar-
ingly solUble compounds and overall mobility is low.
Uses: Geochemical prospecting for P has only been used
rarely, but it works extremely well in locating phos-
phate-rich rocks (Bloomfield et ai, 1971; Reedman,
1974).

RADIUM
Stream sediments: Measured in terms of radioactivity, usually pico-
curies/gram (pCi/g). 0·2 pCi/g. Values > 1·0 pCi/g
may indicate U mineralization.
Mobility: Fairly low, adsorbed by organic matter.
Uses: Can be used as a pathfinder for U in stream sediments
and soils (Morse, 1971; Sutton and Soonawala, 1975).

RADON
Soil gas: Measured by a counts. Over U mineralization values
may be several hundred a counts/min with short
measuring time of radon emanometer.
Waters: Measured in terms of radioactivity, usually pico-
curies/litre (pCi/litre). 10-30 pCi/litre. Values
> 100 pCi/litre may be due to U mineralization.
Mobility: Extremely high as an inert gas dissolved in waters and
diffusing through overburden and fractures in rock.
Uses: Rn in soil gas and waters is widely used as a pathfinder
for U mineralization. Extensive dispersion haloes
cannot form owing to the short half-life (Morse,
1971; Stevens et ai, 1971; Beck and Gingrich, 1976).

RARE EARTHS
Of the rare earths (RE) Ce, La and Y have been used in geochemistry most
commonly and some figures for La (pathfinder of cerian sub-group) and Y
(representative of yttrium sub-group) are given.
Stream sediments: 20-500 ppm La.
Soils: 20-1000 ppm La. Values several thousand ppm+ may
indicate RE mineralization.
<10-100 ppm Y.
Plant ash: 16 ppm (total RE).
Mobility: Moderately low.
Uses: La has been used successfully in stream sediment and
soil surveys for locating carbonatites with which RE
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 137

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

RARE EARTHS (Contd.)

minerals may be associated (Reedman, 1974). RE
elements may also occur replacing Ca in minerals
such as apatite and perovskite and may result in soil
values similar to those due to the presence of discrete
RE minerals such as monazite.
SILVER
Soils: <0·1-1 ppm. Values >0·5 ppm may indicate mineral-
ization.
Waters: 0·01-0·7 ppb.
Mobility: Fairly low.
Uses: Has been used in prospecting for Ag and Ag-Au
deposits. Sometimes also a useful ancillary element
for surveys for complex ores which are accompanied
by significant Ag contents.

TIN
Stream sediments: <5-10 ppm. Values >20ppm may indicate mineralized
areas.
Soils: <5-20 ppm. Values >50 ppm may indicate mineraliza-
tion.
Mobility: Low.
Uses: Stream sediment and soil surveys have been success-
fully employed in Sn prospecting in various parts of
the world. Owing to the ease of identifying cas-
siterite in heavy mineral concentrates, however,
traditional prospecting methods are often better than
geochemical methods if Sn is present in the coarser
size fractions.

TITANIUM
Stream sediments: 500-10 000 ppm.
Soils: 500-10 000 ppm.
Waters: 3ppb.
Mobility: Low.
Uses: Owing to ease of identifying ilmenite and rutile in
heavy mineral concentrates, geochemical prospec-
ting for Ti has hardly ever been undertaken. Often
used as an ancillary element in regional surveys
where it often has considerable value for delineating
different rock types.

TUNGSTEN
Stream sediments: <2-10 ppm. Values> 10 ppm may indicate mineralized
areas.
138 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

TUNGSTEN (Contd.)
Soils: <2-20 ppm. Values >20 ppm may indicate mineraliza-
tion and values >200 ppm observed over main ore
zones.
Mobility: Low to moderate.
Uses: Stream sediment and soil surveys have been success-
fully employed in various parts of the world in
prospecting for tungsten deposits.

URANIUM
Stream sediments: <1-5 ppm. Values >5 ppm may be due to mineraliza-
tion.
Soils: <1-10ppm. Values >lOppm may be due to mineral-
ization.
Waters: <1-1 ppb. Values >2 ppb may indicate mineralization.
Plant ash: 0·6 ppm.
Mobility: Extremely high, though readily held by organic matter.
Uses: Stream sediment, soil, vegetation and water surveys
have been successfully employed in uranium pros-
pecting (Morse, 1971).

VANADIUM
Soils: 20-500 ppm.
Waters: <1 ppb.
Plant ash: 22 ppm.
Mobility: Low.
Uses: Little use has been made of V in geochemical prospec-
ting, though it is sometimes used as an ancillary
element in regional surveys. Can be used to indicate
V-rich sulphide deposits.

ZINC
Stream sediments: 10-200 ppm. Values >200ppm may indicate mineral-
ization.
Soils: 10-300 ppm. Values >300 ppm may indicate mineral-
ization, but residual anomalies over good mineral-
ization generally > 1000 ppm.
Waters: 1-20 ppb. Values >20 ppb may indicate mineralization.
Plant ash: 1400 ppm.
Mobility: High, but adsorbed by organic matter and readily
scavenged by Mn oxides.
Uses: Zn has been widely employed in stream sediment, soil,
vegetation and water surveys allover the world with
considerable success in prospecting for zinc, lead-
zinc and complex base metal ores.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 139

TABLE 4.7 (Contd.)

ZIRCONIUM
Soils: 50-600 ppm. Values> 1000 ppm indicate possible inter-
esting concentrations of zirconiferous minerals.
Mobility: Extremely low.
Uses: Zr has been little used in geochemical prospecting.
Owing to irregular and widespread distribution of
zircon in igneous rocks and as a detrital mineral, soil
values often show wide fluctuations.

Sources: data compiled from a variety ~f--sources including Swaine (1955),

Taylor (1966), Vinogradov (1959) for soils, Cannon (1960) for plant
ash and Hawkes (1957) and Wedepohl (1969) for waters, in addition
to a number of other sources cited in the table plus unpublished
survey and company data available to the author.

rules that can be applied universally. Table 4.7 lists a number of

different elements, indicating mobilities, average background contents
in various sampling media and expected anomalous concentrations
together with a brief summary of applications in applied geochemis-
try. The table can only be used as an approximate guide since it is not
possible to set universal threshold levels. Concentrations that may be
due to mineralization for a particular element in one area may only
represent background concentrations in another area. Nevertheless,
the table does serve to indicate ranges in the right order of magnitude.
For example, 200 ppm Cu in a soil is not particularly high, but is is
extremely high and anomalous for Be.

4.4 SOIL TYPES

The study of soils is known as pedology and has become a highly

specialized discipline with a terminology and classification that is both
bewildering and daunting to the non-specialist. This is made more
confusing by the fact that usage tends to differ from country to
country. Nevertheless, it is important that anyone working in
exploration geochemistry should at least have a basic knowledge of
soils and the soil-forming process since soil is such an important
sampling medium.
Soil may be simply defined as a mixture, in varying proportions, of
decayed and decaying organic matter (humus) and various mineral
particles derived from the weathering of underlying rocks. The agri-
culturist would also add to the definition that soil is the medium in
which plants grow and by which they are supplied with water and
140 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

mineral nutrients. To the civil engineer soil has a somewhat looser

definition and is synonymous with regolith, i.e. the unconsolidated
material, of whatever origin, that nearly everywhere forms the sur-
face of the land and rests on solid rock. The exploration geochemist
would adhere to the stricter definition of the soil scientist.
The formation of soil (pedogenesis) is extremely complex, but
involves two processes, weathering and profile development. In any
given soil these processes may be present at various stages of
advancement and, although they may, and generally do, take place
simultaneously, weathering is the essential one and profile develop-
ment may be weak or even absent.

Weathering
Weathering is accomplished through physical, chemical and biological
agencies within the zone of influence of the atmosphere. Physical
agents include frost action, alternate heating and cooling, solution and
sand blasting. Chemical reactions include hydration, hydrolysis, oxi-
dation, reduction, action of acids and cation exchange. Hydration
involves the chemical combination of water with a substance, e.g. the
hydration of haematite to form limonite. Hydrolysis, which is essen-
tially the absorption of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, is a primary
factor in the breakdown of silicate minerals. The absorbed hydrogen
ions release cations which are removed in solution or are available for
further chemical reactions. Oxidation takes place under wet, aerated
conditions and chiefly involves the alteration of ferrous and man-
ganous compounds to oxides and hydroxides of higher valency.
Reduction takes place under anaerobic, 'oxygen hungry' conditions
causing compounds to give up oxygen. For example, ferric compounds
are changed to ferrous ones and sUlphates are converted to sulphides.
The formation of weak acids in the weathering environment ac-
celerates the attack on many minerals. These acids include carbonic
acid, which is formed when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water,
sulphuric acid formed by the oxidation of sulphides, and clays and
colloidal organic matter which may adsorb hydrogen ions and thus act
as weak acids. Cation exchange, or base exchange as it is sometimes
called, involves the exchange of cations in certain minerals with other
cations in solution. Clay minerals, particularly montmorillonite, have
a high cation exchange capacity.
The role of biological agents in weathering is really not separable
from physical and chemical agents as the action of plants and animals
is to assist in both the physical and chemical processes. Plant roots
penetrate and break rocks and small animals burrow into the ground
to help in the destruction of soft rocks and facilitate the entry of air
and water. The transpiration of plants adds carbon dioxide to the
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 141

atmosphere, the acids built up around plant roots assist in the break-
down of minerals and numerous bacteria are responsible for many
chemical reactions. For example, nitrifying, sulphonofying and iron
bacteria derive their energy from the oxidation of simple inorganic
compounds.
Thus, weathering is a complex process, strongly influenced by
climate and topography, in which a number of different agencies
acting in concert break down solid rocks into particles and convert
the original minerals into various clays, hydrous oxides and other
secondary minerals which are in closer equilibrium with their
environment at the surface of the earth. Minerals vary in their resis-
tance to the forces of weathering and many minerals such as quartz,
muscovite, rutile, ilmenite, chromite, beryl and cassiterite are often
found unaltered in soils, though they may have suffered a certain
amount of fragmentation.

The soil profile

As the products of weathering accumulate to form the basic sub-
stance of the soil, chemical and biological agencies act on the soil in
varying degrees, dependent on climatic conditions, to develop the soil
profile. Soil scientists recognize four zones in the soil profile. These
are:
A zone-zone of maximum biological activity and eluviation
B zone-zone of illuviation, i.e. accumulation by deposition and
precipitation
C zone-weathered bedrock
D zone-parent material
The A and B zones, which are known together as the solum, may
have the following subdivisions:
Ao--Iargely organic matter, partly decomposed
At--dark coloured horizon, organic-rich, mixed with mineral matter
A:z-light coloured horizon, zone of maximum eluviation
A3-transitional between A and B
Bt-uppermost zone of illuviation
B:z-brown horizons, accumulation of clay minerals and sesquioxides
B3-transitional to C
The A zone develops as rain water percolates downward removing
soluble compounds and fine material such as colloidal clays and
sesquioxides in suspension. Dead plant debris, which accumulates at
the surface, decays to form dark coloured humus. Micro-organisms
such as algae, fungi, bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, worms and
insects play a major role in the decomposition of organic matter.
142 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Below this dark, organic-rich layer is a light coloured horizon where

leaching and eluviation reach a maximum. Below this A horizon,
clays and sesquioxides are deposited, resulting in the characteristic
brown, red-brown or yellow-brown colour of the B horizon. Other
material in solution may also be precipitated in this horizon or may be
carried down to the water table to pass eventually into the surface
drainage. This process of leaching in the A horizon and accumulation
in the B horizon is known as podzolization. Passing downward from
the B horizon the zone of recognizable weathered bedrock, the C
zone, is reached. In this zone the term saprolite is sometimes used for
highly weathered rock which is soft and crumbly but retains the in
situ texture and structure of the parent rock so that it may be
recognized as weathered granite, schist, gabbro, etc. The C zone
becomes less weathered downwards until the fresh parent material or
D zone is reached.

World classification of soils

In the traditional classification of soils, which dates back to the latter
part of the last century, climatic conditions were considered to be the
dominant factor in pedogenesis and soil types were grouped in
climatic zones (zonal soils). It was recognized, however, that many
soils did not fit into these zonal groupings owing to sets of local
conditions such as impeded drainage or the dominating influence of a
particular parent material. These soils became known as intrazonal
soils. Finally, a third group of young, immature and poorly developed
soils, which did not fit into either of the above categories, was
recognized. These soils were called azonal soils.
In the United States a new system of classification, based on
measurable properties in the field, has been developed by the
Department of Agriculture and has been designed to avoid some of
the controversy that is inevitable in the traditional classification,
which is mainly based on genesis. This new classification, known as
the Comprehensive System of Soil Classification (CSSC), has a com-
pletely new terminology which is largely based on Greek and Latin
roots. This has resulted in a long list of new names such as plin-
thaquepts, cryaquents, spodosols, nadurargids and inceptisols, which
are both difficult to pronounce and remember. Although this new
classification undoubtedly has its advantages, it is not used widely
outside the United States and geologists prefer to use the older
classification which is still the basic system used throughout the world
and is simpler to the non-specialist.

Zonal soils
The zonal soils can be roughly divided into two main groups:
pedocals and pedalfers. The pedocals are soils in which calcium
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 143

carbonate accumulates and the pedalfers are soils in which com-

pounds of iron and aluminium accumulate. Pedocals require relatively
dry conditions in which to develop, whereas pedalfers are restricted
to wetter regions. An annual rainfall of 60 cm approximately
separates the pedocals from pedalfers. Although these terms are
widely used, they are not satisfactory for the purposes of
classification since some soils, such as Prairie soils, do not fit into
either category. Table 4.8 lists some of the great zonal soil groups and
the conditions under which they develop. The divisions cold, tem-
perate and tropical imply conditions of temperature and are not
restricted to geographical zones: For instance, typical tropical red
earths develop in temperate regions if conditions are hot and wet
enough. Likewise, soils typical of temperate regions develop in up-
land areas of the tropics. Some of the important zonal soil groups are
described below:
Tundra soils. These soils occur in the areas of permafrost and
consist of brown soil at the surface, often rich in humus. Owing
to the impeded drainage, a bluish-grey, water-logged subsoil rests
on the permanently frozen material.
Podzols. These are soils with well-developed A and B horizons.
Main types include brown podzolic soils, grey-brown podzols
and the red and yellow podzols of warm, humid regions.
Chernozems (Russian for black earth). Very thick, black A
horizon. Calcareous soil with· calcium carbonate concretions in
the C horizon.

TABLE 4.8
SOME OF THE GREAT ZONAL SOIL GROUPS AND THE CONDITIONS
UNDER WHICH THEY DEVELOP

Very cold zone Tundra soils

Brown soils
t
'0
arid (D
Desert soils Q.
0
(')
Chestnut soils !.
Temperate semi-arid grasslands Chernozems '"
Prairie soils 1
Degraded chernozems
t
'0
forest-grassland transition (D
Non-calcic brown soils Q.

timbered regions Podzols ...~

'"1
Tropical hot, humid Tropical red earths
144 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Chestnut soils. These are similar to chernozems, but develop in

areas of lower rainfall. They have a dark-brown A horizon.
Prairie soils. Deep, dark-brown or reddish-brown A horizon
without lime accumulation in their profile.
Brown soils. Brown surface soils grading into a white or grey
calcareous layer.
Desert soils. Poorly developed profile, light-coloured with little
or no organic matter. There are grey desert soils and red desert
soils and they are often overlain by calcareous material at the
surface.
Tropical red earths. These include the yellow-brown and red-
brown lateritic soils (latosols). They are thoroughly leached and
are characterized by a thin, poorly developed A horizon and thick
B horizon with marked accumulation of sesquioxides of iron and
aluminium. The laterization process is really an extreme form of
podzolization and, if it is very pronounced, it may result in the
formation of laterites (iron rich) or bauxites (aluminium rich).
Concentrations of Ti, Mn or Ni are also known in some laterites.

Intrazonal soils
Some of the main groups of intrazonal soils are listed in Table 4.9
together with the conditions required for their formation.

Bog soils. Characterized by thick accumulations of black, decay-

ing vegetable detritus-essentially an exaggerated Ao horizon.
These may be acid (acid peat soils) or slightly alkaline (fen peat
soils) if alkaline substances are dissolved in the marsh water.

TABLE 4.9
SOME OF THE MAIN INTRAZONAL SOIL GROUPS AND
THE CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR THEIR FORMATION

Conditions Soil groups

Bog soils
marshes, swamps, Humic-gleys
imperfectly drained
Meadow soils
areas Ground-water podzols

imperfectly drained Saline soils (solonchaks)

arid regions Alkali soils (solonetz)
Soloths
lime-rich wet Brown forest soils
parent dry Rendzinas
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 145

Humic-gleys. Water-logged soils rich in organic matter and

characterized by a green-grey colour due to the reducing,
anaerobic conditions which keep iron in the ferrous state.
Meadow soils. They owe their character to a fluctuating water
table so that the surface is very wet at certain times of the year.
A thick, dark, organic-rich A horizon overlies a greyish, gleyed B
horizon with rusty mottlings and spots.
Ground-water podzols. These soils are formed in areas where the
water in the lower layers is constantly draining away allowing
horizontal leaching and eluviation to take place. A typical profile
is thin organic litter (Ao) over a grey A horizon (as opposed to the
grey-green of a gleyed soil) overlying a mottled, yellowish-brown
and grey B horizon.
Solonchak. These form in areas of low rainfall and are charac-
terized by a light-grey colour and poorly developed profile with
accumulations of soluble salts.
Solonetz. These soils form under somewhat wetter conditions
than the solonchaks so that a certain proportion of the soluble
salts are leached out.
Soloth. This is simply a solonetz with signs of podzolization due
to a slightly wetter climate.
Rendzinas. Very thin soils of various colours containing frag-
ments of limestone resting directly upon the limestone bedrock.

Azonal soils
There are three main groups of azonal soils:
Regosols. Develop on unconsolidated deposits such as moraine
and sand dunes.
Lithosols. Develop on steep slopes. They are thin, stony soils
containing fresh and weathered rock fragments.
Alluvial soils. Develop on recent alluvium.

Physical properties of soils

The following physical properties are commonly used in the descrip-
tion of soils:

Colour
This is one of the most obvious properties used in the general
description of soils and is often a rough guide to the chemical and
mineralogical composition. The identification of colour, however, is
extremely subjective and it is very difficult to quantify. A number of
attempts have been made by various workers to record colours, the
best known system being the Munsell notation, but all systems suffer
146 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

from the difficulty that soil colours tend to vary with moisture
content, compaction and the nature and intensity of the illuminating
light. In describing colour it is best to use a fundamental colour such
as red, yellow, black, white, grey, green, brown and then modify it if
necessary using an adverb such as pale, reddish, greyish, dark, etc.

Texture
To the farmer soil texture is the property that describes the ease or
difficulty of working the soil. A sandy soil is described as light and a
clay soil as heavy, so that soil texture may be described according to
the particle size of the soil. The following particle sizes are used:
very coarse 1·0--2·0mm
coarse 0·5-1·0mm
{
sand medium 0·25-0·5 mm
fine 0·1-0·25 mm
very fine 0·05-0·1 mm
silt 0·002-0·05 mm
clay <0·002mm
Soil textures can thus be described as silty clay, sandy loam, clay, silt,
etc.

Structure
Soils in situ may have a definite structure which is described by
self-explanatory terms such as laminated, prismatic, columnar,
blocky, etc.

Plasticity
The degree to which a moistened lump of soil can be moulded to
different shapes is known as its plasticity.

Cohesion
U sed to describe the degree to which moistened lumps of soil hold
together.

Classification of local soils

On a local scale soils are classed in soil series which are defined as
being alike in: 1. geology, 2. mode of deposition (residual, water,
wind, ice), 3. colour, 4. topography, 5. drainage (free, good, impeded,
water-logged, etc.), 6. profile, 7. pH (generally varies from less than
5·5 for strongly acid soils to greater than 8·0 for strongly alkaline
soils) and 8. climate. A local place name may be used to identify the
series, e.g. Broadmoor Series, Lawrence Series. Slight differences in
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 147

the soils within a series may be described with textural terms, e.g.
Lawrence loams, Lawrence sandy loams, etc.

4.5 STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

A considerable amount of work has been carried out on the statistical

treatment of geochemical data and there is now a large literature on
the subject. Much of the more recent research concerns the treatment
of multivariate data and involves the use of quite complex computer
programs. To understand many of t'hese newer techniques fully
requires a knowledge of advanced mathematics, a field in which few
exploration geologists have much training. In practical mineral
exploration, however, a simple statistical approach is all that is
generally required and, although some of the advanced techniques
may be of some value in certain cases, they more properly belong to
the realm of academic research.

Selection of anomalous values

The first task in looking at a set of geochemical analytical results from
a particular area or survey is to select the anomalous values which
might be indicative of a mineralized source. The level above which
-"alues may be considered anomalous is known as the threshold and
has been mathematically defined as the mean value plus two standard
deviations, or simply the top 2~ of values. A set of geochemical
results may represent a statistical sample of one, two or more distinct
populations, it may represent an incomplete sample population, i.e.
one with an excess of low or high values, or it may be a combination
of several of these. For this reason it is not really satisfactory simply
to calculate a threshold value according to the definition 'mean plus
two standard deviations'. It is always best to make an appraisal of the
analytical results by studying a frequency distribution. One way of
doing this is to plot a histogram of values such as is shown in Fig.
4.13. Although this is often adequate, it is not the clearest method of
analyzing the sample data. It is now generally recognized that most
geochemical distributions are log-normal, i.e. the logarithms of the
values form a normal distribution. One of the easiest ways of showing
this is to use log-probability graph paper on which log-normal dis-
tributions plot as straight lines. Figure 4.14 shows the same data as
given in the histogram in Fig. 4.13 plotted as a cumulative frequency
curve on log-probability paper. This set of data contains two distinct
populations, A and B, combined in the ratio 1: 1 and, although the two
populations can be distinguished in the histogram, they are much
clearer in the curve A + B, plotted on log-probability paper. Figure
148 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

20 A
/
"0
.... 15
o
....
'0 10
<F-

p.pm.

FIG. 4.13. Histogram showing two populations, A and B.

1000

500

E
Q.
ei
100
A

50 A+B_____.

99 97·5 90 50 10 2·5 1·0

cumulative percentage
FIG.4.14 Log-probability plot of the data in the histogram in Fig. 4.13.

4.15 shows the characteristic log-probability plots of distributions

most commonly encountered.
Let us consider some actual examples. The analytical results for eu
and Zn from a soil sampling survey over a carbonatite plug in eastern
Uganda are shown in Table 4.10. Note that the cumulative percen-
tages have been calculated from highest to lowest. The resultant
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 149

0) two populations

b) excess of high values

c) excess of low values

FIG. 4.15. Some characteristic log-probability plots.

log-probability plots are given in Fig. 4.16. From these It IS im-

mediately apparent that Zn contains two populations whereas Cu in-
dicates a single log-normal population. An approximate but adequate
method for extracting the two Zn populations is to draw lines tangen-
tial to both tails of the curve passing through points equidistant from
the point of inflexion. This has been done for the Zn curve in Fig. 4.16
and, using the definition that mean background is the 50 percentile
and threshold the 2! percentile, the two populations have mean
backgrounds of 100 and 300 ppm and thresholds of 150 and 760 ppm
respectively. In this instance, this is a reflection of soils derived from
two distinct rock types. In the case of Cu, the mean background of
80 ppm and threshold of 180 ppm can be read directly from the
plotted line.
In cases where a population contains an excess of high values the
150 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.10
DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER AND ZINC VALUES IN THE -150 MESH FRAC-
TION OF 251 SOIL SAMPLES COLLECTED OVER THE LOLEKEK CAR-
BONATITE. EASTERN UGANDA

Mid-class mark No. samples Cumulative No. samples Cumulative

(ppm) copper percent zinc percent

25 19 100
50 68 92·4 6 100
75 98 65·3 69 97·6
100 41 26·3 91 70·1
125 15 10·0 33 33·9
150 8 4·0
175 1 20·7
200 6 20·3
225 0·8 3 17·9
250 7 16·7
275 2 13·9
300 0·4
350 4 13·2
375 2 11-6
400 2 10·8
425 1 10·0
450 1 9·6
500 7 9·2
550 3 6·4
600 3 5·2
650 3 4·0
700 1 2·8
775 1 2·4
900 2 1·9
1000 ~ 1·2
251 251

threshold value should be taken at the break in the curve if this falls
above the 2! percentile. A distribution of this type indicates an
incomplete population with an excess of anomalous values and, as
these might be significant, it is safest to take a threshold at a lower
value than the mathematically defined 'mean plus two standard devi-
ations'. In cases where the break occurs below the 2! percentile the
threshold can be taken normally as for the straight line case. It is
customary to divide anomalous values into two classes, possibly
anomalous and probably anomalous, with the latter defined as the
mean plus three standard deviations or the top !% of values. Some
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 151

\000

--/
...J-"/::::....
.-------i760
500

_---~- / ." _____ - 300

E
n --- /' ~ _ I~
-----= .'
Q.

100 _--- ~.~- ~ . 100

- ~" --.....-=:
1 - - - - - + - ------i80
50

995 975 90 50 10 25 05
Cumulol ',e percen age

FIG. 4.16. Log-probability plots of copper and zinc values in the -150 mesh
fraction of 251 soil samples from the Lolekek carbonatite. eastern Uganda.

workers have defined a further category, definitely anomalous, but

this seems unnecessary.
Figure 4.17 shows the log-probability plot of over 20000 zinc
values from a soil sampling survey in Ireland. The curve suggests an
incomplete population with an excess of high values and an abnormal
number of low values. In this case the possibly and probably
anomalous cut-offs were taken at the breaks in the curve at 160 and
300 ppm respectively. The excess of values below 55 ppm is due to a
large number of samples from bog soils with low zinc values.
In making a statistical appraisal of geochemical data from any
survey area, it is advisable to consider samples derived from different
rock types or from different environments in separate groups. For
example, if a soil or stream sediment sampling survey had been
carried out over an area underlain by limestone and basement granite,
it would be best to determine means and thresholds for two groups of
sample values, limestone derived and granite derived. In areas of poor
rock exposure it is not possible to do this and, in fact, a careful
interpretation of the geochemical data may assist in elucidating the
poorly known geology. In addition to geological differences it may be
necessary to consider different sample types, e.g. low organic and
high organic. This can be extremely important in stream sediment
surveys; samples from marshy or boggy streams with high organic
contents should always be considered separately from samples col-
152 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

1000 /
/
500
,/
/-·--~3oo

100
-------_._--_._.- .L./ 160

50 ~------------------------------~55

995 975 90 50 10 25 05
Cumulolove percenloqe

FIG. 4.17. Log-probability plot of zinc values in the -80 mesh fraction of
over 20 000 soil samples from a survey in central Ireland.

lected from freely drained areas. A certain amount of judgement and

common sense has to be exercised in appraising geochemical data and
this grouping of sample types should not be taken to extremes. For
instance, it is rarely necessary to divide the samples into more than
three groups unless the survey area is very large.
In summary, it should be remembered that is is not necessary to
plot graphs and histograms to determine the strongly anomalous
values; they are obvious from a quick look at the data. A thorough
statistical appraisal is important to select the low-order anomalies,
which are not readily apparent and may be of more significance.

Moving average maps

The moving average or rolling mean technique is used to smooth
irregularities in the survey data. Since this levels off both localized
lows and highs, it tends to defeat the main aim in exploration
geochemistry of defining anomalous sources. For this reason raw data
maps should be used in preference to moving average maps for
defining small scale exploration targets. In regional studies, however,
the moving average technique is ideal for outlining broad trends and
can be applied to both soil and stream sediment surveys. The tech-
nique is also extremely useful in the evaluation of eluvial and alluvial
deposits where raw data maps may not show lateral grade variations
very clearly.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 153

To produce a moving average map a square template known as the

'search area' or 'window' is placed on the map and an arithmetic or
geometric mean is calculated from all the values falling within the
square. The search area is moved across the map in successive steps
with an overlap of the previous positions and mean values are
calculated for each position of the search area. The various mean
values are plotted at the centre positions of each square and the
results are contoured to produce the final moving average map. Two
possible procedures for a soil sampling survey on a square grid are
illustrated in Fig. 4.18. In the first case a search area covering four
sample points is used with a 50% overlap. In the second case a search
area covering nine sample points is used with a 335% overlap. In both
examples the mean values calculated for the three consecutive posi-
tions of the search area shown are plotted at points 1, 2 and 3. This
process is repeated until the whole survey area is covered. In produc-
ing a moving :average map it is important to state the size of the

I
----
I

, - - - ----,---, -- -- -
I •I
I I
OIl' I . 411 2 • I
---+- I
• I I
I
I
I
• I
FIG. 4.18. Diagram to show how different moving average maps can be
produced for the same survey by varying the size and amount of overlap of
the search area.
154 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

search area used together with the amount of overlap (Fig. 4.19). If
there is no overlap, the resulting map is not strictly a moving average
map, but may be referred to as a 'fixed mean map'. It is possible to
use various shapes of search areas such as rectangles, circles and
ellipses, but elongated search areas (rectangles, ellipses) are only used
when it is desired to introduce a bias to the data. For example, they
can be used to suppress or enhance a regional trend depending upon
the orientation of the search area. However, these types of search
areas are rarely used and should only be used with the greatest degree
of caution.
Since the distribution of metal values in nature generally ap-
proximates to log-normal, many workers advocate using the
geometric mean for geochemical moving average maps. While this
may be adequate for outlining regional trends, it suppresses erratic
'highs' which may be significant in mineral exploration. To overcome
this, anomalous areas are sometimes shown in conjunction with a
moving average map by calculating standard deviations for each
position of the search area. The resulting standard deviation map can
be contoured and anomalous zones are those with highest values.
This method does not distinguish between anomalously high or low
areas, however, and raw data maps are to be preferred in mineral
exploration.

Computer methods
Since geochemistry involves the collection and study of large
amounts of numerical data, computers have special appeal to many
geochemists. While this has resulted in many useful applications,
there has been a tendency in some quarters to put too much reliance
on computer methods; some workers may even be criticized for
verging on the naive belief that computers can somehow extract
valuable information from a set of data which contains nothing of real
significance. The uses of computers in geochemistry can be placed
under two main headings: (i) rapid processing of old manual methods
and (ii) use of new techniques only possible with computers.
Under the first heading computers can be programmed to undertake
tasks such as calculating thresholds, plotting contour maps and plot-
ting moving average maps. In general exploration work, the cost of
this is often unjustified and anomaly maps can be produced manually
on a routine basis quite adequately as work progresses. The use of a
computer only really becomes desirable if a large number of elements
have been analyzed and if treatments such as moving averages are to
be applied. Once data are on computer cards, it is a simple matter for
a computer to run different programs to treat the data in various ways
that would be too time-consuming by hand.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 155

Row Do 10 Contoured

Moving .... verage Mop

o
•
100
I
200
,
m

p.p.m. Nb

HOOO D 3000-.000 D<3000

FIG. 4.19. Raw data contours compared to moving average map for niobium
values in soil over part of Sukulu carbonatite, Uganda. Sampled on a 60 m
square grid to a depth of 3 m. Moving average calculated from four-sample
search area with 50% overlap.
156 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Under the second heading there is a wide range of techniques that

can be applied to large sets of data. These include discriminant
analysis, factor analysis, trend-surface analysis and correlation and
regression analysis.
Correlation studies between different elements determined for a
batch of samples from a particular area have become popular in
computer work. The linear correlation coefficient (r) for two variables
X and Y is defined as:
r = l:(Xj - X)(Yj - Y)
VI(X - X)2I( Y _ y)2
where r = + 1 shows perfect positive correlation, r = 0 shows no
correlation and r = -1 shows perfect negative correlation. The cal-
culations are simplified by the following relationships:
I(X - X)2 = IX2 _ (IX)2
n
l:(Y - Y)(X - X) = l:XY _l: Yl:X
n
The measure is purely statistical and does not imply any causal
relationship between the variables. For example, the correlation
coefficient for La and Nb values from 251 soil samples taken over the
Lolekek carbonatite complex in eastern Uganda is +0·88 indicating
very good positive correlation and a sympathetic relation. However,
although this is due to the fact that both La and Nb are enriched in
carbonatite compared with other rock types, the elements are contained
in different minerals. If correlation studies are extended to include the
examination of correlation coefficients between all possible pairs of
variables in a multivariate set of data, the method is known as cluster
analysis, which involves the computation of similarity matrices and
requires the use of a computer. Correlation coefficients can be used to
examine the similarity or relation between samples (Q-mode) or
between the variables (R-mode).
Regression quantifies the relation between variables by means of an
equation. In the case of linear regression between two variables X and Y
the equation is of the form:
Y=bo+bIX
where Y is said to be regressed on X and bo is the Y intercept and b l
the slope of the line. For given values of X and Y the coefficients bo
and b l can be calculated by the method of least squares (see Chapter
9). Both correlation and regression analysis can be carried out when
causes of correlation between variables are poorly understood or not
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 157

known and grouping of the variables according to their mutual cor-

relations may increase one's understanding of geochemical relation-
ships within a particular survey area. However, one must always be
wary against too ready an acceptance of computer produced data.
Mathematically defined relations do not necessarily imply geochemi-
cal relations. Chapman (1976) gives some examples of the pitfalls that
may be encountered in correlation and regression analysis.
An extension of correlation analysis is factor analysis which is a
technique to ascertain the dimensionality of multivariate obser-
vations. In other words, if N is the number of variables, factor
analysis can be used to determine whether there are N independent
variables or a smaller number which can therefore be contained in a
smaller number of components or factors. The theory is quite com-
plex and is fully explained in a textbook by Harman (1960) and briefly
introduced in a number of books on statistical methods in geology
such as Krumbein and Graybill (1965). A number of computer pro-
grams are now available to carry out the extremely involved com-
putations and the technique has become quite popular in geochemis-
try. Both Q-mode and R-mode factor analyses are undertaken, but
Q-mode is probably more useful as it emphasizes relations among
samples. Factor analysis produces a number of different factor
models and it is then necessary to decide which one or ones are most
significant. For example, in a multi-element reconnaissance survey of
a particular area a four-factor model may be judged to be most sig-
nificant. It is then possible to calculate a factor loading or score for each
sample point and maps showing the distribution of factor scores for
each factor model can be produced. In some instances this may out-
line significant anomalous areas more clearly in terms of a particular
factor model (associated elements) than a conventional map of single
element concentrations. An example of this is given by Nichol (1973).
Another computer technique that has been used in geochemistry is
trend surface analysis. This is a method of data treatment that has
wide application in gravity surveying to produce residual gravity
maps, but is of rather dubious value in geochemistry. Essentially the
method is based on defining a surface in terms of a polynomial
function and determining the best fit to a given set of geochemical
data by using the method of least squares to calculate the coefficients
of the polynomial. In theory polynomials up to any power can be
used, but it is normal practice to restrict them to linear, quadratic or
cubic ones. When a trend surface has been calculated, it is considered
to represent the regional variation; the local departures or residuals
from this trend surface are then taken as the anomalies. An example
of this technique for a regional survey in Sierra Leone is given by
Nichol et al (1969).
158 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Discriminant analysis yields a function for assigning a number of

measured variables to one of several groups on the basis of a linear
function of the form:
aA+bB+cC+dD+ ... +K
where A, B, C, etc. are the variables (geochemical analyses for
different elements in this case), a, b, c, etc. are coefficients chosen to
weight the variables according to their contribution to the dis-
crimination and K is a constant. A simple example is given by:
D = O·OI2Zn + O·018Nb + O·OO7La - O·17Cu - O·OOO6Ti
which is a discriminant function devised to distinguish ijolite-derived
and carbonatite-derived soils from a carbonatite complex in eastern
Uganda, positive values indicating carbonatite bedrock and negative
values ijolite bedrock beneath the soil cover. An example of some
actual results for this discriminant function is given in Table 4.11. The
coefficients of a discriminant function are determined by taking into

TABLE 4.11
SOME SOIL SAMPLE VALUES FROM THE LOLEKEK
CARBONATITE IN EASTERN UGANDA TO ILLUSTRATE
THE DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ABOVE

Values in ppm Bedrock

Cu Zn Nb La Ti D indicated

25 1250 1000 2800 6000 +45 carbonatite

150 90 50 100 20000 -35 ijolite
70 600 230 1000 20000 -6 ijolite
40 1000 450 1800 10000 +20 carbonatite
35 100 60 100 15000 -12 ijolite

If D>O, bedrock is carbonatite; if D <0, bedrock is

ijolite.

consideration the variance of the variables and maximizing the ratio

of the difference between the sample means and the standard devia-
tions within the groups. The calculations involve the determination of
matrices and have to be done on a computer. The reader is referred to
Krumbein and Graybill (1965) for a good introduction to discriminant
functions and other statistical methods in geology. In geochemistry
discriminant analysis is commonly employed to differentiate rock
types, but it is also used as a means for distinguishing anomalies
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 159

likely to be associated with mineralization from those not due to

mineralization. Anomalies can also be grouped according to the type
of mineralization that they are likely to be associated with, but
dealing with more than two groups increases the complexity of the
calculations considerably.

4.6 DRAINAGE SURVEYS

Geochemical drainage surveys are concerned with the search for

anomalous metal contents in stream waters and sediments which
might relate to possible mineral deposits. The sampling of sediments
is of far greater importance than the sampling of stream waters and
only stream sediment surveys will be considered here, though hydro-
geochemical surveys are briefly discussed in Section 4.8.
Stream sediment surveys are ideally suited for geochemical recon-
naissance of well dissected areas undergoing active erosion. In areas
of mature and old drainage patterns with sluggish run-off the method
is much less applicable. Even in such areas, however, stream sedi-
ment surveys can be useful in the initial reconnaissance stage, though
the interpretation may be much more difficult as seepage and hydro-
morphic transport often playa dominant role.
In planning a stream sediment survey it is first necessary to
establish the type of coverage and thus sample density required for
the target(s) being sought. The sample density will be governed
ultimately by the drainage density and size of catchment areas, but as
a rough guide sample densities of one per 2-10 km 2 are used in large
regional surveys and sample densities of one per O· 5-2 km 2 are
commonly employed for more detailed reconnaissance sampling. For
outlining regional geological features and metallogenic provinces
sample densities as low as one per 100 km 2 or more have been used,
e.g. Armour-Brown and Nichol (1970). If the area being sampled is
completely new, it is advisable to undertake an orientation survey
before embarking on the full scale survey. An orientation survey can
be conducted over an area of known mineralization to determine not
only the geochemical response of the mineralization in the drainage,
but also the effective sample density and optimum size fraction for
analysis. It is often difficult to convince exploration companies of the
value of orientation surveys and, although they are not really neces-
sary in a known environment, the relatively low cost and short time
spent on an orientation survey may save considerable time and
money later and may be a significant factor in the success or failure
of a survey in an untested environment, particularly when prospecting
for the less commonly sought elements.
160 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Field procedures
Stream sediment surveys should be confined to small low-order
streams. The actual limit will vary with each survey as it depends
upon the targets sought, but large rivers with wide catchment areas
should not be sampled. The sampling interval chosen will depend
upon the degree of coverage required, but whatever interval is selec-
ted, one should make a point of sampling immediately upstream of all
confluences. Each sample should be collected from the active part of
the stream and, as only the fine sand and silt fraction is normally
analyzed, the sample should contain as much fine material as possible.
This is often quite difficult to achieve in mountainous areas with very
active erosion and it may be necessary to search around behind
boulders or in eddy pools to find sufficient fine material. Samples may
be collected whether the stream is wet or dry and in some parts of the
world with very seasonal rainfall, streams are more often dry than
wet. Ample -80 mesh material for analysis is afforded by 80-120 g of
sediment, placed in the standard Kraft paper sample packet. It is good
practice when collecting samples to fill the sample packet at each
sample site with several small amounts of sediment collected from
different points within 5-10 m of each other. Stream sediment samples
can be generally scooped up by hand, but in areas with steep banks
and deep water this may be very difficult. In such cases a small coal
shovel or garden trowel on the end of a broom handle facilitates
sample collection. In all cases, the sampler must guard against collec-
ting collapsed bank material instead of active sediment. Some
workers advocate the collection of samples in duplicate from sites
15-20m apart (e.g. Howarth and Lowenstein, 1971; Bolviken and
Sinding-Larsen, 1973), but this is not really necessary and can reduce
productivity in the field considerably.
The field crew should discuss and plan each day's sampling in the
base camp the evening before and approximate sample sites can be
marked on the maps or aerial photographs. Although careful and
thorough planning is important for any survey, it is particularly
important in remote areas where helicopters are commonly used for
transport if field crews are to be deployed efficiently. Each sampler
should carry sufficient pre-numbered sample packets for the day's
work and the actual sample locations together with sample numbers
can be marked on the maps as the samples are collected. It is rarely
necessary to mark sample sites in the field as the precise sample
location is not required when an anomalous area is revisited for
follow-up work. Field notes should be taken at each sample site and
entered in a notebook or on specially prepared field sheets. The use of
the latter is recommended, but they should not be too involved or
complicated. Some very comprehensive field sheets have been design-
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 161

ed with a large number of items for the sampler to tick off or fill in
This can result in reduced sampling productivity and, as most sam-
plers are not trained geologists, the information is rarely recorded
accurately. It is far better to have a limited amount of reliable
information than a large amount of dubious data. The information
recorded should include the amount of organic matter present, the
nature of the stream and sediment, any outcrops present and whether
there is any iron or manganese precipitate. In areas where the streams
are flowing the measurement of pH of the waters can be useful.
Figure 4.20 gives an example of a field sheet with recorded notes.
This particular field sheet has columns for analytical results and,
although this is very useful, it would not be practical if a large number
of elements were being analyzed. Productivity in the field varies
widely according to conditions and mode of transport, but it usually
averages between 15 and 40 samples/man-day.

Project Makonal< AreQ Sampler-"-S-'-K:..::R'---_ __

Date 21 - 9 - 75

Organic
Values in p.p.m Content Sediment
Sample No Remarks
~u Pb Zn NI Co H M L VC C M F
2101 4-5 10 30 I / / stt""~o.m bm w'de - '£>lu~1'5h ~Iow

jra.nl te ovtcrops
2102 50 /5 ~5 / / ~treo.m :Lrn WIde - osluglJ,<;,n ~Iow

2103 30 15 55 .; / Swl1mp~ shearn 5rY1 w,de

s.h~ ~m. WIde 3°00. J./ow

2104 65 /0 35 / I I brown <;,a.nd
rnanj ,:31'"o..n.t:e boLllllers
2105 55 15 4-0 / I I stro~ Slow - 3m Wide

2106 4-5 15 4-0 / / I "

9r-a.r1Lte outc.~ops
2107 50 15 4-5 / I .; streo..m \ rYI w~d.e - s:r0r:5j Jlow
stl'eQfl'\ 3m Wide
2108 35 /0 35 I j / 511,).9'3\'0.11 Slow - deep water
Swtlmpy - mvch Fe h::Jaf'"o'i..
2109 90 20 120 I I p("eclpltQ.t~

2110 bO 15 95 -I j j Jrj 3ul0 2", w.de - Sandy

FIG. 4.20. Example of a stream sediment survey field sheet.

Plotting and presentation of data

The first step in the presentation of the results of a drainage survey is
to plot all the streams on a transparency or series of transparencies
covering the area surveyed. A transparency for each element is laid
over the base map on which the sample numbers are marked and the
162 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

respective values plotted. After carrying out a statistical appraisal of

the data to select background and threshold values as described in
Section 4.5, one of two standard presentations can be used: a dot map
or worm diagram. In the first case each sample site is marked with a
black dot, the size of which is related to the metal content of the
sample. In the second case the thickness of the line showing the
stream course between sample sites is related to the metal content of
the sample immediately downstream. In neither case is it necessary to
show actual values, though they can be included if desired. Although
there is probably little to choose between the methods (Fig. 4.21), dot
maps are preferable for low density surveys and worm diagrams are
preferable for high density surveys. In the case of dot maps
unsampled streams are obvious, but in worm diagrams unsampled
streams can be shown with a dashed line. The divisions commonly
used for exploration surveys are: background and less, background to
possibly anomalous, possibly anomalous to probably anomalous, and
greater than probably anomalous. For very strongly anomalous values
further divisions can be used. Black and white dot maps or worm
diagrams have the advantage that prints can be obtained readily for
reports, but for working maps coloured worm diagrams with varying
colours instead of line thicknesses are useful. The colours normally
used for the divisions above are yellow, green, blue and red.
In mineral exploration stream sediment data should not normally
be presented in the form of contoured maps. In regional surveys,
however, which are undertaken to outline broad trends relating to
regional geology and possible mineralized areas and provinces, it is
normal practice to present the results of a stream sediment survey as
a series of contoured maps. Owing to the irregular areal distribution
of stream sediment data, this is usually done by dividing the area
under consideration into a number of equal units or cells and applying
a moving average technique or trend surface analysis.

Follow-up work
The type of follow-up work undertaken depends very much on the
nature of the original survey. If it was a wide spaced reconnaissance
survey, it would be quite usual for the first stage of the follow-up
work to consist of closer interval sampling along the anomalous
streams. If the sample density of the original survey was quite high,
the follow-up work would normally take the form of a soil sampling
grid over the area around and between the anomalous streams. As a
preliminary stage to a detailed soil sampling grid, it is often useful to
undertake bank sampling. This consists of sampling bank material
from both sides of an anomalous stream which may show from which
side of the river the anomaly originates and where the anomaly
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 163

p.p.m. Cu
>140
• >140 121-140

• 121-140 71-120
• 71-120 ' ~ 70
o (; 70 I
I not sampled
I

FIG.4.21. Presentation of stream sediment survey results; (a) base map with
sample numbers, (b) drainage map with copper values, (c) dot map, and (d)
worm diagram.
164 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

cut-off occurS. H exposure in the area is very good, detailed geologi-

cal mapping and prospecting may be sufficient to locate the source of
anomalous elements. In most cases though, a soil sampling survey
will have to be carried out.
H there are many anomalies and the initial survey area is very
large, it will be necessary to be selective. It is normal practice to give
the anomalies a priority rating, classifying them into first, second,
third, etc. priority, though it is unnecessary to have more than four
categories. This can be done most easily on the strength of the
anomalies, but this is rarely satisfactory as other factors need to be
taken into account. Some workers (for example Dubov, 1973;
Hawkes, 1976) have attempted to do this on a purely mathematical
basis, but there are too many variables and geochemical anomalies

Anomaly A AnomalV B

KIlometres

_ >1000 } ppm Cu In sods

501-I000 o ~ ~~
I 2
2m .. 0 10/ 0 Cu roc volues In trenches KIlometres

FIG. 4.22. Two stream sediment anomalies and their respective follow-
up soil blocks from a belt of metavolcanic rocks in central Zambia.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 165

cannot be quantified in this way except in the simplest cases. The

factors to consider are: the strength of the anomaly, associated
elements (if any), nature of the stream, local geology, amount of
organic matter, presence or absence of iron or manganese oxides and
pH. It should be appreciated that a comparison with results obtained
over known mineralization in the same environment is the most
useful measure, but such data (from orientation surveys) are all too
rarely available.
Figure 4.22 illustrates some of the pitfalls in trying to assess
geochemical anomalies. The area sampled covers a belt of metavol-
canic rocks in central Zambia and the follow-up soil sampling to two
similar stream sediment anomalies is shown. Anomaly B is due to a
long zone of low-grade copper mineralization up to 60 m wide marked
by conspicuous amounts of malachite exposed in trenches and sur-
face outcrop. Anomaly A, on the other hand, which appears to be the
better of the two at the stream sediment sampling stage, is due to
unmineralized metavolcanic rocks as trenching failed to reveal any
visible mineralization, Up to 0·1% Co in the rocks, however, is
sufficient to explain the anomalies.

4.7 SOIL SURVEYS

Soils are the most important sampling medium in geochemical pros-

pecting and may be used for both detailed and reconnaissance work.
Following a regional stream sediment survey, detailed soil sampling
of the anomalous catchments is usually a first step in follow-up work.
In areas with poor drainage a reconnaissance soil sampling survey
will be necessary. A number of different sampling schemes or pat-
terns can be used depending upon a number of factors. The obvious
and most widely used pattern is the square or rectilinear grid. In
highly dissected areas with rugged terrain it may be difficult to layout
a good sampling grid and an alternative method that can be used in
such cases is ridge and spur sampling. As the name implies, this
consists of taking soil samples along the tops of watershed ridges and
spurs. Used in conjunction with stream sediments, this method gives
very good coverage of areas with difficult terrain. Very often in
reconnaissance work it is desirable to undertake a preliminary
assessment by running a few soil sampling traverses across the area
of interest instead of becoming involved in the major task of laying
out a grid. Existing roads, tracks or boundary fences can be used for
locating the traverse lines and a high productivity can be achieved in
terms of line-kilometres, particularly if a motor vehicle is being used.
This method has been successfully employed in first stage recon-
166 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

naissance work despite the fact that sampling coverage is very

uneven.
Notwithstanding the success of other methods, the carefully laid
out sampling grid is the most satisfactory method of collecting soil
samples. The normal procedure is to layout an accurate base line and
then run perpendicular cross lines from it. A surveying chain or tape
can be used for measuring distance and a theodolite for setting off the
lines, but a compass is usually adequate unless there is undue mag-
netic disturbance. In relatively flat, open areas a bicycle wheel with
an odometer attached can be used very successfully for measuring
distance. If the vegetation is thick, it will be necessary to cut the
lines. In addition it is important to mark the positions of lines and
sampling points with pegs, blazes or flagging tape. Although it is
necessary to layout a sampling grid carefully so that the sampling
points are located accurately, it is important not to waste a great deal
of time in precision surveying. In geochemical prospecting the precise
location of background samples is of little use to anyone. In most
cases a compass and tape survey with the use of prominent features
on maps andlor aerial photographs to tie in lines will result in a well
laid out grid. It must be stressed that a good base line is most
important and it can be dispensed with only in areas with exception-
ally good topographic maps. For example, in Ireland a great deal of
sampling has been done over farmland which is divided up into small
fields which are all plotted extremely accurately on the Ordnance
Survey 6-in. (1/10 560) base maps used in the field. In such areas a
reconnaissance grid can be drawn on the maps and the sample points
located very accurately by simple map reading. Only in the larger
fields is it necessary to locate sample points by use of compass and
pacing.
In the case of grid sampling the actual pattern chosen will depend
upon the type of targets sought. If it is known that the mineralization
in a particular area has a long strike length in relation to its width,
such as a mineralized vein or stratigraphic unit, the base line should
be laid out parallel to the expected strike and the samples collected
along cross lines at right angles to the strike. In these cases the
interval between lines can be considerably greater than the sampling
interval along lines. If the strike is not known, or, if the expected
targets are likely to be equidimensional, a square grid should be used.
In practice a rectangular grid is often used since it is reasoned that
increasing the sampling frequency along lines does not involve a
proportionate increase in the time taken. For example, if it is decided
to use a 200 m x 200 m grid, it will probably only take 10-20% more
time to take samples at 100 m intervals along lines, resulting in a
200 m x 100 m grid. Even if the likely shape or orientation of possible
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 167

targets is not known, it is argued that the rectangular grid increases

the probability of samples being located over small targets. This
argument should not be stretched too far, however, and the square
grid should be considered as the universal grid. Sometimes a stag-
gered square grid or rhombic grid is used since it has a slightly better
probability of locating a target than true square grid. Commonly used
grid sizes are: 500 m x 100 m or 200 m x 200 m for reconnaissance and
100 m x 50 m or 50 m x 50 m for detail.

Collecting samples
In most soil surveys one usually attempts to take samples from the B
soil horizon, which means that the samples are generally taken at a
depth of 30-50 cm. In some instances it can be shown that shallower
samples from a depth of 10-20 cm give equally good results. For a
few elements, such as Ag and Hg, the A soil horizon may give better
results. In areas with hard, dry soils the samples are taken by digging
a small hole with a mattock or hoe. If the soil is soft and damp a small
trowel or hand auger can be used. The samples are placed in small,
numbered Kraft paper packets and brief notes taken. These should
indicate soil type (sandy loam, clay, etc.), colour and organic content.
In addition features such as outcrops, tracks, streams, etc. along the
lines should be noted. It is generally easiest to do this on a base map
of the grid as features can then readily be related from line to line.
Sample notes can also be written on the map instead of in a field
notebook or on special field sheets.
Productivity may vary from as much as 50-80 samples/man-day on
a small reconnaissance grid in open country where sample location is
by simple map reading to as little as five or less per man-day in rugged
terrain with thick vegetation where a sampling party may consist of
eight or more people necessary for running the compass line, chaining
distance and cutting the line.
The numbering system used will depend to some extent on the
sampling pattern, but for grid sampling a co-ordinate system is
probably the best. This is most conveniently done by taking a zero
point on the base line and giving reference numbers to each cross
line. For example, the line through the zero point is designated 'line
0', the line 500 m east of the zero point is 'line 5E', the line 250 m west
of the zero point is 'line 2·5W', and so on. The samples along each
line are numbered according to their distance from the base line.
Thus, the sample designated 'line 7·5EI2·5N' or '7·5E/2·5N' comes
from the point 250 m north of the base line along the cross line 750 m
east of the zero point. In addition the area needs to be specified and
this can be done by designating the various sampling blocks with
letters. For example, a complete sample number might then read
168 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

'AC/7·5E/2·5N'. This type of numbering becomes a little cumbersome

for the laboratory and it is easiest to use a straight number, preferably
with not more than five digits. This is the best system if the samples
are not being taken from a regular grid, as, for example, in ridge and
spur or traverse sampling. This is also easily done if perfectly square
or rectangular blocks are being laid out by adopting a convention such
as starting the numbering sequence in the SW corner and numbering
up and down alternate lines. Such a system has been used for a major
regional sampling programme in Ireland where very accurate 6-in
(1/10 560) base maps are available. A north-south square grid was laid
out over each sheet and pre-numbered by starting in the SW corner
and numbering up and down alternate lines. If sample points fell in
the middle of obvious obstructions such as ponds or groups of
buildings, they were left unnumbered, but otherwise, all points were
designated by a number and it was left to the field assistants to report
the reasons why a particular sample might not have been taken. Each
sheet was assigned a two-letter code and transparencies were
produced from the pre-numbered sheets so that dye-line prints could
be run off for use as field sheets. This system proved extremely
satisfactory since hand numbering machines, specially ordered with
the letter codes, could be used to number all sample packets, field
sheets and lab sheets. An average of 2000 soil samples was collected per
week for just over one year. Some workers use a six, seven or eight
digit number which is coded to indicate project, area and sample
number. For instance, the number 2040325 might mean: project 2
(2040325), area 04 (2040325) and sample 0325 (2040325). This type of
system is better for computer work where alpha-numeric systems
should be avoided.
In areas with good climates and plenty of sunshine the samples can
be dried in the open at the field camp, but, if the climate is wet or
damp, it will be necessary to dry the samples on a makeshift drier at
the camp or in a special drying cabinet at the laboratory. It is
generally preferable to dry and sieve samples in the field unless the
sampling operations are being conducted within easy reach of the
laboratory. When the samples are dry, they can be 'crushed' for
sieving by placing the full sample packet on a wooden block and
hitting it hard several times with a wooden mallet. Unless undue force
is used, this will not split the normal Kraft paper sample packet. In
tropical areas where latosol soils may predominate many workers
advocate crushing the samples lightly with a mortar and pestle before
sieving to ensure a breakdown of the aggregated iron oxides. Tests
have shown, however, that this is not necessary unless the soils are
markedly pisoolitic. Stainless steel or nylon bolting cloth sieves
should be used and in most cases a few shakes of the sieve will result
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 169

in sufficient fines (a few grams). Before sieving another sample, it is

important to ensure that the sieve is clean: a 3·5 cm or 5 cm paint
brush can be used for doing this. The sieved samples are placed in
small, unsealed, paper envelopes which are slipped into small poly-
thene bags to ensure that there is no leakage and cross contamination
in transporting to the laboratory. It should be possible for one person
to sieve 60-100 samples/h.
The -80 mesh (0·2 mm) size fraction is most commonly used for
geochemical samples, but finer or coarser size fractions may be used
in certain cases. For most soil and stream sediment samples the size
fraction chosen represents the natural fines of the sample, i.e. the
sample is not ground before sieving. This is done for three main
reasons: (i) it is generally found that the elements of interest are
concentrated in the finer fractions, (ii) fine material is required for
adequate digestion prior to analysis and (iii) time and cost are saved
by not having to grind the samples. A coarser natural size fraction
(-10 + 30 mesh for example) may be found to contain higher concen-
trations of the element sought, if discrete minerals of the element of
interest are present or if pisoolitic latosol soils are involved. In the
first case it might be advantageous to consider traditional panning
methods in preference to geochemical sampling (see pp. 52-57) and
in the second case crushing the samples before sieving with a mortar
and pestle as mentioned earlier may be necessary. Coarser size
fractions have often been found to be of more value in tin and
tungsten exploration (both amenable to traditional prospecting
methods) and for many base metals in some lateritic soils.

Orientation surveys
Before starting a survey in anew, untested area, it is advisable to
carry out a brief orientation survey to determine the optimum size
fraction for analysis, the best sampling depth and, if possible, the
geochemical response to known mineralization. Although the im-
portance of orientation surveys has probably been overstressed by
academic geochemists, it is essential to be aware of the pitfalls of
going ahead with a conventional geochemical prospecting programme
using the -80 mesh size fraction in an unknown environment. Such
an approach, for example, would have met with little success in the
area of tin mineralization described on page 54. Another aspect to
consider at the orientation survey stage is the possible effect of
contamination due to human activity.
Figure 4.23 shows an orientation survey traverse over an alkaline
complex in eastern Uganda and it can be seen that, in the case of Cu,
sampling at the shallow depth of 15 cm would have been quite
adequate, but in the case of Be the 45 cm depth clearly produces
170 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

400
300
E Cu
~ 200 -80 mesh

100

Buk iribo Butir iku

Zuzu riverl + Manofwo river

West East
sample depths
1Scm 0, 2 km
---
----
4Scm
90cm

FIG. 4.23. Orientation survey traverse across the Butiriku carbonatite

complex, southeast Uganda showing results for eu and Be.

better results. This was also shown by a number of other elements so

a 45 cm sampling depth was used for the main survey. It was also
shown that analysis of the -150 mesh fraction of the fine-grained soils
gave better contrast than the - 80 mesh fraction for a number of
elements. In addition it was established that fears of contamination
from super-phosphate fertilizers (P was one of the elements of
interest), used on small coffee plantations in the area, were un-
founded.

Plotting of data
Soil surveys are normally presented as contoured maps and the
contours are referred to as isopleths (lines of equal concentration or
abundance). Ranges between contours can be shown by colours or
grey shading. Each sampling point with its sample value should be
shown, but sample numbers should not be included as they cause
confusion. It is permissible, however, to indicate a sequence of
numbers by plotting sample numbers at the ends of lines. Irregular
patterns of sampling, such as ridge and spur or traversing, can be
presented as dot maps (see page 162) or by using different coloured
spots at each sample site. Some workers present geochemical maps
without showing sample sites or values. If this is done, it is important
to indicate on the map the sampling pattern used, such as, 'sampled
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 171

on a 100 m x 100 m grid'. The sample depth, analytical method and

size fraction analyzed should also be given.

Follow-up work
The first step in the follow-up to a reconnaissance survey will be to
sample the area of interest on a closer-spaced grid. For example, an
anomaly located on a 500 m x 200 m reconnaissance grid might be
resampled on a 250 m x 100 m grid or an even closer-spaced interval,
but it is rarely worth sampling on a grid smaller than 25 m x 25 m,
unless the expected targets are very small veins or pegmatites.
Detailed, close-spaced sampling of the near surface soils generally
achieves very little and it is important to obtain information in depth
as early as possible. The various methods of doing this are all
described in Chapter 5. If indications after this stage are promising,
the anomaly may be followed up with a geophysical survey before a
decision to drill is finally taken.

Contamination
Contamination is a problem in old mining areas and may make the
application of geochemical prospecting methods difficult, but not
impossible if precautions are taken. In parts of Zambia it has been
possible to ascribe some copper anomalies to old smelting sites in the
vicinity of rich copper oxide deposits which were worked on a small
scale by the indigenous peoples before the arrival of Europeans at the
turn of the present century. In such areas one has to be extremely
careful in interpreting anomalies as some may be due to natural
sources. Fumes from smelters can cause widespread contamination,
but is usually confined to the top 10 or 15 cm of the soil and sampling
at a depth of 40 or 50 cm will generally avoid any problems. Low
order lead anomalies in soils are common near busy major roads or
road intersections owing to contamination from lead-based anti-
knocking agents used in petrol. Fine dust from old tailings dumps can
be carried considerable distances by wind, but, like smelter con-
tamination, it usually only affects the soil to very shallow depths. In
stream sediment and lake sediment sampling contamination from old
tailings entering drainage systems can be a big problem and dispersion
trains many kilometres long have been observed downstream from
old tailings dumps. Contamination from other sources has often been
overrated and one should be very cautious about writing off an
anomaly as being due to contamination just because some old copper
wire or galvanized sheeting was found at the site. For example, a Zn
soil anomaly > 1000 ppm, 50 m wide, 200 m long and persisting to a
depth of 1 m contains 15 tonnes of Zn which is rather more than could
have come from a few old galvanized buckets or roofing sheets!
172 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

4.8 VEGETATION AND WATER SURVEYS

Instead of sampling rocks, soils or stream sediments, both plant

material and river, lake and ground waters can be used as sampling
media in geochemical prospecting. The sampling of vegetation is
known as biogeochemical prospecting and that of natural waters as
hydrogeochemical prospecting. Of the two, hydrogeochemical
methods have proved more valuable and are more widely used.

Vegetation surveys
It is common knowledge to most people that the type of soil and
underlying rocks have a close bearing on the type of vegetation that
will grow most readily. Some plants prefer acid soils and will not
grow well on limestone soils. These plants, such as the shrub
rhododendron, are known as calcifuges. There are other plants which
prefer distinctly alkaline soils and will not grow well on acid soils.
Some can tolerate wet, water-logged conditions and others cannot.
There are some plants that can tolerate high levels of elements such
as Ni and Cr in the calcium-poor soils over ultrabasic rocks and hence
grow in preference to others that cannot tolerate this environment.
Such associations between assemblages of plants and the underlying
geology are used as an aid to geological mapping and are extremely
important in photogeological interpretation.
Plants take up nutrients from the soil through their roots and, if one
compares the concentrations of various elements in plant tissues
compared to concentrations in the soil in which the plant is growing,
the elements can be divided into three broad groups. The first group
comprises the biogenic elements and includes H, C, 0, N, P and S.
These are the elements which make up the bulk of the plant tissue
and generally occur in the plant at concentrations well above those in
the soil. The second group comprises the essential trace elements
which are necessary for healthy growth. These include B, Mg, K, Ca,
Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn and commonly occur in the plant at roughly the
same concentrations as those in the soil. The third group are the
non-essential and toxic elements. These include Pb, Sr, Hg, Be, U,
Cr, Ni, Ag, Sn, and Se and normally occur in the plant in concen-
trations well below those in the soil. These are broad generalizations
as not only do different species of plants vary widely in their uptake
of elements, but the availability of elements in a soluble form is also
an important factor. In addition some of the toxic elements such as Ni
and Se may be essential in very small amounts to some plants and some
of the essential trace elements may be toxic if present in strong
concentrations.
Since most elements that are of interest in mineral exploration are
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 173

moderately to strongly toxic to plant life, vegetation in soils overlying

mineralization is often strongly affected. In areas where there are high
concentrations of elements such as Pb, Cu, Hg and Ni in soils in a
form available to plants, the vegetation is often severely stunted or
restricted to a few hardy individuals. The result is often a con-
spicuous clearing such as the 'copper clearings' in Zambia mentioned
in Chapter 3. There are many other examples and Bolviken and Lag
(1977) give an interesting account of small 'metal clearings' in Nor-
way. In addition to plants that can tolerate concentrations of toxic
elements there are others that seem to require minimum levels of
certain elements toxic to other plants before they will grow. Such
plants are known as indicator plants and there are a number of
examples. The best known are probably the copper flower in Zambia
and the selenium flora in the western United States. Experiments with
the small mauve-white copper flower (Beccium homblei) in Zambia
(Horizon Magazine, 1959) have shown that the seeds will not ger-
minate in solutions containing less than 50 ppm Cu and several
hundred ppm are required for most vigorous growth, but more than
600 ppm Cu is lethal. In soils where only part of the copper is readily
available to the plants, the presence of the copper flower indicates
several hundred to several thousand ppm Cu. In the western United
States the selenium flora is a useful indicator of uranium mineraliza-
tion owing to the fact that Se usually accompanies U in the sedimen-
tary deposits of the Colorado Plateau. The most useful are various
species of poison vetch (Astragalus). Some examples of indicator
plants that have been used in various parts of the world are given in
Table 4.12.
In addition to the use of indicator plants in prospecting, mor-
phological changes may also indicate the presence of toxic elements.
Stunted growth has already been mentioned, but probably the most
important is yellowing of the leaves (chlorosis) which is caused by
concentrations of elements such as Cu, Zn, Mn and Ni which inter-
fere with iron metabolism of the plant. In some instances mutations
may occur, e.g. changes in the shape and coloration of the petals of a
poppy have been observed over a copper-molybdenum deposit in
Armenia (Malyuga, 1964).
The recognition of distinctive plant species (indicator plants) or of
changes in plants (e.g. stunting and chlorosis) as an aid in prospecting
is not a geochemical method. It is known as geobotanical prospecting,
but it is discussed here as it is a useful introduction to biogeochemi-
cal methods which involve the analysis of plant material. Research
into the uses of biogeochemistry in prospecting has been carried out
since the 1930's and 1940's, particularly in the Soviet Union and
North America, and it has been clearly established that analysis of
174 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.12
EXAMPLES OF INDICATOR PLANTS (FROM BROOKS, 1972 AND MALYUGA,
1964).

Element Indicator plant Region

Copper Copper flower (Beccium Zambia

homblei)
California poppy Arizona, USA
(Eschscholtzia mexicana)
Nickel Alyssum (Alyssum murale) Georgia, USSR
Lead Beardgrass (Erianthus Tennessee, USA
giganteus)
Selenium Woody aster (Aster venusta) Western USA
(associated Poison vetch (Astragalus sp.)
with uranium)
Zinc Calamine violet (Viola Belgium and Germany
calaminaria)
Boron Sea lavender (Limonium Caspian lowlands,
suffruticosum) USSR
Gold Horsetail (Equisetum Czechoslovakia
arvense)

plant material can be very effective in delineating anomalous concen-

trations of elements related to mineralization. Plant material collected
for a geochemical survey is ashed prior to analysis. This removes
most of the biogenic elements which make up the bulk of the plant
tissue and the elements of interest are concentrated in the residue.
The ash is normally 1-3% of the dry weight, so that the elements of
interest are concentrated up to 100 times their levels in the original
plant tissue. Some elements may reach very high concentrations in
ash of plants growing over mineralization, e.g. up to 1·75% Mo has
been found in the ash of fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) growing on
the Endako molybdenum deposit in British Columbia (Warren, 1972)
and up to 10000 ppm arsenic has been found in the twig ash of Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) growing over arseniferous metal deposits
(Warren et al., 1964). It has been shown that metal accumulations in
shrubs and trees are greatest in the first- and second-year growth of
twigs and shoots. Grassy plants, almost without exception, accumulate
Ni, Cu, Co, Mo, Zn, Cr, Pb, Band U in stems and leaves. In addition the
capability of plants to accumulate elements increases with their age,
presumably a result of the expanding root system which is able to tap a
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 175

larger and larger volume of soil. It has also been shown that there are
seasonal variations.
An advantage of a biogeochemical survey over a soil survey is that
anomalies in plant ash may be more readily detected owing to the
concentration of metals in the ash. This is generally outweighed by
the fact that more work is involved in plant sampling than in soil
sampling and the main advantage of biogeochemical surveys is that
they provide a means of sampling at some depth below the surface by
virtue of the plant's root system. For this reason deep-rooted plants
are preferred for biogeochemical surveys. The effective depths not
only show a variation with species, but also show a broad variation with
climatic conditions. For instance in the tundra effective depths are of
the order of 1-2 m, in coniferous forest of temperate regions effective
depths may be 2-5 m and in dry steppe or prairie regions effective
depths can be 10-20 m. Greater depths of detection of 30 m or more
have been claimed in some parts of the world. For example, Chaffee
and Hessin (1971) located copper mineralization under alluvium up to
75 m deep by analyzing ash from the stems of the deep rooted
ironwood (Olneya tesota A. Gray) in southern Arizona. The Cu
anomalies disclosed by the plant ash were 240 m from the nearest
detectable soil anomaly.
To undertake a biogeochemical survey it is necessary to collect a
minimum of 300 g of material from each plant. As a general rule it has
been found that young twigs give the best results, but this can vary
with different species. It is also generally accepted practice that the
survey should be restricted to a single species. This is often a
disadvantage with biogeochemical surveys since the distribution of
plant species within a proposed survey area is often very variable.
Russian workers, however, maintain that it is not necessary to restrict
sampling to a single species to obtain meaningful results (Malyuga,
1%4). The chosen species should be sampled exclusively as far as
possible, but alternative species can be sampled if it is necessary to
complete coverage of the survey area. It is also important to collect
the samples from sites as near as possible to a regular grid or pattern,
but this is often another disadvantage to vegetation surveys as the
location of sampling points may be irregular. After the samples are
collected in numbered bags, the material is left to dry to a flammable
state. At this stage they can be sent off to the laboratory for ashing
and analysis or they can be charred in the air in a dish on a camp gas
or primus stove and the ash placed in sample packets and sent off to
the laboratory. This practice is preferred as it makes handling in the
laboratory much simpler. Prior to analysis the samples are finally
ashed in porcelain crucibles at 450-500°C, though this temperature is
too high for elements such as Sb, Hg, Se and Te and methods of wet
'ashing' should be used for these elements.
176 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

More and more research into vegetation surveys is being conducted

all over the world and, although it has been shown that they have
undoubted value in certain specialized cases, their application in
applied exploration is definitely limited. There are numerous exam-
ples of workers demonstrating that biogeochemical surveys can be
successfully applied in areas where soil surveys work equally well
(e.g. Hornbrook, 1%9). Very often this is simply a consequence of
plants dying and decaying and dropping leaves which decay, thus
releasing any metals accumulated by them back to the soil.

Water surveys
Analysis of water from rivers and lakes and groundwaters from wells
and springs can be an important method in geochemical prospecting.
Groundwaters may be in contact with the enclosing rocks for con-
siderable periods of time 'allowing substances to dissolve and a
chemical equilibrium to be established which is closely related to the
chemistry of the containing aquifer. It is therefore obvious that
groundwaters may vary considerably from place to place in their
content of dissolved solids. For example, deep brines from oilfields
with halite deposits may contain considerably more dissolved solids
than seawater and ground waters from basement rocks may be vit-
tually pure by comparison. Groundwaters used in mineral exploration,
however, are generally from shallow sources and most metal concen-
trations are in the ppb range.
River and lake waters are in general largely derived from surface
run-off, but groundwaters may contribute significant quantities
through springs and 'base-flow'. Compared with entrapped ground-
waters, river and lake waters show much greater variation in content
of dissolved solids as they are subject to large and sudden variations
in run-off in addition to changes in pH, Eh and chemical environment
that can take place over short distances. Hoag and Webber (1976)
give a useful review of the sources of anomalous waters.
Samples are collected in the field in absolutely clean polythene
bottles (250-500 ml) using the procedure of washing the bottles out
two or three times with the water being collected. To ensure that the
bottles are free of contamination, they should be cleaned with a
strong metal-free acid before being taken into the field. It is also
normal practice to acidify the sample upon collection with two or
three drops of metal-free concentrated nitric acid to prevent pre-
cipitation of any metals present. If pH and Eh measurements or
determinations of substances which would be affected by the acid are
required, it will be necessary to collect a duplicate sample unless
these measurements are made on the spot. In addition it may be
necessary to filter the samples if they contain suspended solids, but
this is more conveniently done in the laboratory prior to analysis.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 177

When collecting lake waters, some workers advocate taking samples

at depth from below the thermocline (point of temperature inversion
in stratified lake waters), but other workers consider this unnecessary
and claim that surface waters are quite adequate.
Hydrogeochemical surveys have been used all over the world in
exploring for a wide range of elements using surface waters from
streams and lakes and groundwaters from wells and springs. In the
case of streams, sediments have usually proved to be the better
sampling medium and are to be preferred in most cases. In the case of
lake waters, it has been found that waters are as good as lake
sediments and may be considered preferable. In a study of an area of
the Canadian Shield, Cameron (1977) concluded that lake waters were
a better sampling medium than lake sediments. Since the lake waters
tend to be homogeneous across the surface, the waters are more
easily collected and analyzed than the lake-bottom sediments and the
indicator elements in the waters always increase in concentration
towards a source, unlike the same elements in lake sediments which
show a big variation depending on precipitation controls. In the case
of groundwaters, hydrogeochemical methods offer the possibility of
obtaining sample information from sources at depth. An example of
such a survey is given by De Geoffroy et al (1967 and 1968), who used
groundwater successfully for locating zinc mineralization in Wis-
conSIn.
Hydrogeochemical surveys will probably always remain of minor
importance in geochemical prospecting owing to the fact that the
metal content of waters may not only show big seasonal variations,
but may also display wide variations over shorter intervals of time
and interpretation can be difficult as it is not always easy to determine
sources. In addition productivity in sample collection is generally low
in cQmparison with other methods. In spite of these drawbacks,
however, hydrogeochemical surveys may offer a useful alternative in
many areas. This is particularly true in uranium exploration where the
high mobility of uranium and its daughter product radon and the
relative ease with which low levels of both elements can be detected
make water surveys an important method.

4.9 ANALYTICAL METHODS

A high degree of accuracy is not a prime consideration for analytical

methods used in geochemical exploration. Rather it is essential that
they be rapid, inexpensive and relatively simple and to this end a certain
amount of precision can be sacrificed. A wide range of rapid analytical
techniques have been developed and adapted for geochemical prospec-
ting, the principal methods being chromatography, colorimetry, emis-
sion spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence and atomic absorption. Other
178 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

methods that are used in specialized cases include neutron activation,

radiometry and potentiometry.

Paper chromatography
This method has been widely used in the past mainly for Cu, Pb, Zn,
Ni, Co, Mo, Bi, Nb, Ta, Se and U, but it suffers from poor precision
at low metal concentrations and is very sensitive to variations in
atmospheric humidity. For these reasons it is rarely used today as
both colorimetry and atomic absorption, particularly the latter, have
much better precision.
The technique for Cu, Ni, Co and Zn is briefly as follows: 0·5 g of
sample (-80 mesh) is placed in a pyrex test tube and mixed with 1 g of
potassium bisulphate. This mixture is gently fused for 10 min and,
after cooling, 2 ml of dilute HCI and HN0 3 are added and the test
tube is gently heated on a water bath for 10 min. After the sample has
settled, 0·01 ml of the solution is placed at the end of a strip of
Whatman's CR-l chromatography paper with a capillary pipette. This
special slotted paper allows ten chromatograms to be run simul-
taneously. After drying, the paper strip is hung in a tank with the end
to which the sample was applied dipped in a shallow layer of solvent
made up of 15 ml HCI, 10 ml H 20 and 75 ml methyl-ethyl ketone.
When the solvent front is almost at the top of the strip, the paper is
removed, dried briefly in air, immersed in ammonia vapour for 2 min
and sprayed with 0·1% rubeannic acid solution in ethyl alcohol and
water. The strips are then compared against a series of standard
chromatograms. Copper is greenish-grey near the top of the strip
below a brown iron stain, cobalt is yellowish-brown just below copper
and nickel is bright blue at the base of the strip. To determine zinc the
strip is immersed in ammonia vapour again and sprayed with 1%
dithizone solution. The zinc band now appears bright pink between
copper and iron.
A technique for determining niobium is similar except that
hydrofluoric acid is used for sample digestion and with the methyl-
ethyl ketone solvent and 2% tannic acid solution is used in place of
rubeannic acid or dithizone. This gives an orange chromatogram.
Full descriptions of the techniques for determining various ele-
ments are given by Hunt et al (1955) and Ritchie (1964).

Colorimetry
This technique is based upon the principle that the absorbance of
radiation and hence colour intensity of a coloured solution is propor-
tional to the concentration of the solute (Beer's law). For analytical
purposes there are a wide range of specific organic reagents which
form characteristic coloured complexes with different metallic ions.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 179

In essence analysis is carried out by adding the complexing reagent

for tl>at particular element to the sample solution and then comparing
the colour intensity with a series of standard solutions. In practice it
i~ usually more complex than this as it may be necessary to adjust the
pH of the solution and to remove or suppress possible interfering
elements. Very accurate determinations are possible with colorimetry
by making precise measurements of the absorbance using pho-
tometers or spectrophotometers. In geochemical work, however, it is
usually only necessary to make visual comparisons.
Colorimetric analysis has been adapted for a number of rapid cold
extraction field tests for heavy metals, principally Cu, Pb and Zn.
These tests are not used very much today, but they are still useful if
one requires some quick interim results, particularly in a remote area
where there may be considerable delay in receiving results from a
laboratory. One of these tests was devised by Harold Bloom (1955)
and is· known as the 'Bloom test'. A brief description follows:
Approximately 100 mg of sample (- 80 mesh) is placed in a 25 ml
glass-stoppered cylinder. (The sample is not weighed, but is measured
out with a small plastic scoop that holds approximately 100 mg of
sample.) Five millilitres of an ammonium citrate solution and 1 ml
of 0·003% dithizone solution in pure xylene are added, the tube is
stoppered and shaken vigorously for 5 s and allowed to settle for
about 30 s until the organic and aqueous phases have separated. The
colour in the xylene is observed and an index recorded according
to colour (green = 0, green-blue = t blue = 1, blue-purple = I!). If the
colour is purple to red, it is titrated with I ml increments of dithizone
solution until the blue-purple colour is obtained, the number of mls of
dithizone solution required being recorded as an index. The am-
monium citrate solution is made up by dissolving 25 g ammonium
citrate and 4 g hydroxylamine hydrochloride in 300 ml of water.
Ammonium hydroxide is added until the pH is 8·5 and the final
solution is made up to 500 ml with water. A 0·01% solution of
dithizone in carbon tetrachloride is used to purify the ammonium
citrate solution of heavy metals by repeated shakings and separations
with small amounts of dithizone solution until the colour of the
carbon tetrachloride layer is green. The dithizone solution
deteriorates quite rapidly and should be freshly prepared every few
days. If the working solution has a yellowish hue, it indicates that the
reagent has deteriorated and fresh solution should be made up.
Qualitative tests for Pb, Cu and Zn are as follows: (i) Lead; add 3
drops of 5% KeN solution, 1 ml dithizone solution and 1 ml am-
monium citrate solution. Shake vigorously. If the original colour
persists, lead is predominantly present. (ii) Copper; to 1 g of sample
add 1 ml dithizone solution and 5 ml ammonium citrate solution.
180 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Shake vigorously. If the xylene layer is brown and turns to wine-

purple on addition of more dithizone, copper is predominantly
present. (iii) Zinc; if neither lead nor copper is identified, the
original colour can be ascribed to zinc. The Bloom test does not give
values in ppm as different concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn give
different colour responses with dithizone. The sensitivity is ap-
proximately 50 ppm Total Heavy Metal (THM) and, as a rough guide,
indices greater than 3 or 4 can probably be regarded as anomalous
with indices of 20 or over equivalent to several thousand ppm THM.
A wide range of procedures for various elements have been des-
cribed by various workers for the colorimetric determination of total
metal content following a hot extraction. A list of elements with their
respective colorimetric reagents is given in Table 4.13. Full descrip-
tions of the procedures for 25 elements are given by Stanton (1966).

TABLE 4.13
SOME ELEMENTS AND THEIR COLORIMETRIC REAGENTS. RANGES IN
PPM ARE THE LOWER RANGES. IN MOST CASES TOP RANGE CAN BE
INCREASED 5-FOLD OR MORE BY TAKING SMALLER ALIQUOTS OF
SAMPLE SOLUTION

Element Reagent Colour Range

Antimony Brilliant green blue 0-4-220

Beryllium Beryllon II blue 1-40
Bismuth Sodium diethyldithio-
carbamate yellow 20-160
Cobalt Tri-n-butylamine blue 1-250
Copper Biquinolin red 2-2000
Gold Brilliant green blue 0·05-4
Lead Dithizone mixed colour* 10-2000
Molybdenum Dithiol yellow-green 1-100
Nickel a -furildioxime yellow 1-750
Tin Gallein mixed colourt 0-5-100
Titanium Tiron yellow 100-200000
Tungsten Dithiol blue-green 4-400
Ammonium metavanadate +
Phosphorus ammonium molybdate yellow 20-2000
Zinc Dithizone mixed colour* 10-2000
Diphenylcarbazide red violet 5-250
Chromium yellow
(from chromate) 100-3000
Manganese (from permanganate) purple 50-10000

*green-blue to blue to purple to pink

tgrey to purple to pink
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 181

For interest, procedures for copper (Almond, 1955) and molybdenum

(North, 1956) are given below as examples of the technique:
Copper. Thoroughly mix 100 mg of sample with 500 mg of potassium
bisulphate, place in a pyrex test tube and fuse for several minutes
over a flame (a primus stove will do). Remove from the heat and
rotate the tube so that the melt solidifies in a thin layer on the walls of
the tube. Cool, add 3 ml of 6N HCI and heat on a water bath until the
melt breaks up. Remove from the water bath and dilute to 10 ml with
distilled water. Transfer a 2·5 ml aliquot to a screw-cap culture tube,
add approximately 50 mg hydroxylamine hydrochloride and allow to
stand, but shake occasionally to dissolve the hydroxylamine hydro-
chloride. Add 10 ml of buffer solution and 2 ml biquinolin solution.
Shake the tube for 30 s. Allow to stand until phases separate and
compare with a series of prepared standard copper solutions. The
buffer solution is made up by dissolving 400 g sodium acetate and
100 g potassium tartrate in 1 litre of water. This must be free of
copper and a sample of the solution can be tested for copper with
hydroxylamine hydrochloride and biquinolin solution. The biquinolin
solution is made up by dissolving 0·2 g of 2,2'-biquinolin in 900 ml
isoamyl alcohol and then making up to 1 litre with isoamyl
alcohol. This should be colourless. If it is yellowish, the reagent
is not pure. This technique is sensitive down to 2 ppm in the original
sample.
Molybdenum. Mix 250 mg of sample with 1·25 g of finely ground
fusion mixture consisting of 5 parts of sodium carbonate, 4 parts of
sodium chloride and 1 part of potassium nitrate. Place in a nickel
crucible and fuse over a flame. Allow to cool and add 3 ml hot water.
Leave overnight. Heat gently to free melt and transfer to a graduated
test tube and make up to 5 ml mark. Heat on a water bath for 10 min.
Allow to cool and settle. Transfer 2 ml aliquot to a cylindrical
separating funnel (16 mm diameter), add 2 ml hydroxylamine hydro-
chloride solution cautiously and allow to cool. Add 0·6 ml dithiol
solution and shake funnel over a period of 15 min. Drain off aqueous
phase. Add 4 ml concentrated HCI and shake for 30 sec. Set aside and
allow phases to separate and compare against a series of prepared
standards. The hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution is made up by
dissolving 2·5 g hydroxylamine hydrochloride in 10 ml water and then
adding 90 ml concentrated HCI. The dithiol solution is made up by
melting 1 g of toluene-3,4-dithiol at 30-40°C and dissolving in 100 ml
of isoamyl alcohol. This technique is sensitive down to 1 ppm
molybdenum in the original sample.
With most of the colorimetric procedures it is possible to achieve
between 30 and 100 determinations per man-day at precisions of
±20-30% at the 95% confidence level.
182 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Emission spectroscopy
Emission spectroscopy has played and continues to play an extremely
important role in the determination of trace elements in pure geo-
chemistry. Although the importance of this method has been reduced
by the use of newer techniques such as X-ray fluorescence and
atomic absorption, the development of advanced direct-reading spec-
trographs has meant that emission spectroscopy remains an important
analytical method. In geochemical prospecting emission spectroscopy
was used more widely in the past than it is today, but the method still
has considerable appeal owing to the fact that a sample can be
analyzed for a large number of elements at one time. Since direct-
reading spectrographs are very costly, emission spectrographs utiliz-
ing photographic detection are commonly used in geochemical
exploration.
In emission spectroscopy a sample is exci~ed by an electric arc
struck between two electrodes causing elements in the sample to emit
radiation of characteristic wavelengths. In the spectrograph this radi-
ation is dispersed by a prism or diffraction grating into the various
spectral lines which make it possible to identify the elements present
in the sample. In addition the intensity of the radiation of some
particular wavelength depends upon the quantity of the corresponding
element in the sample and quantitative measurements can be made.
Highly volatile elements cannot be analyzed without special pro-
cedures as they are burnt off in the arc before they can be recorded.
In a typical spectrograph utilizing photographic detection the
general procedure adopted in most geochemical laboratories is as
follows: 100 mg or more of sample is mixed 1: 1 with pure carbon
powder and packed into a recess at the end of a graphite anode. A
small amount of buffer such as Li2C03 or K 2S04 may be added to
reduce matrix effects and for accurate work it is also necessary to add
a small known amount of a 'specpure' oxide such as Ge02 or LU203 to
provide what is known as an internal standard. The packed electrode
is then preheated in an oven at several hundred degrees Centigrade to
eliminate any combined water. A graphite cathode and the packed
anode are clamped into place and the arc gap (usually about 2 mm) is
adjusted according to the particular instrument being used. The
sample is then arced for 30 s or more and the spectral lines are
recorded on a photographic film. On most instruments 12 or more
samples are recorded side by side on a single photographic plate and
it is normal practice to include at least one standard or control sample
on each complete plate. The intensities of the various spectral lines
are then compared against a series of known standards run on the
same instrument under identical conditions. These standards are very
carefully made up in steps of increasing concentrations from 'spec-
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 183

III

I
III III III II IIII
III
Q)
Ci
III 111 11 1 II 111 111
E
5:
1 11 1" I1 11I
'111 111 11 1 II 111 II
I I II II I II 1111
FIG. 4.24. Photograph of part of the emission spectra of a set of six
standards and six unknown samples as displayed on a comparator screen. The
comparator projects greatly enlarged images of developed films from a
spectrograph on to a translucent screen and allows a set of standard spectra
to be placed alongside spectra of unknown samples for comparison. In the
example shown the 3345 A Zn line. sandwiched between strong Ti lines. is
being read. Note how the intensity of the Zn line increases in the set of
standards from top to bottom as the known Zn content increases. The top
sample spectra and a standard with a Zn line of similar intensity have been
juxtaposed.

pure' chemicals of the various elements being analyzed. The plates

can be compared visually with the standards on a comparator (Fig.
4.24) or a microphotometer can be used to measure the spectral line
intensities accurately. The internal standard is mainly used to reduce
errors caused by variations in the burn, but it also controls variations
in the photographic process. For example, if each sample contains an
internal standard of exactly 400 ppm Ge, the same spectral line for Ge
should have the same intensity on all plates. If any plates show too
great a variation in the Ge spectral line, samples on those plates are
generally run again. If the concentration of an element is too high, the
intensity of the spectraI.line may be too strong to measure accurately.
To accommodate this most instruments have an intensity control in
t
several logarithmic steps (e.g. 1, k) which enables a wide range of
184 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

concentrations to be read. For example, different detection ranges of

Co might be read on a particular instrument in the following steps:
5-200, 200-1000, 1000-10000. Instead of using log sectors different
lines can be read to cover ranges of concentration.
The alkalis and alkaline earths produce fairly simple spectra with
relatively few wavelengths, but many elements such as the transition
elements, rare earths and uranium are particularly rich in spectral
lines with a vast number of djfferent wavelengths. Some spectral lines
of different elements are extremely close together and it requires a
high quality instrument to resolve them. For example, niobium
a
produces line at 4058·938 A and manganese a line at 4058·93 A. This
illustrates how manganese might be read for niobium or vice versa if
these respective lines were being used for either element. There are a
large number of lines to choose from, but the spectralline(s) selected
should produce a good intensity at the levels of detection required
and should not be too close to another line which might result in
spectral line interference. A list of elements with respective spectral
lines that are commonly read is given in Table 4.14 together with the
lower detection limits that can be expected in visual work.
Some research institutions, geological surveys and large companies
are able to justify the much greater expense of a direct-reading
spectrograph. Essentially these instruments consist of grating spec-
trographs in which the film-holder has been replaced by an opaque
barrier with a number of narrow slits at the spectral line positions of a
number of different elements. Behind each slit is a photomUltiplier
tube which monitors the intensity of that particular wavelength.
These instruments can be coupled to automatic recorders or even
computers which can make necessary corrections and give a print-out
of results. Analyses for 15 or more elements can be carried out in less
than a minute on some instruments.
There are numerous sources of error in emission spectroscopy and
poor standards of work have resulted in much disenchantment with
the method. This is unfortunate since emission spectroscopy has
much to commend it. Sources of error include fluctuations in electric
power, uneven arcing, poor packing of electrodes, matrix effects in
the sample, variations in film development and operator bias in
reading plates. With the use of an internal standard and routine
control samples, it should be possible to achieve precisions of ±25-
45% at the 95% confidence level in visual work. Higher degrees of
precision are possible by using microphotometers or with some direct-
reading spectrographs. Between 25 and 30 samples can be run per
man-day for 15 elements in visual work and this output can be more
than doubled with direct-reading spectrographs. In routine base metal
exploration emission spectroscopy cannot compete with atomic ab-
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 185

TABLE 4.14
LIST OF ELEMENTS WITH SPECTRAL LINES THAT
ARE COMMONLY USED IN SPECTROGRAPHIC
ANALYSIS

Lower detection
Element Spectral line C4) limit (ppm)

Arsenic 2349·8 5
Beryllium 2348·6 1
4722·2 1
Bismuth 5
3067·7
Chromium 2835·6 5
5085·8
Cadmium 4678·5
Cobalt 3453·5 5
3274 2
Copper 2961·2 200
Lanthanum 4921·8 50
Lead 2833·1 10
Manganese 2593·7 100
Molybdenum 3170·3 2
3414·8 5
Nickel 200
3050·8
Niobium 3163·4 50
Silver 3382·9 0·2
Tin 3262·3 10
Vanadium 3185·4 2
Zinc 3345·0 50
Zirconium 3391·9 50

sorption for precision or cost, but for more specialized surveys where
it might be necessary to analyze for 10 or more elements, emission
spectroscopy is very attractive. One big advantage of the method is
that plates and films can be stored as permanent records and can
always be read at a later date for elements that were not requested in
the original survey. It should be noted that spectrographic deter-
minations are generally not directly comparable to colorimetric or
AAS determinations (see below) owing to a number of factors, but the
overall geochemical patterns should be very nearly the same.

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)

This is probably the most widely used method for routine geochemi-
cal analysis as it is quick, relatively cheap and has excellent precision
186 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATlON

over a wide range of values. The technique is based upon the

principle that ground state atoms absorb radiation at various
wavelengths that are characteristic for each element. Although the
phenomenon of atomic absorption was discovered almost a hundred
years ago when absorption lines were first observed in the sun's
spectrum owing to absorption of radiation by atoms in the sun's upper
atmosphere, it was only recently that the principle was put to prac-
tical use. This work was pioneered by an Australian, A. Walsh, in the
1950's and today a wide range of commercial atomic absorption
spectrophotometers are available.
Figure 4.25 shows the layout of atomic absorption equipment in
diagrammatic form. The hollow cathode lamp, which emits radiation
characteristic of the element being analyzed, passes a beam through

hollow calhode
lamp
current detector
and d'9"al
supply and f--++c:----I-........- - I - - l monochromator ,.ad·oul
'"9 u lator ampl,".r

lomple solul10n

FIG. 4.25. Basic layout of atomic absorption equipment.

an air/acetylene flame (nitrous oxide/acetylene and other mixtures are

sometimes used). The sample solution is passed as a fine mist by an
aspirator into the flame and pyrolysis of the solute releases ground
state atoms which absorb radiation from the lamp in proportion to
their concentration. The monochromator is adjusted to select a
wavelength for the element being analyzed (e.g. 2320 A for Ni) and
the detector and amplifier pass the signal to a meter or digital readout.
This is calibrated by spraying a number of standard solutions of the
element being analyzed. The absorbance in the flame is only directly
proportional to concentration over a narrow range at low concen-
trations and varies according to wavelength and element. Figure 4.26
shows the characteristic shape of the absorbance curve. Analysis
should be carried out over the straight line portion of the curve and, if
concentrations are above the critical value, the sample solution
should be diluted. Failure to do this will always result in readings
below the actual concentration.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 187

1· 0 r----,----r---r----r-"7"'"---,

•u
6 0·6~----~--~+_----+_----~--~
.0
~
o
III
.0
.:( 0·4 ~---f-_j,<_----+_----+_----~--~

o· 2 ~f+_--t__----I------t------t----___I

5 10 15 20
Concentration {JAj Imll
FIG. 4.26. Typical absorbance curves in atomic absorption.

Atomic absorption is sensitive to very low metal concentrations

and is usually restricted to the range of 0·02-10 f,Lg/ml in the sample
solution, though it varies considerably depending upon the element
and absorption line used. In the typical geochemical laboratory
200 mg of sample is digested in acid and diluted to 10 ml. This means
that the method covers the range 1-500 ppm in the original sample for
most elements with little difficulty. In addition it has been found that
sensitivity can be greatly increased by taking up the sample in an
organic solvent. This is the technique used for gold which is taken up
in methylisobutyl ketone (MIBK). As little as 10 ppb in the original
sample can be detected. If concentrations are above the top limit for a
particular element and line being used, it is normal practice to dilute
the sample by a factor of ten, doing it more than once if necessary.
The hollow cathode lamps used as the line sources consist of
evacuated glass tubes partially filled with an inert gas (usually neon).
The cup-shaped cathode (hence the term 'hollow cathode') is made of
the specified element and, when a voltage of 100-200 V is applied
across the anode and cathode, a glow discharge appears after a short
warm-up period with most of the emission coming from within the
hollow cathode. The radiation consists of discrete lines of the element
concerned plus those of the inert gas. Multi-element lamps are
produced by making cathodes of an alloy of the elements required
188 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

(e.g. a brass cathode emits both copper and zinc lines), but single
element lamps are generally preferred for the most accurate work.
The window on the lamp is usually made of quartz, which is trans-
parent to a wide range of wavelengths, but pyrex windows are used
for wavelengths greater than 3200 A. In theory atomic absorption
spectroscopy could be carried out by using a continuous spectrum
source, but the emission lines are so narrow that the band passed by
the normal monochromator is much wider than the absorption line, so
in practice it is much" simpler and cheaper to restrict the emission
lines to those whose absorption is being measured. In addition to the
release of ground state atoms, many atoms become excited and with
many elements emit radiation of the same wavelengths as they
absorb. This reduces the absorption signal and gives readings which
are too low. To overcome this the signal from the lamp is modulated
and the detector tuned to the same frequency. As the source from the
flame is steady, the detector cannot read this signal and only reads
changes in the signal coming from the lamp.
For atomic absorption to take place in the flame it is necessary that
ground state atoms be released. Thus, it is important that the flame is
not too hot as this may result in raising of orbital electrons to higher
energy levels or even the release of the element being analyzed in an
ionic state. Likewise, the flame may not be hot enough to release
ground state atoms of elements such as molybdenum, beryllium, tin,
aluminium, titanium and the lanthanides, which form refractory
oxides in the flame. The presence of certain anions may also reduce
the concentration of dissociated metal atoms in the flame, e.g. the
presence of sulphate or phosphate markedly reduces the concen-
tration of calcium atoms by forming compounds which are blown
through the flame without decomposing. There may also be some
interference between metals, e.g. copper interferes with gold, calcium
with lead and aluminium removes calcium by forming calcium alu-
minate. These are all minor drawbacks, however, and techniques have
been devised for overcoming them. Atomic absorption spectroscopy
is a very precise and simple analytical method for most metallic
elements. The use of the air/acetylene flame is quite adequate for
most of them and the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame has proved
satisfactory for most of the difficult refractory elements.
For atomic absorption to take place it is only necessary to release
ground state atoms in the light path between source and detector and
flameless techniques can be used. The easiest element for this is
mercury which is readily introduced as a vapour between source and
detector. Figure 4.27 shows in diagrammatic form a common tech-
nique used for mercury analysis. Ten per cent stannous chloride
solution is used to reduce the mercury in the sample solution to the
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 189

absMpt,on cell
merc.ury

-
replacing flame to monochromator
lamp
and det.ctor
~C-----+--~---------r---

controlled steody
compressed ok !Iow 0" and
mlrc.ury vapour
outlet

drying lube with

magnesium perchlorate

sample solution +
stannous chloride
solution

FIG. 4.27. Diagram to show the principle of a method for flameless detection
of mercury in atomic absorption.

elemental state and air bubbled through the solution carries any
mercury vapour present to a tube which replaces the normal burner.
Mercury contents as low as 20 ppb in the original sample can be
detected. Flameless techniques using electrically heated graphite
furnaces in place of the_burner have also been developed. The
advantages are that sample solutions as small as one drop in volume
can be introduced into the furnace for analysis. It is also possible to
introduce sample material directly without first taking it up into
solution. The use of graphite furnaces is still largely experimental and
they have not been used routinely for geochemical work.
Productivity for the more common elements should work out at
between 150-250 determinations per man-day in a well-run explora-
tion laboratory. For elements such as Au and Ag productivity may be
50-100 determinations per man-day.

X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

If an element is irradiated with X-rays, some of the orbital electrons
may be raised to higher energy levels. When these excited electrons
fall back to lower energy levels, they emit characteristic X-rays.
These X-rays can be used to yield qualitative and quantitative in-
formation about the substance being irradiated and form the basis of
the technique of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. The charac-
teristic X-ray spectra or lines are designated by the orbital shells. For
instance electrons from the K-shell give rise to K-lines when they fall
back from higher levels, electrons from the L-shell give rise to L-lines
190 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

and so on. These lines are further subdivided by the number of

energy levels through which the electrons fall. For example, K elec-
trons falling back from the L-shell give K.-lines and K electrons
falling back from the M-shell give Kp-lines. One of the advantages of
X-ray fluorescence over conventional emission spectroscopy is that
there are many fewer lines in the X-ray region of the spectrum than in
the optical region. For instance, iron has several hundred optical
lines, but only two K-lines and six L-lines.
According to Moseley's law the reciprocal of the wavelength is
proportional to the square of the atomic number. This means that the
wavelengths of the lighter elements are very much longer than
wavelengths of the heavier elements. The longer wavelengths or 'soft
X-rays' as they are known, are difficult to detect and make elements
lighter than calcium (Z = 20), with wavelengths longer than 2·5 A,
increasingly difficult to analyze by XRF techniques. Methods have
been developed to carry out measurements on soft X-rays, but,
nevertheless, elements with atomic numbers less than ten are very
difficult to determine.
The principal parts of an XRF analyzer are a powerful X-ray source
to irradiate the sample (the primary X-rays have to have a higher
energy than those it is intended to excite), an instrument to dis-
tinguish the wavelengths and a detector and recorder to enable the
various intensities to be measured. The various X-rays can be dis-
tinguished by dispersion optical methods or by a non-dispersion
electronic discriminator. Dispersion techniques use a crystal, the
atomic spacings of which act as a diffraction grating to the short
X-rays. Such X-ray spectrometers separate the X-rays in the same
manner as optical monochromators. A wide variety of crystals is
available for X-ray dispersion over different spectral bands. Com-
monly used crystals include lithium fluoride, sodium chloride, topaz
and ADP (ammonium dihydrogen phosphate). The separated X-rays
are detected by ionization, scintillation or semi-conductor detectors
such as described on pages 307-310 for gamma-ray detection.
Non-dispersion electronic discriminators operate on the same prin-
ciple as the gamma-ray spectrometer described on pages 310-311.
XRF techniques are fast, non-destructive to the sample and have
the added advantage in common with conventional emission spec-
troscopy that many elements can be analyzed at one time. The
accuracy at concentrations over 1% is very good and it is still fairly
good over the range 0·01-1%. At lower concentrations, however, the
accuracy is generally poor owing to background 'noise' which is
always present. Nevertheless, by using long counting times and
applying careful background corrections good results can be obtained
for low concentrations, particularly in cases where small quantities of
a heavy element occur with much lighter elements.
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 191

The samples are generally prepared by grinding down to -100 or

-150 mesh and placing the powders in special sample holders; some-
times presses are used to compress the powders into standard sized
briquettes. Standard samples are often made up from pure chemicals
of the elements being analyzed mixed with silica powder, but, since
matrix effects can be quite marked, it is advisable to have standards
with matrices similar to the samples being analyzed if possible.
Large automated instruments are available which can handle a large
number of prepared sample holders and can be programmed to
determine 25 elements or more on a pre-set schedule, make the
necessary corrections and print out results. All laboratory XRF
analyzers are fairly expensive, the larger ones being extremely so, and
only large companies and research organizations can be expected to
purchase them. Small, portable and relatively inexpensive XRF
analyzers are available, however, and are extremely useful for analy-
tical work at concentrations greater than a few tenths of a percent.
These instruments are described briefly below.

Portable XRF analyzers

Certain radioisotopes give off radiation in the X-ray spectrum and,
although these sources are 107 times weaker than conventional X-ray
tubes, they can be used to excite X-ray fluorescence. Radioisotopes
such as cadmium-l09 or americium-241 can be used directly or beta
emitters can be used to excite X-rays in other elements by the effect
known as bremsstrahlung. One such combination source is
promethium-147 and aluminium. The instrumentation that has been
devised for portable isotope fluorescence (PIF) analyzers, as they are
sometimes known, is relatively simple and depends on using balanced
filter pairs for cutting out unwanted X-rays. All substances absorb
X-rays, the amount of absorption depending on the material, its
thickness and the wavelength of the X-rays. It has been observed that
X-ray absorption coefficients plotted against wavelength are dIs-
continuous functions with a sudden drop-off in absorption at a critical
wavelength which depends on the substance. These discontinuities
are known as absorption edges and by selecting two substances with
absorption edges lying just on either side of an X-ray line it is wished
to measure, the difference in response obtained with each of the fil-
ters in turn will be due to X-rays in the 'pass band' (Fig. 4.28). Figure
4.29 shows the basic principle of the PIF analyzer. A wide range of
balanced filters are available and elements that can be analyzed quite
adequately include Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Sn, Ti, Ag and Mo. In addition
to using different filters, it may also be necessary to change the
radioisotope source when analyzing different elements. This is
because radioisotope sources only give off radiation at one, two or a
few wavelengths and fluorescence can only be excited if the irradia-
192 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

pass bond
,......-.
. . .1
..... I
I obsorptlon edge of filter A
c
o
.~

·e J-obsorption edge of filter B

'"c~ I
I
I
I
I

x -r oy energy _

FIG. 4.28. Diagram to show how two balanced filters with closely spaced
absorption edges are used to set a pass band for the measurement of X-rays
of specific wavelengths.

sompte mot."ot
In hotder

FIG. 4.29. Diagram showing basic principles of portable isotope fluores-

cence analyzer.

tion is at a lower wavelength than that which it is intended to excite.

For example iron-55 gives off radiation at 2·103 A (MnKa) while
americ}um-241 gives o~ radiations at 0·~89 A (NpLa), 0·698 A (NpL~),
0·597 A (NpLy), 0·208 A (y) and 0·470 A (y).
Calibration graphs are plotted for the various elements by making
up standards or, better still, carrying out chemical assays on a
selected range of samples. Best results are obtained with finely
ground samples and by using standards or calibration samples with
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 193

matrices similar to the samples being analyzed. The sample holders on

PIP analyzers are designed so that in situ measurements can be made
on drill core or rock outcrops by holding the source against the rock
face. Such measurements, however, are generally only semi-quan-
titative owing to matrix effects, variability in grain size and in-
homogeneity of an uncrushed sample.

Specific ion electrode

An extension to the glass electrode used for determining H+ ion
activity or pH is the specific ion or ion-selective electrode which has
been developed to measure the activity of a number of ions besides
H+. Specific ion electrodes are now available for the detection of cr,
Br-, r, S--, CN-, Ag+, P-, Cu+, Ca++, NO)", K+, Pb++ and Na+, but in
geochemistry they have found most use for the detection of fluorine.
The measurements are made on an expanded-scale pH-Eh meter with
the electrode placed in the test solution. There may be a number of
interfering ions for which corrections have to be made, but in the case
of fluorine OH- is the only slightly interfering ion.
The determination of fluorine in a geochemical sample, as described
by Pinklin (1970), is as follows:
1. 250 mg of sample is mixed with 1 g of 2: 1 Na2C03/KN03 flux
and fused at 500°C.
2. When cool, the fused mixture is dissolved in 20 ml water.
3. After 1 h the solution and residue are transferred to a 100 ml
beaker, 10 ml of 1M citric acid is added and the solution topped
up to 100 ml with water resulting in a final pH of 5·5-6·5.
4. The P- ion activity is read with the specific ion electrode which
has been calibrated against standards prepared in a similar
manner to the samples.
The specific ion electrode covers the range 0·01-1900 ppm in the
solution or 4-760000 ppm in the original sample by the above dilution.

Other methods
A number of other methods have been used in geochemistry, but
most are at an experimental stage and have not been developed for
routine application. A notable exception is the technique of fluori-
metry which is widely used for the determination of uranium in
waters, soils and rocks. The sample is oxidized by evaporation with
nitric acid and then fused with sodium fluoride. The cooled and
solidified fluoride bead is then examined directly in a specially de-
signed fluorimeter which measures the amount of fluorescence emitted
when the bead is irradiated by ultra-violet light. The sensitivity is of the
order of 5 ppb U for a solid sample.
194 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

A new technique of an old method that has much potential and is

already being used commercially on a small scale is plasma emission
spectrometry. Instead of using an electric arc to excite the optical
emission lines, an inductively coupled plasma is used. The plasma is
generated from argon gas in a special plasma torch consisting of a
fused quartz tube by using an RF generator operating at 27·12 MHz
with a power output up to 4 kW. Temperatures of 5000 K plus are
attained within the plasma which forms a 'doughnut' shape within the
tube. Sample solutions can be aspirated into the torch in the same
manner as conventional AAS equipment. When the sample passes
through the middle of the plasma 'doughnut', the atoms of the various
elements within the sample are strongly excited and emit their
characteristic spectral lines. These can then be separated by a con-
ventional monochromator and detector of the type used with AAS
equipment and the concentration of a particular element determined.
U sed in this manner only one element can be analyzed at a time for
each setting of the monochromator, but the method has some ad-
vantages over ordinary AAS. The sensitivity is extremely good and a
big concentration range can be covered without the necessity of
making dilutions. Scott and Kokok (1975) and Scott et al (1974) give
good descriptions of the technique. Direct-reading instruments for
determination of many elements at a time have also been developed,
but are too costly for ordinary geochemica11aboratories.
Another technique that has been used in geochemical work by
research and government organizations is neutron activation, but it is
too costly for widespread commercial applications. The technique is
based on the phenomenon that atoms bombarded by neutrons are
changed to radioactive isotopes which can then be detected by their
decay times or gamma-ray spectra. Samples to be tested are placed in
a nuclear reactor, which may have a neutron flux as high as 1014
neutrons/cm2/s, for a period of several minutes and are then measured
for their radioactivity, often over a period of many hours. Standards
can be made up and subjected to the same procedure. Since few
people have access to nuclear reactors, the method has very limited
application, but a number of neutron sources such as beryl-
lium/antimony-124 or californium-252 are capable of activating a
number of elements of interest even though the neutron fluxes
produced by them are 109_10 10 times less than the flux of a nuclear
reactor. Field instruments employing these methods have been
designed and built and include the Metalog® system of Scintrex Ltd
in Canada designed for borehole logging (see Chapter 7), but they are
complex and costly pieces of equipment and cannot be used in
routine exploration work. Plant and Coleman (1973) describe neutron
activation as applied to gold samples using a nuclear reactor and
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 195

Philbin and Senftle (1971) describe a field technique for uranium using
a Cf-252 source.
Another interesting technique that has been used in a very special
case is an instrument known as the beryllometer which has been
designed specifically for the detection of beryllium (Bowie et ai, 1960).
It depends on the fact that Be is a neutron source when bombarded by
gamma-rays or fast-moving positive particles. A strong radioactive
source such as antimony-124 is used and the neutrons given off by Be
in the sample are detected by a boron trifluoride counter. In situ
measurements can be made in the field and values of 10 ppm and less
can be detected. With its necessary shielding the instrument weighs
about 40 kg and is carried and operated by two men. It has been
employed very successfully in beryllium prospecting and in the
evaluation of beryllium ores in various parts of the world.

Summary
There is a wide choice of analytical methods which can be used in
geochemical exploration and the method selected will depend not
only on the element analyzed but also on the concentration range
expected. In addition cost is an important factor. Small exploration
companies can set up colorimetric or atomic absorption laboratories
at relatively low cost, but only large commercial laboratories and
research organizations can afford X-ray fluorescence or emission
spectrographic equipment. Table 4.15 lists the analytical methods
most commonly used in exploration geochemistry today together with
a list of selected elements. The most important method for a parti-
cular element is indicated by the use of heavy type. In some cases,
however, it becomes a matter of opinion which method may be the
most important. For example, colorimetry has long been regarded as
the most satisfactory method for Mo, but more and more laboratories
are producing satisfactory results for Mo using AAS with a nitrous
oxide/acetylene flame.
For a proper understanding of geochemical analyses it is important
to be aware of the different degrees of sample 'attack' and extraction
of the various metals. Many geologists do not have a full appreciation
of this and it is extremely important when comparing analytical
results from one method to another and from one lab to another. For
example, a soil sample may contain a total of 1000 ppm Ni, but
300 ppm may be contained in the lattices of silicate minerals, 200 ppm
may be present as sulphides and the remainder may be loosely held
by iron oxides, clays and organic matter. Both emission spectroscopy
and X-ray fluorescence methods will indicate total Ni present, but
colorimetry and atomic absorption, which depend on the Ni being
brought into solution for analysis, may record very little of the
 TABLE 4.15 -~
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES COMMONLY USED IN EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY. ELE-
MENTS IN BOLD TYPE INDICATE PREFERRED METHOD

Approximate 1978 Typical 1978 commercial

Technique Elements analyzed cost of equipment cost of analysis
o-l
ttl
$1·50 for first (j
Ag, Au, Ra, Ri, Cd, element, $0·75 for II:
Z
....
Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Li, each additional 10
AAS $10000 C
Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Zn, element.
ttl
Mo, Sn, Ti Ag, Au, Hg $3·00-4·00 'JJ
each ....
Z
Mo, P, Sn, Ti, W, $1·50 each s::
....
Colorimetry Be, Bi, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, $500-1000 $3'00 each for Z
ttl
Ni, Pb, Zn Mo and W
~t""
Re, La, V, Y,
ttl
Emission Ag, As, Ba, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, $15000+ $6·00 for first element,
spectroscopy Cu, Li, Mn, Mo, Nb, Ni, (photographic $4·00 for each ad- ~
t""
Pb,Sn,Zn,Zr detection) ditional element
Nb, Zr, S
....
XRF Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, La, Mo, Ni, $30000+ $8·00 per element 0
Pb, Sb, Sn, Ti, U, V, Zn Z

Specific-ion
electrode F $1500 $3·00 each

Fluorimetry U $2500 $4·00 each

 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 197

strongly held silicate Ni. For atomic absorption it is usual practice to

digest the samples directly in a boiling acid without prior fusion
except for special cases such as the analysis of Sn. The most
commonly used acids are concentrated HCI04-HN03 , HCI04 , HC1-
HN0 3, HN0 3 and HC1, which give a high degree of extraction of
metals from soils and stream sediments. Even in the case of silicate
rock-forming minerals these concentrated acids give more than 70%
extraction except in the case of some pyroxenes and amphiboles for
which extractions may be <40% (Foster, 1973). This is not a disad-
vantage for most geochemical exploration work, however, since
metals contained in the lattices of silicate minerals are not of parti-
cular importance. For this reason 25% HN0 3 is very commonly used
as it has been found to give consistent results for most soil and
stream sediment samples. In the case of colorimetric analysis it is
common practice to fuse the samples before taking them up in
hydrochloric acid. Potassium bisulphate is the most commonly used
fusion flux, but it is not effective in attacking all minerals (Harden and
Tooms, 1964) and extraction generally varies from 60 to 100%
depending on mineralogy, though in the case of pyroxenes and
amphiboles extraction may be less than 20%. As already mentioned,
this is not a disadvantage for geochemical prospecting. Other fusion
fluxes are sometimes used in special cases (Table 4.16). Partial
extractions are used in atomic absorption and colorimetry to deter-
mine loosely held metal, generally referred to as cold-extractable
metal, which can be useful to assist interpretation or for rapid field
tests in the case of colorimetry. Dolezal et al (1968) give a good
account of extraction techniques in inorganic analysis.
Another important aspect of geochemical analysis is precision. As
mentioned in the introduction, high accuracy and precision are not of
major importance in exploration, but, nevertheless, it is important to
control precision within certain permissible limits. Precision is defined
as the ability to reproduce an analytical result for the same sample
material and it does not imply accuracy. For example, the actual Cu
content of a soil sample might be 500 ppm and an analytical method
that consistently produced results ranging from 300 to 320 ppm would
be very precise but not accurate. On the other hand, a method that
produced results ranging from 450 to 550 ppm would be less precise
but more accurate. The true content of a sample in exploration
geochemistry is not of major importance, but it is important that the
method used is consistent. The normal procedure in a geochemical
laboratory is to calibrate the method being used with a series of
artificial standards of known metal content. The precision, on the
other hand, is determined by analyzing standard samples of the
material being analyzed (soils, stream sediments, plant ash, etc.) or by
198 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 4.16
v ARIOUS EXTRACTIONS USED FOR SIMPLE DIGESTION IN
GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSES

Type of extraction Reagent and remarks

nitric-perchloric}.
. .
potentially explosIve
perc hIonc
Hot aqua regia
acids conc.nitric
conc.hydrochloric
25% nitric
potassium bisulphate-most commonly used, but
extraction variable.
sodium carbonate-} very good extraction,
potassium nitrate but alkali fusions
Fusion sodium hydroxide are not commonly
fluxes used as temperatures
are high and
crucibles have to be used.
ammonium iodide-used in tin analysis to attack
cassiterite
cold, dilute hydrochloric
Partial ammonium citrate (buffered to various pH's)
(cold acids EDTA
and buffers) ascorbic acid-hydrogen peroxide (2: 5 30% H2 0 2 ,
1% ascorbic acid)-specific for sulphides

running some samples in duplicate. In neither case is the actual

content of the sample known, but the precision, i.e. the ability to
reproduce a result, can be calculated from the mean value and
standard deviation. For example, if ten determinations of a standard
soil during a day's run in the laboratory produced the following
results for Cu of 250, 260, 275, 235, 245, 265, 260, 235, 280 and
265 ppm, the mean value is 257 ppm and the standard deviation
15·5 ppm. The precision is normally expressed in terms of a percen-
tage at the 95% confidence level, i.e. at two standard deviations on
either side of the mean. Thus, the precision for the above example is:
2 x 15·5
± 257 = ±12% at the 95% confidence level
This is the precision at a concentration of about 250 ppm Cu and
variations in the precision may be found using standard samples with
different Cu contents. If samples are being run in duplicate instead of
 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 199

using standard samples, the overall precision is given directly by:

'V/!'d
2
2n (Thompson and Howarth, 1973)

where d is the difference between duplicates and n is the number of

pairs. As an example, let us assume that six duplicate analyses for Cu
gave the following results:
145 155
260 280
85 105
250 260
165 175
205 225
U sing the expression above, the precision IS ± 11 % at the 95%
confidence level.

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Learned, R. E. and Boissen, R. (1973). Gold-a useful pathfinder element in
the search for porphyry <;.opper deposits in Puerto Rico, Geochem. Explor.
1972, I.M.M., Lond., 93-103.
Lepeltier, C. (1969). A simplified statistical treatment of geochemical data by
graphical representation, Econ. Geol., 64, 538-550.
Levinson, A. A. (1974). Introduction to Exploration Geochemistry, Applied
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Loughnan, F. C. (1969). Chemical Weathering of the Silicate Minerals,
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Lovering, T. S. (1927). Organic precipitation of metallic copper, U.S.G.S.
Bull. 795-C, 45-52.
Lukashev, K. I. (1970). Lithology and Geochemistry of the Weathering Crust
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McCarthy, J. H. (1972). Mercury vapor and other volatile components in the
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mercury vapor, Econ. Geol., 68, 1313-1320.
Malyuga, D. P. (1964). Biogeochemical Methods of Prospecting, (translated
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 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 205

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206 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Thomas Murby and Co., London, 573 pp.

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 GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 207

Warren, H. V. (1972). Biogeochemistry in Canada, Endeavour, 31, 46-49.

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Rhodesia, October, 32-35.
 CHAPTER 5

Deep Sampling Methods

One of the first steps taken in following up a geochemical soil

anomaly is to try to locate the bedrock source of the anomalous
values. In areas where the soil cover is thin, it is often possible to do
this by examination and sampling of outcrops, but in areas with a
thick soil profile, the location of the anomalous source may involve a
long and detailed deep sampling programme. In addition to following
up surface anomalies, deep sampling methods may be employed in
evaluating alluvial or eluvial deposits, or in reconnaissance geo-
chemical surveys of areas covered by superficial deposits such as
peat, alluvium and glacial till, or of areas with heavy surface leaching
which may have removed elements of interest from the near-surface
soil horizons.

5.1 PITTING AND TRENCHING

The simplest method of deep sampling is the digging of pits and

trenches. In countries where labour is cheap this is generally carried
out by hand, but in other parts of the world mechanical excavators,
such as backhoes, are used. Pits dug for geochemical purposes can be
sampled by filling sample packets with soil collected at intervals of
1 m or less, or narrow channel samples can be taken over lengths of
1-2 m by cutting a groove with a geological pick. If pits have been dug
for evaluation purposes, larger samples can be taken by cutting
channels 10-15 cm wide and 5 cm deep over lengths of 1-3 m.
In tropical regions where thick lateritic soil profiles are developed it
is possible to dig pits to depths of 30 m or more by hand. Two
labourers are used and the only tools required are a short-handled
shovel, a pick or sharpened, heavy, straight crowbar, and a bucket
tied to a rope for removing soil. It is important to keep the pit vertical
and circular with a diameter of approximately 1 m. The man working
at the bottom of the pit should always wear a hard-hat as even a small
208
 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 209

object dropped down a deep pit could result in a fatal blow on the
head. A windlass is sometimes used for pulling up the bucket, but it is
not really necessary as the bucket can be pulled up easily by hand.
Egress and ingress are effected by footholds cut into the wall on
opposite sides of the pit. A rope is sometimes used to lower a man
down the pit on a bosun's chair for logging and sampling, but it is not
necessary if the pit is kept narrow enough (1 m or less) and good
footholds are cut into the walls. The work is quite safe provided that
the soil is firm and dry. If it becomes wet or dry and crumbly, work
should be stopped as the pit could collapse causing a fatal accident.
The rate of progress varies widely as it depends upon the hardness of
the ground. If the going is fairly good, it should be possible to
complete a pit to 10 m in 10 man-days or less. Pits 20 or 30 m deep
may take 40 man-days or more to complete. Very often the ac-
cumulation of carbon dioxide at the bottom of the pit makes it very
difficult for the labourers to work efficiently and may even prove
fatal. To overcome this, hand or motor driven pumps may be used to
supply fresh air to the bottom of the pit. In most cases this is not
necessary, however, and depths of 30 m have been attained without
air pumps. Sometimes pits are joined by crosscuts which make it
possible to sample bedrock over a critical zone at depth. Digging of
crosscuts can be very much more dangerous than digging of pits and
it should only be carried out if the ground is particularly firm and dry.
Figure 5.1 shows an example of a pitting project carried out to
evaluate phosphate reserves in soil over a carbonatite complex in
Uganda and Fig. 5.2 shows a typical hand-dug prospecting pit.
Pits are best dug by mechanical excavators in areas where labour is
expensive and/or where the ground is fairly soft and wet or contains
many boulders which would make digging by hand extremely slow.
Compared with hand-dug pits, depths are limited as ordinary back-
hoes are capable of digging only to 3 or 4 m and the larger mechanical
excavators can attain depths of no more than 6 or 7 m. Mechanical
diggers are very quick and 3 m pits can be dug, logged, sampled and
filled in within half an hour. Figure 5.3 shows a profile from a pitting
programme carried out with a backhoe over a zinc anomaly in central
Ireland. In total 17 pits with an average depth of 3 m were dug,
logged, sampled and filled in over a space of two days. The over-
burden is a wet boulder clay with very poor stability and it is doubtful
if all of the pits could have been dug by hand as there was only
enough time to dig, log and sample some of the pits before the sides
started to collapse. This example shows how a short, simple, in-
expensive pitting programme defined the source area of the anomaly
which was ascribed to sub-economic traces of sphalerite and galena.
Pitting has distinct advantages over other deep sampling methods.
 Typical profile ~ N
0
0
. ,26 0 . 82
"n:~~d ~~o"n I
',ukulu type'
1 11 0 • •' 8 0 ••5
-
soil
II I6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

>-l
loto"t"oo and ttl
fO"ly hard
.."-'~ ('J
5 . 13 0 0 .91 0 0244 a 0 58 ::r:
numerou:lo Z
plscllth.5
carbonatlt.
1
~ Sm
0
fragmtnts "~ c:ttl
.D
, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CIl
....
.lIghtly '" z
lo ~.r l"u d
Wllh pl$Ollths I Ii ~
....
3 0 0 . 1·9 0 024 1 0 • •2 e Z
ttl

mllny c~~~~,~hel"·d I ~
t'"
'rogmon" 2 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 ttl
slightly .Om
la •• roUted
With IHsoht hs
i <arbonohD
outc.rop
~
t'"
~ 0
• •50 0 • •52 0 0241 0 . ,40 ~
num.rou. F
>-l
hlgnly weathered B C 0 E G H
c.arbonallt.
I (5
Z
fto~m.nts
.c:
I~ . 7·9
!l Pit to bedrock Wit" d.J:lth In melru 0 100m
~
0 Pit 3m dMP ynltSS otn.rWIM s.tat.d

carbonatn.
\ (nol 10 bedro<k I
bedrock
[ah'lkll.,
., iii i' 4.
15m 0 '.10 P2 0S
5 '0 '5 20

FIG, 5.1. Part of the area of an eluvial apatite deposit evaluated by hand-dug pits in the West Valley Sukulu
carbonatite, southeast Uganda,
 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 211

FIG. 5.2. Typical hand-dug prospecting pit. Depths of 30 m can be attained

with such pits through weathered tropical overburden. The large spoil heap
behind the worker indicates that this pit is down about 15 m.

Undisturbed samples can be collected from precise locations, large

samples can be taken if necessary, detailed logging can be undertaken
and comprehensive geological information can be obtained if the pits
reach bedrock. The main disadvantages are that pits can only be dug
to any appreciable depth in firm, dry ground, deep pits take a lot of
time to dig and can be expensive (though in many parts of the world
pitting is cheaper than any other method of deep sampling), and the
digging of pits may create unnecessary disturbance if exploration is
being undertaken over expensive farmland. For safety reasons all pits
 N
-N

ground slope

7 6 5 4 3 2

q>
7000 ppm
;
.0
cttl
0"
til
\
soli bloc~ ~)-->-----
t!lOONII'!
0 0
shale c·
~ "".
Ir09"","Ied Ir09menled0° o Z
co Q. "
shol. shale broken a::
"0 calcareous ~
1111 shale lill
no bedrock weolhered no bedrock
micaceous
o 10 20 30 metr ... sandstone '000 zoao >000 ppm ~ttl
~
,,\n
~ Pb \
z

3
~~
FIG. 5.3. Pitting profile across a zinc anomaly in central Ireland.
 29N

bondc.d mic.a-l'T)at'"blc
bCl" ..... " with 3 c'm bond Modc.n:ah,ly
p.nk.. ...,.",~\.
1 mn~c..f"Cllizc.dwith mQ\oc.hI~~

~
ttl
'"C
Vl
n"IoQf"'b\tt.wlth
t I"'Q "'So of W'IO'oc.\·u ba. mQr~cz. with 'OGa'
>
f," ..I'i ba"d.. d 9,t1 "',e.o borrc.n p •..,\c.. morbi" w&old':l 2510
",c,h, .. t , th'''a.h horolOn", morbi .. m,nc.ro\,z.c.d with t. ... ac. .. s. mo\oc.nltc. '"C
==
t"'
po .... ,b!& ,,",oc.Io,, .. I ~old,"':I ""a\Clc.~~ tc..
flo\: dip Z
o
o 5 W
750
==
m.trvs ~
So...."p, .. With :=
f' P m c. ... o
1;5

Trench on 683·75 E - Looking west

FIG. 5.4. Section of a trench dug as part of the follow-up work on a copper anomaly in central Zambia.

N
Y o)
-
214 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

and trenches should be filled in when the sampling programme is

completed.
Although pitting cannot normally be undertaken below the water
table, Applin (1972) describes a method used to dig pits to depths of
8 m for sampling wet, diamondiferous gravel deposits in West Africa.
A series of casing rings made from mild steel sheet segments which
are bolted together and which vary in diameter from 1·47 to 3·35 m
are set in the ground as digging progresses, continually reducing in
size; a total of seven casing rings is required to reach a depth of 8 m.
During the pitting operation dewatering is carried out by a diesel-
driven pump.
Unlike some of the other deep sampling methods, pitting is rarely
employed in reconnaissance geochemical surveys, though it has been
widely used in some parts of the world for geological reconnaissance
in areas of poor exposure.
Trenching is really an extension of pitting and is used to take
samples over a long length, e.g. across a mineralized zone. Trenches
can be dug by hand or with mechanical diggers, but the digging of
trenches is confined to relatively shallow depths. It is rarely practical
to dig trenches more than 5 m deep. For detailed evaluation work
very large trenches are sometimes put in with bulldozers, but trenches
of this size are probably more correctly classified as small opencuts.
The sampling of trenches is accomplished by taking channel and/or
panel samples. The old mining term costean, meaning to search for
lodes by sinking pits or trenching, is still sometimes used synony-
mously for pit and trench both as a verb and noun. Figure 5.4 shows a
typical trench section.

S.2 AUGER DRILLING

In areas where thick soil profiles are developed, such as are com-
monly encountered in the tropics, power augers are extremely useful
for deep sampling, particularly where ground conditions make pitting
difficult or impossible. Power augers vary in size from fairly small
units, such as those commonly used for digging fence post holes, to
large, powerful, truck-mounted rigs capable of reaching depths of
60 m or slightly more. The smaller machines can rarely attain depths
in excess of 10 m and in practice are generally restricted to much
shallower holes of 5--6 m. The augers for deep drilling are generally
from 50 to 75 mm in diameter and come in lengths or flights of
1-1·5 m. These are designed to be joined together to form a smooth,
continuous spiral or auger to the full depth of the hole being drilled.
The rigs are powered by petrol or diesel engines and have feed heads
 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 215

for rotating the auger flights and feeding them up or down. With large
machine augers up to 140 m can be drilled in a 12 h shift, though
80-100 m is a more normal average. Drilling costs are usually about
half those of percussion drilling. The main disadvantages of auger
drilling are that sample contamination may be a problem and drilling
may be impossible if the ground contains numerous boulders. Much
disenchantment with auger drilling has resulted from attempts to use
them in areas with thick boulder clay deposits. In addition the
truck-mounted rigs cannot be driven on very soft or boggy ground.
Figure 5.5 shows a large machine auger in action.
The procedure for drilling and sampling is as follows. The bit and
first flight are run into the ground to its full length. The operator then
holds the flight feed stationary while continuing to rotate the auger.
This causes soil to be spiralled up to the surface where it can be
shovelled to one side. Another flight is added and the process is
repeated until the required depth is reached or until it becomes
impossible for the auger to penetrate deeper. The material brought to
the surface at the end of each run should be put carefully to one side

FIG. 5.5. A large machine auger set up to drill an inclined hole. This is fairly
unusual in mineral exploration as in most applications auger drills are used
for vertical holes.
216 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

in order of collection so that no confusion can arise as to the depth of

origin of each sample. Geochemical sample packets can be filled from
each sample pile and the remainder bagged and stored in case more
sample material might be required at a later date. Some machine
augers are not powerful enough to spiral samples to the surface and in
such cases the sampling procedure is to run the auger flights into the
ground to the desired depth, pull them up and scrape off the sample
material lodged in the auger spirals. In hard or heavy overburden it is
necessary to drive the auger down in stages and pull it up at intervals.
It will be apparent that such machine augers are not nearly as
satisfactory as the more powerful ones with higher rotating speeds
and the ability to spiral sample material to the surface.
Samples should be recorded on logging sheets which can be made
up for the purpose. These should include details of the property, hole
number, date, grid location, depth of water table, final depth and
descriptions of samples together with sample depths and numbers. It
is also useful to include columns for analytical results beside the
sample descriptions. For detailed logging it is often helpful to treat
and mount samples on cards or boards as described for percussion
drill samples in Chapter 7. Results can be shown in profile and plan.
When plotting profiles, it is usually necessary to exaggerate the
vertical scale unless the holes are very close together. A vertical to
horizontal scale exaggeration of 10: 1 is convenient. In plan, it is usual
to plot either the bottom values or maximum values, though it is
usually more informative to plot the latter. The hole depths should
also be shown and in the case of plotting maximum values the sample
depths should be shown if the maximum values do not occur at the
bottom of the hole.
Auger drilling should only be used in detailed evaluation work with
the utmost caution. If the material being drilled shows any tendency
to flow, which is often the case, the deeper samples will be con-
taminated by material at higher levels being drawn into the auger
spirals. In cases where the samples are of a more qualitative nature
such as the profiling of a soil anomaly or deep reconnaissance
geochemical sampling, auger drilling can be very effective. Machine
augers have been widely used with considerable success in Zambia,
both for reconnaissance sampling and testing of surface soil anomal-
ies. The small but extremely rich Kalengwa copper mine in western
Zambia was discovered as a result of a geochemical survey, but auger
drilling played a fundamental role in locating the mineralization (Ellis
and McGregor, 1967). Figure 5.6 shows the results of an auger drilling
programme in central Zambia which successfully delineated the
bedrock source of a surface anomaly.
 13-880

0
ttl
12-370 ttl
"tj
CIl
>
26-375 ~
100 41-200 "tj
t::Z
13_200 0
53-210
12-145 ~
~
7_140 :=
44-160 0
18-90 0
CIl

_ auger hole 30-120 32-75

18-45
(depth in metres) 12-370 (p. p.m. Cu)

- .-100-- p.p.m. Cu (soil anomaly)

--500--p.p.m. Cu (auger anomaly)

9 59 0 m 50-45

N
FIG. 5.6. Soil and auger copper anomalies from the Lusale area, central Zambia. -...l
-
218 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

5.3 HAND-HELD PERCUSSION DRILLS

Overburden sampling at depth with hand-held percussion drills is a

relatively new technique, but already a considerable amount of suc-
cess can be claimed for it. The equipment was originally developed to
obtain deep soil samples on engineering sites for soil mechanics tests
and has been adapted for geochemical sampling. Essentially it con-
sists of a series of hollow one metre 25 mm o.d. rods which can be
screwed together by couplings, a sampler, a hand rock drill for driving
the rods and a rod puller for extracting the rods from the ground. The
drills, powered by two-stroke petrol engines, are of Swedish
manufacture and include both the Atlas Copco Cobra and the Pionjar
BR80. The rods and ancillary equipment are manufactured by the
Borros Company of Sweden.

Samplers and sampling

A number of different sampling heads are available. These include the
piston sampler and the window sampler, both manufactured by Bor-
ros, and the 'Holman type' sampler developed by R. C. Holman in
Ireland. The piston sampler consists of a hollow steel tube with a
retractable plunger or piston. To take a sample the sampler is driven
into the ground to the required depth and then the rod string is rotated
30 revolutions clockwise. This causes the piston to be retracted into
the sampler leaving a hollow open tube at the bottom of the hole. The
sampler is then driven downwards by the rock drill a further 30 cm,
thus filling the open tube with sample material. The entire rod string is
withdrawn from the ground by a recovery jack to retrieve the sample.
The sampler is disassembled, washed clean and reassembled with the
piston fully extended to block the end of the sampler and the process
repeated. The window sampler or gravel spoon sampler has a sample
intake opening in the side. To take a sample the sampler is driven
down to the desired depth in the same manner as the piston sampler.
The rods are pulled up about 25 mm, given half a turn clockwise and
pushed down again to the original level; this opens the sample
window or shutter. The rods are then given one full turn clockwise,
driven down about 3 cm and rotated again, repeating the entire
process about ten times. This causes a small blade at the side of the
sample intake to scrape material from the sides of the hole into the
opening. On completion of the sampling process, the rods are pulled
up 25 mm and given half a turn anticlockwise to close the sample
window. The sampler is withdrawn from the hole by the recovery
jack and the sample removed by unscrewing the end of the sampler.
The sampler is then washed clean, reassembled and the sampling
process repeated.
 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 219

Both the piston sampler and window sampler have the disadvantage
that they are larger in diameter than the rods and are therefore often
difficult to recover. They are also expensive and have to be dis-
assembled to retrieve the sample and to be cleaned before another
sample can be taken. This is often a time-consuming procedure which
greatly reduces productivity in the field. All these disadvantages are
overcome with the extremely simple but highly effective 'Holman
type' sampler (Fig. 5.7). With this type of sampler the sample material
continually passes through it as it is driven down so that taking a
sample is simply a matter of driving the sampler down to the required
depth. The rods are then pulled from the hole to recover the sample
which comes from the final depth reached. It might be thought that
when the sampler is full it might become blocked and prevent the
movement of sample material through it. Extensive tests, however,
have shown that this does not happen. The sample is easily extracted
by using a sample extractor which consists of a short vertical steel
rod of slightly smaller diameter than the internal diameter of the
sampler welded to a square steel plate. The bottom of the full sampler
is pushed or hammered down the steel rod forcing the sample
material out of the side aperture.

- - - -~
SECTION SIDE VIEW

a 50 100 mm
~.~~~~~.--------~,

FIG. 5.7. 'Holman type' sampler head.

Owing to the length of time involved in removing the sample and

cleaning and reassembling piston and window samplers, it is general
practice to take only one sample per hole just above bedrock. To do
this the depth of bedrock is first determined by driving a probe down
until it can be driven no further and vibration of the machine
indicates to a trained operator that bedrock has been reached. The
rods are then withdrawn and a second hole is drilled with the sampler
1 m or less away. When the sampler is 30-50 cm off bedrock, the
sample is taken. With the 'Holman type' sampler this procedure is not
necessary since the turn around time is so quick. Profiling with a
220 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 5.1
COMPARISON OF SAMPLER TYPES

'Holman type'
Piston sampler Window sampler sampler

Cost expensive expensive cheap

Weight 6·2kg 5 kg 0·6 kg approx.
Outer
39mm 44mm 26mm
diameter
Overall
665mm 625mm 175mm
length
Ease of
often difficult often difficult generally easy
pulling
Sample
125 cm 3 170cm3 about 25 cm 3
volume
Time to
remove sample 20-40 min 15-30 min 1-5 min
and clean
Very wet sample
sample often no sample* generally often no
material recovered sample

*A shutter is available for holding in wet samples, but it is made of thin brass
sheet and should not normally be used for geochemical sampling for obvious
reasons

sample collected every 1-2 m can take less time in a 20 m hole than
the procedure of probing and taking one sample with a piston sam-
pler. Table 5.1 compares the different samplers.

Pulling rods
The rods and sampler are withdrawn from the hole by means of a
simple rod puller consisting of a mechanical jack and ball clamp. To
remove the rods the ball clamp is slid down over the rods protruding
from the ground, the jack handle is pushed down causing the ball
clamp to tighten-around the rods and pull them up, each stroke of the
jack handle lifting the rods about 6 cm. On soft ground it is necessary
to place the jack on heavy bearing timbers to prevent it sinking into
the ground. If the rods become tightly jammed in the hole, two
small hydraulic jacks with a lift of several tonnes are useful as
a standby.
 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 221

Field procedures
The equipment is most efficiently used with two-man crews, though
for working on very wet and soft, boggy ground three men are useful
to assist in carrying the extra bearing timbers required for jacking.
Drilling progress is obviously fastest in areas where a motor vehicle
for carrying personnel and equipment can be driven from site to site,
but one big advantage of this sampling method is the easy trans-
portability of equipment which permits sampling over wet and soft
ground inaccessible to normal field vehicles. The drill unit weighs
about 25 kg and is easily carried with a special back pack. The rods
weigh 4 kg each and a rucksack frame can be adapted to hold 10 rods.
This leaves the hands free to carry other ancillary equipment such as
the jack, wrenches, sample packets, etc. Figure 5.8 shows the equip-
ment in use.

FIG. 5.8. Overburden sampling with a hand-held percussion drill. Left:

driving the rods and sampler down. Right: jacking to retrieve the rods and
sampler head.

When driving the rods into the ground it is important that the drill
unit is used in the 'breaking mode', i.e. the rods are driven down
purely by the percussive action and are not rotated. The sampler or
probe will push itself around or even break small cobbles or boulders,
but cannot penetrate large boulders or thick hardpan duricrust. Owing
to the flexibility of the rod string, however, the sampler can often be
pushed down past boulders by bending around the obstructions. On
encountering bedrock or a large boulder penetration will cease. The
difference between bedrock and boulders is indicated by machine
222 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

vibration which can usually be recognized by an experienced opera-

tor. On striking bedrock the sampler will often pick up fragments of
rock which are of great value in determining geology concealed by
overburden. If an obstruction is encountered at a shallow depth, the
hole is abandoned and another hole is drilled 2 or 3 m away. Usually
three or four attempts are made before abandoning a particular site. If
the ground contains numerous boulders, the method may become
impractical.
Depths up to 50 or 60 m have been attained under favourable
circumstances, but the method is best suited to fairly shallow samp-
ling up to depths of 15 m. A two-man crew can normally drill and
sample an average of 20 m/8-h shift including breakdowns and hold-
ups. The total can vary considerably, however, depending upon
depth of holes, distance between holes and difficulty in retrieving
rods. A typical record and log sheet is shown in Fig. 5.9. The column
for lost time is for any time spent on repairs or in retrieving lost or
stuck equipment. The method has now been used for a number of
years in Ireland with considerable success, both for reconnaissance
surveys and detailed follow-up. Figure 5.10 gives an example of a
lead-zinc soil anomaly in Ireland compared with the anomaly just above
bedrock defined by overburden drilling.

PIONJAR OVERBURDEN DRILLING

Pro/.ct Beta.~n"town Location I(,ldo..re:

On II Operators L G ... S S

Drilling Lost
Metres Dnlled Sample Sample Bedrock
Hole- TimE' Time
Date- Summary Log
No hrs mlns hrs mlns probing sampling No Depth D.pth

4~ \-f.J3 / 05 100m 1'~51 100m S80", b("own. sod

I-DO P:'l52. "- oom
100 1':'l5~ ~OOm bl'own. ~Dd d. j(e:; -pebb les

100 P~54 4-00m ,.It Md brow" 5,,[

O-BO 100 P355 5-00'" mea ..gre:j cl~ <I- !jro.veL

4-5 n-13 I 20 1-00 P:'lS6 I-OOm 4- 32",? brown SOLL

I-DO 1'~57 200m "

O~O "358 2-QOm grt:) rock Ir"d' J brown soll
o ~2 100 P:'lSq 't-OO", ¥t..j ("od:: 5-r~s .,. 3fa..veL

46 lo-1--n I 15 100 P360 100", N D 61'"0"0\111 SalL ~ -pebbl~s

100 P%I LOOm " ..

Totals .3 40 - - liZ 10-90

FIo. 5.9. Example of an overburden drill log sheet.

 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 223

\ LEAD
\

-,
\
.
~
\ .... :: .... ..,
0 0 .... o I
.;
,. /
/
10
~~~. 0
• ,&0 .•
.,.. \
.... (~
.><;
CD

.@
0 0 0

.... &.
,'v

300

-0 0 .......

\ ZINC
\
\

o
\
\
0./
./--:-:,I 0

... ' - I
10

o
.....

., ....

..... ."
....... 0 o~ ...

!><lot bog --600-- ""'lOl con~nt (ppm)

"",tal cont~nl (pp m) ot boso 0' till
- ' -300--·· (OY4rOg<l do>pth 52m)
In $OIl somphts
(45cm o..plh) o P,on,or drill·hol4

100 200 )00 500m

I I

FIG. 5.10. Soil and base of overburden lead-zinc anomalies from an area in
central Ireland.
224 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

5.4 WAGON DRILLING

Percussion drills mounted on trailers are commonly known as wagon

drills and are widely used in initial follow-up work on geochemical
soil anomalies. The method has the advantage over other methods of
deep sampling in that rock can be drilled as easily as overburden so
that tests for a shallow bedrock source can be made at the same time
that the overburden is sampled. The major disadvantages are that
samples cannot be taken below the water table or in broken or
cavernous ground. The problem of sampling below the water table
can be overcome if the equipment is modified so that water is used
for drilling, but this facility is not available on most wagon drills. The
equipment is described under percussion drilling in Chapter 7.
Sample material is blown up the hole by the exhaust air and several
methods of collecting samples have been devised. The most straight-
forward method is simply to scoop up the powder as it settles on the
ground around the hole collar, but this is not really satisfactory as the
sample material is showered over a fairly wide area and the finer dust
in particular may be lost. A more satisfactory method of sample
collection is to run a short length of casing or pipe into the hole with a
T -piece attached to the top and projecting to the side above the hole

contalnlP' far
cotc.hlnc; somplt

FIG. 5.11. Diagram showing a method of collecting samples from a wagon

drill.
 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 225

1 2 3
0/0 Zn
4
r
FIG. 5.12. Section of wagon drill holes across a zinc soil anomaly in central
Zambia.

FIG. 5.13. A typical wagon drill.

226 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

collar. A thick rubber pad made from old conveyor belting with a hole
in its centre, so that the drill rods can pass through it, is held over the
top of the casing while drilling is in progress. The drill cuttings are
then deflected through the T -piece and into a suitable container. This
arrangement for sample collection is shown in Fig. 5.11. In addition to
these improvised methods, the drill manufacturers produce special
dust collecting cyclones which can be used for sampling. The drill
chippings and dust, which emerge from the hole, enter a sleeve placed
over the hole collar and pass along a hose into the cyclone where the
chips and dust settle from the air stream and are collected in plastic
bags.
For the purposes of geochemical sampling the sample material from
the hole can be washed through a screen of aperture size 10-14 mesh.
The undersize particles are retained for geochemical analysis and the
cleaned oversize fragments are used for rock identification and log-
ging. The actual treatment of the sample will depend upon the area
and mineralization sought, but for most geochemical work analysis of
the - 80 mesh fraction will suffice.
Depths up to 50 or 60 m are possible with most wagon drills, but for
general work average hole depths are more likely to be 30 or 40 m.
The method is fast and it is possible to complete two 30-m holes/shift.
Wagon drills are relatively light and can be manoeuvred into awkward
places, but overall mobility is limited by the ancillary compressor
which is bulky and heavy and has to be positioned fairly close to the
drill. An example of a geochemical soil anomaly tested by wagon
drilling in central Zambia is shown in Fig. 5.12 and a wagon drill is
shown in Fig. 5.13.

5.5 BANKA DRILLING

The Banka drill is a hand-operated drill of Dutch manufacture design-

ed originally for sampling alluvial and eluvial tin deposits in the
former Dutch East Indies. It has been used for general overburden
sampling in other parts of the world, but is now virtually obsolete as it
is a slow and labour-intensive method. It is described here as frequent
reference to Banka drilling is made in old reports and it is still
occasionally used in Africa and the Far East.
Drilling is accomplished by four men turning an auger bit or special
cutting shoe by means of four horizontal levers set at right angles and
fastened to the top of the rods. The normal procedure is to use an
auger bit for starting the hole and then to transfer to a bailer with a
special cutting shoe screwed onto its lower end. Samples are removed
periodically with the bailer as drilling progresses. If the ground is hard
 DEEP SAMPLING METHODS 227

turnl"O lever
/

-rod

clrculor 11.el
platform
\

-CGSlnq

...
.. . ..

FIG. 5.14. Diagram showing basic parts of a Banka drill.

and dry, water is used to soften it and facilitate bailing. Caving

ground can be cased off by inserting casing with a casing shoe so that
it can be drilled down just behind the advancing drill bit. When the
casing is inserted into the ground as far as it will go, a circular steel
platform is screwed on the top end of the casing protruding 1 m or so
above ground level. This allows the four men turning the rods to
continue drilling by walking round and round the platform. The casing
itself can be drilled down by fitting poles into iron rings on the
platform and using additional men to turn it. A crew of eight is thus
required for the full operation. For pulling tools and casing a chain
sling and pulling stand is used. To free casing that is tightly jammed a
special screw jack that fits over the protruding casing is available.
Numerous other accessories such as fishing tools, special shoes and
bits, wrenches and a hand vacuum pump for sampling very .wet sands
228 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

and gravels are available. Depths of 15-20 m are normally attainable

and somewhat deeper holes can be drilled if conditions are favour-
able. Figure 5.14 shows the basic parts of a Banka drill.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Applin, K. E. S. (1972). Sampling of alluvial diamond deposits in West Mrica,

Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 81, A62-77.
Ellis, M. W. and McGregor, J. A. (1967). The Kalengwa copper deposit in
northwestern Zambia, Econ. Geol., 62,781-797.
Gleeson, C. F. and Cormier, R. (1971). Evaluation by geochemistry of
geophysical anomalies and geological targets using overburden sampling at
depth, Geochem. Explor., C.I.M. Spec. 11, 159-165.
van Tassell, R. E. (1968). Exploration by overburden drilling at Keno Hill
Mines Limited, Proceedings Intern. Geochem. Explor. Symposium, Quar-
terly of the Colorado School of Mines, 64, 457-478.
Wennervirta, H. (1973). Sampling of the bedrock-till interface in geochemical
exploration. In Prospecting in Areas of Glacial Terrain, Instn. Min. Metall.,
Lond., 67-71.
 CHAPTER 6

Geophysical Prospecting

6.1 GRAVITY SURVEYING

Gravity surveying is not as widely used in mineral exploration as

some of the other geophysical methods since it is more suitable for
outlining large regional structures and features and as such has more
application in petroleum exploration. Nevertheless, in certain in-
stances gravity surveying may prove extremely useful in mineral
exploration, though it is rarely used as a primary exploration tool,
being more suited to the advanced stages of an exploration pro-
gramme when the necessary geological control has been established.
Gravity anomalies are caused by density differences in the underlying
rocks and, although most ore bodies have a high density contrast with
the surrounding country rocks, they are generally too small and/or
deep to produce appreciable gravity anomalies. In addition near
surface features such as sudden changes in overburden thickness or
zones of cavernous weathering generally have gravity effects in
excess of those caused by an ore body. Although a particular ore
body may not produce a detectable gravity anomaly, the mineraliza-
tion may be controlled by a geological structure which does produce a
definite gravity effect and in such cases gravity surveying can be
instrumental in outlining prime exploration target areas or zones.
The force of gravity at the surface of the earth is derived from
Newton's law of gravitation and is given by the formula
OM
g=-,z
where M is the mass of the earth, a is the universal gravitational
constant (6·67 x 10-8 cgs units) and r is the radius of the earth. The
unit of gravity measurement is the milligal (mgal), which is 0·001 of a
gal (an acceleration of 1 cm/s 2). Sometimes gravity values are expres-
sed in terms of the gravity unit (gu) which is equivalent to 0·1 mgal.
The value of g is not constant at different parts of the surface of the
229
230 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

earth since r is not a constant (the polar radius is some 21·5 km

shorter than the mean equatorial radius) and the centrifugal force due
to the rotation of the earth also has an effect which varies from zero
at the poles to a maximum at the equator. These effects are taken into
account by the international gravity formula
g = 978·049 (1 + 0·0052884 sin2 cf> - 0·0000059 sin2 2cf»
which gives the sea-level values of gravity at latitude cf>. The
measured value of g corrected to sea-level is generally found to be
greater or smaller than the theoretical value calculated from the
international gravity formula. This difference is due to in-
homogeneities in the crust and upper mantle and it is the small
anomalies due to near-surface inhomogeneities in the crust that are of
interest in mineral exploration.
The Bouguer anomaly at any point on the earth's surface is deter-
mined from the formula
g = go - gB + gf + T - gT
where go is the observed value of gravity, gB is the Bouguer cor-
rection, gf is the free-air correction, T is a terrain correction and gT is
the theoretical value of gravity at that point. Figure 6.1 shows how
«each of these corrections is derived.
Consider a gravity station at point A, h m above sea-level, with an
observed gravity value go. The gravity value at A will be less than the
theoretical value gT at A' as it is h m further away from the centre of
the earth. To correct the value of gravity at A to sea-level at A' a
free-air correction of O· 3086 mgal/m must be added to go. In addition,
to reduce the gravity value at A to its sea-level value at A' the
gravitational attraction of the slab of ground h m thick between A and
A' must be subtracted from go. This is known as the Bouguer
correction and is given by 27TGhu where u is the density of the slab.
The density is usually taken as 2·67, but other values may be used.
For a density of 2·67 the free-air and Bouguer corrections can be

--C-- A --T---
L____ _
h
2 ea---.!.evel _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Po
FIG. 6.1. Section to show derivation of free-air, Bouguer and terrain cor-
rections.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 231

combined as a single positive correction of 0·1968 mgal/m. Further

corrections need to be applied for the effects of topography. Consider
the hill at B and valley at C. The hill has an upward and thus negative
attraction on the gravity station at A and its effects need to be added
to go. The valley at C is an absence of mass, but, as it has already
been included in the horizontal slab used for the negative Bouguer
correction, the Bouguer correction applied to the gravity station at A
is too large by an amount equivalent to the gravitational attraction of
the valley filled to the elevation of the station at A with material of
density 0'. Thus the terrain correction is always positive whether the
topographical irregularities are higher or lower than the station.
Terrain effects are usually determined by placing a template divided
into segmental, concentric compartments over a topographical con-
toured map of the &rea being surveyed centred on each gravity station
to be corrected in turn. The average elevation both above and below
the station is estimated for each compartment and the gravity effects
determined from published tables of terrain corrections (Hammer,
1939). This is a time consuming task and, although a number of
computer techniques have been devised for terrain corrections, the
preparation of input data still requires a considerable amount of time.
Whatever methods are used, the determination of accurate terrain
corrections is a laborious process and, for this reason, gravity surveys
in areas of rugged terrain can be very expensive.

Field procedures
Gravity measurements are made in the field with a gravity meter or
gravimeter as it is usually known. Modern gravimeters are small,
portable and extremely sensitive instruments (0·01 mgal) and may be
classed into two main types: stable and unstable. The stable type is
essentially an extremely sensitive balance. Examples of this type are
the Askania and Gulf (Hoyt) gravimeters. The unstable types are the
more widely used today and work on the principle of keeping the
force of gravity acting on a sensitive element in unstable equilibrium
with a restoring force. Examples of this type are the Worden and
LaCoste-Romberg gravimeters.
In mineral exploration surveys gravity readings are usually taken
on a grid with station spacings of 10-50 m depending upon the
expected size of the target. The gravimeter is simple to read, though a
certain amount of operator skill is required to ensure repeatable
readings. On a small grid survey it should be possible for a skilled
operator to establish well over 100 stations/day. The normal pro-
cedure is to establish a base station or stations and repeat base station
readings every 1-3 h. This has to be done to correct for instrumental
drift which is due to elastic creep in the springs. The drift is generally
232 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

linear, but sudden fluctuations in the drift (tares) do occur from time
to time in some instruments. There is also a tidal effect on gravity
readings, but this is accounted for in the normal drift corrections.
Gravimeters do not give absolute readings, but relative values which
are generally adequate for mineral exploration surveys. If true
Bouguer values are required, it is necessary to tie the survey to a
regional base station which has been tied to a pendulum station with
an absolute gravity value.
It has been shown that the combined free-air and Bouguer cor-
rection for a density of 2·67 is 0·1968 mgal/m, which means that the
elevation has to be known to 5 cm for an accuracy of 0·01 mgal. Since
the Bouguer anomaly is the difference between the corrected
measured gravity value and the theoretical value of gravity, it is
necessary to know the latitude of a gravity station to determine the
Bouguer anomaly. At the equator it is necessary to know the north-
south position of a station to 400 m for an accuracy of 0·01 mgal, but
at high latitudes it is necessary to know the north-south position to
10 m for a similar accuracy. Tables of theoretical g are published and
over short distances of 1-2 km north or south of a base station a
linear latitude correction (0·081 sin 24> mgal/l00 m) can be applied to
the theoretical gravity value of the base station (negative corrections
for stations with a higher latitude and positive corrections for stations
with a lower latitude than the base station).
Occasionally underground gravity surveys are carried out. The
corrections that need to be applied differ slightly from those applied
to surface measurements, but such underground surveys are of little
importance in mineral exploration. For specialized regional surveys
and for use in petroleum exploration underwater, shipborne and
airborne gravimeters have been developed, but these are not normally
used in mineral exploration surveys.

Interpretation
For any particular gravity field over a horizontal plane there is an
infinite number of mass distributions which can produce that field.
However, the number of mass distributions due to plausible geologi-
cal structures is usually quite limited. The normal procedure for
interpreting gravity surveys is to compare calculated gravity effects
for a number of different mass distributions with the observed gravity
field. The theoretical structure which produces a calculated gravity
effect closest to the observed gravity effect is then adopted as the
most likely interpretation. In addition there are a number of techniques
which can be used to treat the raw Bouguer values to enhance particular
gravity effects that may be of significance.
The first prerequisite in any interpretation is to obtain reliable rock
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 233

densities for the area under investigation. For a good interpretation it

is also necessary to have as much accurate geological information as
possible. This is particularly important in mineral prospecting surveys
as the significant gravity effects tend to be very small. Rock density
measurements are usually made in the laboratory on hand or drill core
specimens, but occasionally in situ measurements can be made from
gravity observations in the field or in underground workings. Bore-
hole gravimeters have also been developed for in situ measurements
in large diameter drill-holes. Table 6.1 lists the densities or density
ranges of a number of common rocks and minerals.
The mass distributions of many geological structures approximate
to simple geometric shapes or combinations of such geometric
shapes. The formulae for the gravitational effects of a wide range of

TABLE 6.1
DENSITIES OF SOME COMMON ROCK TYPES AND
MINERALS

Material Density (g/cm 3 )

coal 1·20-1·50
unconsolidated sand (wet) 1·95-2·05
sandstone 2·10-2·70
limestone 2·40-2·71
shale 2·20-2·80
granite 2·55-2·70
gabbro 2·85-3·10
peridotite 3·10-3·30
basalt and andesite 2·70-3·10
gneiss 2·65-2·80
halite 2·2
gypsum 2·3
anhydrite 2·95
fluorite 3·0-3·2
sphalerite 3·9-4·2
chalcopyrite 4·1-4·3
barite 4·5
pyrrhotite 4·40-4·65
chromite 4·5-4·8
pyrite 4·8-5·1
haematite 4·9-5·3
bornite 4·9-5·4
pentiandite 5·0
magnetite 5·2
galena 7·4-7·6
234 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

shapes have been calculated by various workers and examples of four

of these formulae are given in Fig. 6.2. For bodies with a very long
strike length in comparison with their depth and width a number of
graphical techniques have been developed for calculating gravity
profiles in two dimensions. One of these is due to Jung (1937) and is
illustrated in Fig. 6.3. The graticule is so constructed that the gravita-
tional attraction in milligals of each compartment at point P is equal
to 13·340"s x 10-6 where 0" is the density contrast and s the reciprocal
of the scale of the section. The gravity profile through a series of
stations over the cross-section of a body is calculated by placing the
point P on each station in turn and counting the number of compart-
ments and fractions of compartments contained within the outline of
the body at each position of the graticule. It must be remembered that
this method is only valid for bodies with a uniform cross-section over
a long strike length such as graben or horst blocks, buried channels,
fold structures, etc.
The use of computers has revolutionized gravity interpretation and
made many of the older methods obsolete. There is a large literature
on the subject, but one of the simplest methods in mineral surveys is
to divide the mass distribution into a large number of cubes. A very
close approximation to any irregular body can be made if the cubes
are sufficiently small. Figure 6.4 illustrates the procedure used. Let P
be a point at the surface with coordinates x, y, z. Let PI be a point at
the centre of a small cube with coordinates XI, YI, ZI. Then the vertical
component of gravity at P due to the cube Q is given by the
expression:
Gm
g = ppi cos (J (i)

where G is the gravitational constant and m is the mass of the cube

which can be assumed to act at the centre of the cube if the cube is
sufficiently small. Using the coordinates of P and Ph formula (i)
becomes:
Gm(zl- z)
(ii)

if there are n cubes each with centre coordinates Xi> Yj, Zj, then the
total vertical component of gravity at P becomes:
~ (Zj - z) (iii)
g = Gm ~ [(Xj _ X)2 + (yj _ y)2 + (Zj _ z)2]312

Although these calculations are extremely onerous, a big computer

can sum thousands of cubes in a matter of seconds. In addition the
gravity effects at any number of points, P, at the surface can be
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 235

Sphere
p
I-X-I
a
Horizontal cylinder

p Vertical cylinder

if zI-+O

g.. = 27rG6'a

Infinite rectangular prism

for faulted slab or scarp b .... oo

rl ... rz • 'I~Z-'TT '
I--b--I
gp= 2G1xln';;' + D('7T -;~ -d(7r-;3>]

FIG. 6.2. Formulae for determining the gravitational effects of some

simple solids (from Parasnis, 1962).
236 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIG. 6.3. lung's chart for calculating gravity profiles in two dimensions.

__________________ ~~------------------~x

P(X . y.Z)

FIG. 6.4. Diagram to show the derivation of the vertical gravity attraction at
P of a small cube at PI
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 237

calculated and programs can be prepared which will contour the

results. The computer can also be programmed to sum different
combinations and densities of cubes until the nearest fit to the
observed data is obtained.
This method is only approximate since it assumes that the mass of
each cube acts at its centre. More precise calculations can be made by
using formulae for the exact gravitational effects of rectangular
prisms (Nagy, 1966), but the computations are much more involved.
Most ore bodies are easily divided into cubes by using sections or
level plans and the method described should give values to better than
± 10% of the true theoretical value. For example, the gravitational
attraction on the axis of a vertical cylinder of density contrast
1 g/cm 3 , radius 160 m and depths to top and bottom faces of 100 m
and 340 m respectively is 2·22 mgal. By dividing the cylinder into 288
equal cubes of edge length 40 m the gravitational attraction determined
by the method described is 2·17 mgal.

Residual gravity maps

In mineral exploration surveys we are generally concerned with small
gravitational effects and it becomes necessary to remove large-scale
regional effects from the Bouguer anomaly map. The result is known
as a 'residual gravity map'. There are a number of ways of doing this.
One method is to plot a series of profiles from the Bouguer anomaly
map across the main trend of regional pattern. Smooth curves are
fitted to the data and any departures from these curves are taken as
the residual gravity anomalies (Fig. 6.5). Another method is to draw
smooth contours along the main trends which are usually quite
obvious and any departures from these smoothed contours are taken
as the residual gravity effects. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.6. Com-
puters are now widely used in producing residual gravity maps. The
basic procedure is to fit a surface defined by an orthogonal poly-
nomial of 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th or higher orders to the observed
Bouguer values. The best fit to the observed data is obtained by using
the method of least squares to determine the coefficients of the
polynomial. Departures in the original data from this calculated
surface are plotted as the residual gravity anomalies. It must be
stressed, however, that blind faith in the computer often results in
quite erroneous interpretations. In many cases the regional trends are
obvious and a simple graphical technique used by someone with a
good geological knowledge of the area and a certain amount of
commonsense can produce satisfactory residual gravity maps. It must
always be remembered that residual gravity maps do not show
features that are not present in the original data; they merely enhance
the features of interest.
238 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

positive residual
.. 40 anomaly
'0
! I
t/'0..J
°e o~

'0
... 35
I°
regional
E
ao 30

II
-0/ ""'negative residual
anomaly

Or-------~--~~----~~----~------------

-5

FIG. 6.5. Residual gravity anomalies determined by fitting a smooth regional

trend to a gravity profile.

- -20 - - IIou9U'1f 0"",",," Con'OUf

- - - - - - .moo1hed r-otonol contour r

20-------

- - +1'0 - rnJiduol onoomoty ~tour r

---__ IQ.-/
FIG. 6.6. Residual gravity anomaly determined by fitting smoothed contours
to a Bouguer anomaly map.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 239

Second derivative gravity maps

These maps, which show the vertical rate of change of gravity with
depth, are useful for resolving and sharpening anomalies of small
areal extent. A number of graphical techniques for calculating second
derivatives have been described, but all are somewhat subjective.
Computers have now made the computation of second derivatives a
much easier task. However, in most instances second derivative maps
do not bring out features that are not also apparent on residual gravity
maps.

Estimation of mass
Although it is not possible to determine a unique mass distribution
from gravity measurements, it is possible to make an accurate esti-
mate of the total mass. This observation, first made by Hammer
(1945), is extremely useful in mineral exploration as it enables one to
make an estimation of total ore reserves from a gravity survey if the
approximate density contrast of the ore with the country rock is
known. The total tonnage in tonnes can be calculated from the
formula:

23·9~~agas
PI-P2
where ag is the anomaly in milligals, as is the areal extent of the
anomaly in square metres, PI is the density of the ore and P2 the
density of the country rock. Let us consider an example of a gravity
anomaly covering an area of 80000 m2 (Fig. 6.7) where the ore has a
density of 3·0 in country rock of density 2·7. H we divide the anomaly
up into eight equal square blocks (any number could be used) of
10000 m2 with gravity values at the centres of each square of 0·25,
0·60, 1·10, 1·10, 0·50, 0·30, 0·50 and 0·30mgal, the total tonnage
becomes:
3·0
23·9 x 3.0 _ 2.7 x 10 000
x (0·25 + 0·60+ 1·10+ 1·10+ 0·30 + 0·50 + 0·50 + 0·30)
= 11·1 million tonnes
As mineral exploration surveys are frequently carried out on a square
grid, the calculations are easily carried out in the above manner using
the survey grid. Figure 6.8 gives an example of a successful gravity
survey carried out at the Pine Point lead-zinc deposit, Northwest
Territories, Canada (Seigel et ai, 1968). The ore reserves of the No. 1
pyramid ore body were estimated at 7·5 million tons from the gravity
survey. The actual tonnage subsequently proved by drilling was 9·2
240 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

values in mgals
a 50 100 150 m
~'----~'----~'----~'

x interpolated value

FIG. 6.7. Example to illustrate how the total mass of an ore body can be
estimated from a gravity anomaly.

',0

.
OJ
0>
== 0·5
E

." Oo"W II fF I o, 100

,
metres
FIG. 6.8. Gravity profile over a lead-zinc ore body at Pine Point, Northwest
Territories, Canada (after Seigel et ai, 1968).
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 241

million tons containing 12% Pb + Zn, the discrepancy between the

actual and estimated tonnages being due to a slight underestimation of
the actual density of the ore.

6.2 MAGNETIC SURVEYING

Magnetic surveying is the oldest geophysical method and is reputed to

have been used in prospecting for iron ore in Sweden in the 17th
century. By the 19th century magnetic prospecting for iron ore had
become quite common using refined dip needles. However, only the
strongest magnetic sources could be detected and it was not until the
early part of the present century, when the first precision mag-
netometers were designed, that magnetic prospecting as we know it
today really began.
Ever since the publication of Gilbert's De Magnete in 1600, it has
been known that the earth may be likened to a giant magnet with
magnetic north and south poles. These magnetic poles do not cor-
respond to the geographic poles, being located approximately at
72° N, 102° Wand 68° S, 146° W. A compass needle lines itself up in
the earth's field with its north-seeking end (positive pole) pointing in
the direction of the north magnetic pole and its south-seeking end
(negative pole) pointing in the direction of the south magnetic pole.
Since unlike poles attract and like poles repel, it will be appreciated
from the above that the magnetic north pole is in reality a negative or
south pole and the south magnetic pole a positive or north pole. The
earth's magnetic field can be resolved into a horizontal component
(X) and a vertical component (Y) and the angle, arctan (Y/X), known
as the inclination varies from 0° at the magnetic equator to 90° at the
magnetic poles. It may also be 90° at any number of other points
owing to local disturbances and the inclination is an important factor
in interpreting magnetic anomalies. The direction of the magnetic field
generally lies east or west of true north owing to the fact that the
geographic and magnetic poles do not coincide. This variation from
true north is known as the declination.
The force between two poles, which may be attractive (unlike
poles) or repulsive Oike poles), obeys an inverse square law like
gravitation and is given by the formula:
F - 1 PPo
-,.,,7
where P and Po are the respective pole strengths, r the distance
between them and,." the permeability constant (equal to one in air).
Unit poles are defined as those poles which attract or repel each other
242 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

with a force of 1 dyne when separated by 1 cm in air. Magnetic poles

always exist in pairs (positive and negative), but, as their separation
may be considerable (e.g. a very long bar magnet), they may be
considered as isolated poles. The magnetic field strength (H) at a
point is defined as the force exerted on a unit pole placed at that
point. The field strength due to a pole Po at a distance r is:
H= Po
p.,r2
The unit of H is the oersted which is defined as 1 dyne per unit pole. In
magnetic surveying this unit is too large and variations in the field
strength are measured in gammas (1 gamma = 10-5 oersteds). The
total field strength of the earth varies from approximately 30000')'
near the equator to 70000')' near the poles.
If magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, H, it will have
magnetic poles induced upon its surface. The intensity of induced
magnetization (1) is given by:
1 = KH cos 8
where 8 is the angle of the external field with the normal to the
surface of the magnetic material and K is a constant known as the
susceptibility, which may be positive (paramagnetic materials) or
negative (diamagnetic materials). The induced poles give rise to their
own magnetic field and in moderately magnetic materials the net field
(B) is given by:
B=p.,H
where p., = 1 + 47TK. In strongly magnetic materials it is found that B
does not always fall to zero when the external field H is removed, but
retains a residual magnetism (R). Although most rocks are weakly
magnetic and might not be expected to show residual magnetism, it
has been found that many different rocks display what is known as
Natural Remanent Magnetization (NRM). Instruments have been
developed for measuring the direction and intensity of NRM and it
has been shown that rocks of varying geological age may have NRM
directions very different from the present direction of the earth's
field. The study of this phenomenon, known as palaeomagnetism, has
shown that the magnetic poles have wandered and even been rever-
sed in the geological past. NRM can be attributed to several different
processes, but the most important are Thermo-remanent Mag-
netization (TRM), Chemical or Crystallization Remanent Mag-
netization (CRM) and Detrital or Depositional Remanent Mag-
netization (DRM). TRM is acquired by rocks cooling from high
temperatures and is the main component of NRM in igneous rocks.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 243

CRM is acquired when a magnetic substance has chemically formed

or crystallized in a magnetic field. This type of NRM is exhibited by
red beds, which often display a very stable NRM and are thus useful
in palaeomagnetic studies. The NRM of red beds is attributable to
haematite much of which is considered to have formed during
diagenesis. DRM is acquired by some sedimentary rocks and is a
result of detrital magnetic grains aligning themselves in the earth's
field during deposition. In addition some rocks may acquire a highly
localized NRM caused by lightning strikes. The NRM of all rocks is
lost if they are heated above the Curie point which is approximately
600°C for magnetite.
Since both the NRM and induced magnetization of a rock have
direction as well as magnitude, the net field can be expressed by the
vector equation:

where H is the external field and I n is the NRM. I n is difficult to

estimate as it varies widely from point to point and, as TRM is the
most important cause of NRM, I n is generally less than K H in most
sediments and metamorphic rocks and can usually be ignored. In
igneous rocks, however, I n is very often greater and may be very
much greater than K H. In addition the intensity of magnetization
acquired by a rock depends upon the grain size of the ferrimagnetics
and for this reason volcanic rocks generally have much stronger
NRM's than plutonic rocks. This can be shown by the ratio, InlKH
(0), which is approximately one for coarsely crystalline rocks, 10 for
volcanics, 30-50 for rapidly cooled volcanics and generally less than
one for sediments. For this reason NRM is of considerable im-
portance in interpreting magnetic surveys over areas of igneous
rocks.
The magnetic susceptibility (K) of rocks can be measured in situ in
the field by an induction balance or in the laboratory by suitable
instruments. Laboratory measurements of K using fields much greater
than the earth's are often of dubious value and in situ measurements
are always to be preferred. Table 6.2 lists the susceptibilities of a
number of minerals and common rock types. In cases where the
direction of the NRM and earth's field are close, an apparent suscep-
tibility (KA) may be defined as:

Some orders of magnitude for KA are: iron ores 0·1 emu, basic
volcanics 10-3_10- 2 emu, metamorphic rocks 10-4 emu and sediments
10-5 emu.
244 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 6.2
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF
SOME MINERALS AND COMMON
ROCK TYPES. UNITS in 10-6 emu

Material Susceptibility (K)

magnetite 100 000-1 000 000

pyrrhotite 50000-500 000
ilmenite 20000-300 000
haematite 200-3000
quartz -1·2
halite -0·82
peridotite 12000
gabbro 100-3000
basalt 120-4000
limestone 2-280
sandstone 2-1600
shale 2-1500

Magnetometers

Schmidt variometers
Instruments of this type were the first precIsion magnetometers
designed and consist basically of a bar magnet pivoted on an agate
knife edge at a point just off the centre of gravity. This results in the
torque on the magnet due to the earth's magnetic field being
opposed by a gravitational torque. The angle made by the magnet in
its equilibrium position depends upon the magnetic field strength. The
position of the centre of gravity can also be altered by moving a small
weight to adjust the sensitivity to different field strengths. In addition
auxiliary magnets of known magnetic moment can be positioned
along a brass rod below the instrument both in order to calibrate the
instrument and to compensate for very strong field strengths which
may make a direct reading impossible. These instruments, which are
available in separate models for measuring the vertical and horizontal
components, have to be built to a high degree of mechanical and
optical precision and the finer instruments can be read to better than
± 51'. Although they are accurate and only the size of a large theodol-
ite, they have to be levelled precisely on a tripod and a single reading
can take 10 min or more. For this reason, they are now obsolete and
have been replaced by the small lightweight modern flux-gate and
proton magnetometers.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 245

Torsion magnetometers
These instruments work on a principle similar to the Schmidt
variometer except that the magnet is pivoted on a torsion fibre and
the magnetic intensity is measured by the amount of torque required
to bring the magnet to a horizontal position. Although these instru-
ments need to be levelled precisely on a tripod, they can be read in a
matter of minutes by a skilled operator. They are accurate to 1 or 21'
and can be read in any azimuth since the moment of the horizontal
component is zero when the magnet is horizontal.

Flux-gate magnetometers
These magnetometers, designed in the 1940's, were the first of the
modern electronic instruments and they made it possible to undertake
airborne and shipborne surveys. The detector in the instrument con-
sists of two identical parallel coils wound in series in opposite
directions around ferromagnetic elements of extremely high per-
meability. The coils are energized by an alternating sinusoidal current
which drives the cores beyond saturation at the top and bottom of
each cycle. When the coils are held parallel to the earth's field, the
magnetic field in one of the cores is reinforced causing saturation to
be reached slightly earlier in the cycle than would be the case in the
absence of the ambient field, and the magnetic field in the other coil is
reduced causing saturation to be reached slightly later in the cycle
than would be the case in the absence of the ambient field. Secondary
coils around each core are connected in 0Pfosition to a voltmeter and
the maxima of this resultant voltage are approximately proportional
to the ambient magnetic field. Small hand-held instruments, which
measure the total field to ± 5 to 301', are manufactured by a number of
different companies in various countries. The instruments are
extremely simple to operate and readings can be obtained in a minute
or less. The instrument has to be held level and steady so that the
elements are vertical and a direct reading in gammas is obtained on a
meter by pressing a button. The instruments are equipped with a
range selector switch so that on-scale readings can be obtained over a
wide range of field strengths. Airborne instruments consist of gimbal-
mounted elements with orienting inductors set at right angles in a
plane perpendicular to the element. The inductors are connected to
servomotors which keep the element parallel to the earth's field. The
airborne flux-gate magnetometer records a continuous profile and is
accurate to 11'. In airborne work the detector element is towed in a
'bird' behind the aircraft while the recording instruments are kept on
board.
246 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Proton magnetometers
These magnetometers, which are the most widely used today, were
developed in the 1950's and are based on the phenomenon of nuclear
magnetic resonance. A strong magnetic field (100 times greater than
that of the earth) is applied to a bottle containing a proton-rich
liquid (water or a hydrocarbon) by a coil wound round it. By virtue of
their magnetic spins, the protons align themselves parallel to the
applied field. When the external field is removed, the protons will
return to their original magnetic moment by precessing round the
direction of the earth's field with angular velocity w = 'YpH, where H
is the field strength and 'Yp a constant (the gyro magnetic ratio of the
proton). This induces a small voltage in the coil, the frequency of
which is the same as the frequency of precession. Suitable electronic
circuitry makes it possible to measure the frequency of the induced
voltage and the total field strength is simply equal to the measured
frequency times a constant (23·4874'Y/Hz). These instruments give
absolute measures of the earth's field and are accurate to 1'Y. The
latest instruments are small, lightweight and have extremely fast
recycling times of 1 s or less. In airborne work the sensor bottle is
towed in a 'bird' behind the aircraft while the recording instruments
are kept on board. Unlike the flux-gate magnetometer, which records
a continuous magnetic profile, the proton magnetometer gives a series
of readings at discrete time intervals. This was considered a disad-
vantage for airborne work, but the recycling times of the latest
instruments are fast enough for it not to make any practical
difference.

Optical absorption magnetometers

These are the most sensitive magnetometers and have only been
developed in recent years. They are based on the phenomenon known
as 'optical pumping', the theory of which is extremely complex.
Atoms of Rb or Ce vapour in a cell are excited by a modulated beam
of light from a Rb or Ce lamp which is filtered for high energy
wavelengths. Orbital electrons around the Rb or Ce atoms shift from
one energy level to another. Any electrons which jump into the
highest energy levels are no longer excited by the light beam from
which the corresponding wavelengths have been filtered. After a
certain amount of time all electrons are above the levels excited by
the light beam and the vapour is said to be 'optically pumped'. This
state is interrupted if the cell is swept by a magnetic field because of
the Zeeman effect. In one form of optical absorption magnetometer
the modulated light beam transmitted through the Ce or Rb cell is
detected by a photocell. The current from this photocell is shifted in
phase by 90° and used as a feedback signal to a coil which applies an
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 247

alternating magnetic field to the vapour cell. This arrangement is an

oscillator whose frequency is proportional to the total ambient field
affecting the cell. The frequency required to maintain a constant
absorption in the vapour cell gives a measure of the earth's total field
strength. These instruments are extremely sensitive and measure-
ments of ±0·01'}' are possible. Ground instruments similar in size to
proton magnetometers are available and are accurate to 0·1'}' or
better. The instruments are also used in airborne work.

Field procedures
All modern magnetometers are extremely simple to operate and
surveys can be conducted by semi-skilled personnel, though flux-gate
instruments are more difficult to read than proton or optical ab-
sorption magnetometers as they have to be held absolutely level and
steady to obtain accurate readings. The operator should ensure that
he is not carrying any steel or iron objects such as large belt buckles,
pocket knives or small magnets which may affect the readings
slightly. Observations are taken along traverses across the geological
strike with station intervals of 15-30 m commonly employed in
mineral exploration surveys. A base station is selected at a point
within or near the survey area where there is little disturbance of the
normal magnetic field. With flux-gate instruments the magnetic read-
ings are expressed as positive or negative differences from the base
station which is taken as zero. This procedure can also be adopted
with proton or optical absorption magnetometers, but, as these in-
struments give absolute readings, it is common practice simply to plot
the actual readings. For very precise surveys it is necessary to correct
for the diurnal variation. This generally varies between 10 and 20,}"
but may be up to 50'}' or more on days of magnetic activity. If large
anomalies are encountered, corrections for the diurnal variation can
be ignored. The diurnal variation is determined by using a base
instrument as a reference or by returning to a base station every
1-2 h. With flux-gate magnetometers it is advisable to adopt the
procedure of reoccupying a base station at regular intervals as this
also takes into account temperature corrections which can be up to
50'}' or more in a day. Proton magnetometers are not affected by
normal temperature changes and optical absorption magnetometers
are maintained at 35°C, their optimum operating temperature, by
means of a thermostat. It is sometimes useful to take several readings
at each station 3 or 4 m apart as a check against very strongly
localized sources, though this precaution is only really necessary if
stations are widely spaced (tOO m and more). Strong variations in
topographic relief can give spurious magnetic anomalies, but there are
no definite rules for carrying out terrain corrections. Generally,
248 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

anomalies showing strong correlation with terrain are regarded as less

significant than others, particularly in airborne surveys where terrain
effects can be very marked. When carrying out magnetic surveys, the
operator should always be on his guard against taking readings close
to iron or steel objects such as pipelines, fences, bridges and cars. For
example, a car at 3 m may give an effect of approximately -700", but
at 30 m distance the effect is negligible. A north-south wire fence may
give an effect of - 350" at 1 m, but the effect disappears at a distance
of 35m.

Interpretation
Magnetic field strength obeys an inverse square law and a magnetic
anomaly field can be explained by potential theory as is the case for
gravitation. However, magnetic interpretation is much more difficult
than gravity interpretation since two poles are involved and remanent
magnetization may play an important part with a direction and in-
tensity very different from the earth's present field. Nevertheless,
many magnetic anomalies can be considered as being due to induced
polarization and interpretations can be made from a knowledge of
susceptibilities and approximate geometric shapes of structures. As in
the case of gravity interpretation a number of workers have derived
formulae for calculating the magnetic effect of various regular
geometric shapes (e.g. Nettleton, 1942; Cook, 1950). Figure 6.9 gives
some examples of the formulae for a few simple cases. In addition the
size and shape of anomalies is also governed by the inclination of the
earth's field and, in the case of bodies with a long strike length
compared to their cross section, by the orientation of the bodies with
respect to the field. This relationship is illustrated in Fig. 6.10 which
shows the magnetic anomaly over a dipping dyke with two strike
directions (N-S and E-W) in a field with two different inclinations
(14° and 63°). At the magnetic equator a long N-S structure will
produce no anomaly, whereas an E-W striking body produces a small
negative anomaly. Bodies with short strike lengths compared to their
cross-sectional area, on the other hand, always produce anomalies,
though of much smaller magnitude at or near the equator than at
higher latitudes (Fig. 6.11).
Although magnetic poles always exist in pairs, the effect of the
more distant pole may be negligible if the separation of poles is large.
Bodies elongated in the direction of the magnetizing field will produce
induced poles with a wide separation, the deeper poles can be ignored
and the magnetic anomaly ascribed to a so-called monopole or line of
monopoles. H, on the other hand, a body is magnetized across a
narrow width, it will produce two poles close together and will act as
a dipole or line of dipoles. These effects are illustrated in Fig 6.12.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 249

Sphere

I--x--I

C9
z

Horizontal Cylinder (infinite length)

V= S.28xl05£I.
I~
~
Z2 I ~
+ Z2

Horizontal Infinite Slab (Fault)

(third dimension infinite)
x
V= 2xI0!5~_I_
z I+~
Z2

/---------- f

Vertical Sheet (third dimension infinite)

x

8~
z,I

FIG. 6.9. Formulae for determining the magnetic effects of some regular
bodies (after Nettleton. 1942).

The rate of fall-off of an anomaly from a monopole is inversely

proportional to the square of the distance from the pole and in the
case of a dipole the rate of fall-off is inversely proportional to the
cube of the distance from the centre of the dipole. The shape of the
anomaly produced by a dipole or monopole depends upon the in-
clination of the inducing field. In a vertical field a monopole produces
250 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

N-S strike

--~- ...

1 =63' 1=14'

E-W strike

==- ,

~
1= 63' 1=14'

FIG. 6.10. Magnetic profiles over identical inclined dykes with different
strike directions in fields with low and steep inclinations (after Haalck, 1953).

A I

"':-
,

FIG. 6.11. Magnetic profiles over a sphere in fields with low (14°) and high
(63°) inclinations (after Haalck, 1953).
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 251

direction of
mognetising field

poles ignored

a) Monopoles

o
b) Dipoles
FIG. 6.12. Diagram showing origin of monopoles and dipoles in a magnetizing
field.
252 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

a single positive anomaly whereas a dipole produces a positive

anomaly flanked by two negative anomalies. In a horizontal field a
monopole produces positive and negative anomalies on either side of
the pole and a dipole produces a negative anomaly flanked by two
positive anomalies. In inclined fields bQth monopoles and dipoles
produce a negative and positive anomaly, though the negative
anomaly is very small in the case of the monopole. As the earth's field
is usually inclined in most survey areas, magnetic anomalies almost
always occur in positive and negative pairs. Figure 6.13 shows the
characteristic shape of a total field magnetic anomaly over an inclined
dipole in the northern and southern hemispheres. This shows how the

s ________~---_N

\
northern hemisphere

N___________~-------S

\
southern hemisphere

FIG. 6.13. Characteristic total field magnetic profile over an inclined dipole.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 253

small negative anomaly lies on the north side of the main positive
anomaly in the northern hemisphere while the reverse is true for the
southern hemisphere.
Depth estimates can be made from magnetic anomalies due to
monopoles and dipoles from the size of the anomaly. Nettleton (1940)
gives the following rules for estimating depth:
1. Single pole depth = 1·305 x ! width
2. Sphere (dipole) depth = 2 x! width
3. Horizontal cylinder depth = 2·05 x! width
(line of dipoles)
where ! width is the distance from the centre of the anomaly to the
point where the magnitude is one half.
The magnetic effects and anomalies described so far are all due to
induced magnetization in the earth's field, but, as mentioned earlier, it
may be important to consider remanent magnetization in interpreting
magnetic anomalies, particularly in areas with volcanic rocks.
Remanent magnetization can give rise to very strong anomalies many
times greater than those that can be explained by induced mag-
netization calculated from the geometry of the bodies involved and
their magnetic susceptibilities. There are even cases on record of
remanent magnetization causing anomalies opposite to those expect-
ed. For example, Yiingiil (1956), who conducted a magnetic survey
over chromite bodies in ultrabasic rocks in east central Turkey,
observed strong, positive anomalies (lOOO')' +) over the chromite
masses, although the magnetic susceptibility of the chromite ore is 2
to 18 times smaller than that of the surrounding country rocks and
negative anomalies were expected. The observed anomalies could be
due only to permanent magnetization in the chromite bodies pointing
downwards. Remanent magnetization can also be suspected when
dipole anomalies are observed with a reverse polarity. For example, a
high on the southside of a low in the southern hemisphere and a high
on the northside of a low in the northern hemisphere are both the
opposite of what is expected from an induced dipole and indicate a
permanent dipole with polarity opposite to the present earth's field.

Aeromagnetic (AM) surveys

Magnetic surveying is the most widely used airborne geophysical
method and the aeromagnetic map has come to be regarded as of
fundamental importance in understanding any area as the geological
map. For this reason, it is customary for Government departments to
finance aeromagnetic surveys of their countries. Nevertheless, there
are still large areas of the world which have not been covered by such
surveys.
254 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Airborne surveys are carried out with flux-gate, proton or optical

absorption magnetometers, though proton magnetometers are prob-
ably the most widely used today. The survey is usually flown at a
ground clearance of 60-100 m for mineral exploration, but higher
altitudes may be used for regional surveys looking for deep basement
structures. One of the problems in any airborne survey is accurate
position location, which is usually accomplished with radio navigation
equipment such as the Decca system. In addition a film strip with
fiducial marks tied to the magnetic recording is taken of the ground
beneath the flight path to assist in fixing the flight lines to topographic
features. Over water or featureless country, however, photographic
control is not applicable. A series of parallel flight lines with a spacing
of 400--2000 m is flown with cross lines, known as control or tie lines,
flown as checks at intervals across the main survey lines. The tie lines
are generally spaced up to 10 km apart. A base magnetometer on the
ground in the survey area is usually used to record diurnal variations.
If there are strong disturbances in the diurnal cycle due to magnetic
storms, it may be necessary to suspend survey work until conditions
quieten down. The magnetic input data is recorded directly on mag-
netic tape which is suitable for direct computer processing. Closure
errors at line/tie line intersections, level corrections, random error
corrections, diurnal variation corrections and co-ordinate fixes are
then added to produce the final working tape which is used for
interpretation and producing the aeromagnetic maps. With the latest
techniques machine-drawn maps may be very similar in appearance to
hand-contoured maps.
The amplitude of anomalies on an airborne map is dependent on the
depth to source and altitude of the survey. Small shallow sources will
produce little magnetic effect at high altitudes. Figure 6.14 shows a
ground magnetic profile compared to the aeromagnetic profile flown at
a ground clearance of 200 m. The airborne anomaly reaches peak
values of about 60)' compared to 8(0)' for the ground measurements,
which indicates that the sources are shallow. In addition the ground
survey indicates a number of different sources which are not resolved
by the airborne survey. In general, airborne surveys will not resolve
separate magnetic sources if the terrain clearance is greater than the
horizontal distance between the sources less their depth below ground
surface.
The interpretation of aeromagnetic surveys has become highly
specialized using various computer techniques. To determine depth to
basement beneath a sedimentary cover the shorter wavelength
anomalies from shallow sources are filtered out to enhance the longer
wavelength anomalies due to deep sources. This is what is commonly
done in petroleum exploration where one is attempting to map sedi-
 800
oI
500
I
1000
I

metres
600

400 o
~
:::
-<
til
200 ....
("l

... ~
"C
~I T r - - - - __ ~ I .L-t=-t----i-I--
--------- \ I
E 0 :-t--t"1- - - _:..L - - -,- ~ ~
a
CO'
~
ttl
("l
-200
..,
ground anomaly Z
o
-400

-600

FIG. 6.14. A ground magnetic profile compared to an airborne magnetic profile flown with a terrain clearance of 200 m. N
VI
VI
256 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

mentary basins. In mineral exploration one may wish to do the

opposite, i.e. enhance shallow, localized features by the use of
selective filters. Computer processing can also be used to assist in
trend identification and to simplify anomaly patterns. It should be
stressed, however, that not too much reliance should be placed on
purely mathematical interpretations however complex and involved
the computer program. Geophysical interpretation can never be
automated and a good interpretation will always depend on the
interpreter having a good understanding of the geology of the area
and a full grasp of the application and limitations of the mathematical
techniques being used.

Magnetic gradients
It is sometimes of value to measure either the vertical or horizontal
magnetic gradients in the field, since magnetic gradients may assist in
resolving the shallower anomalies which are often of interest in
mineral exploration. By the same token, in areas with very shallow
localized sources, such as strong soil anomalies, which are referred to
as 'magnetic noise', the measurement of magnetic gradient is of little
value. The horizontal or vertical gradients can be readily measured in
the field with a proton magnetometer. For vertical gradients readings
are taken at each station with the sensor held at two different heights
above the ground (e.g. 1 and 3 m). The vertical gradient is then simply
the difference in magnetic readings divided by the difference in
heights above ground. For consistency it is important that the sensor
is always held at the same heights for each station and the magnetic
readings for the higher sensor position should be subtracted from the
magnetic readings for the lower sensor position. The horizontal
gradient can be measured in the same manner by taking two readings
at each station with the sensor at the same height above the ground,
but at a separation of 2 or 3 m. Figure 6.15 gives an example of the
type of resolution of an anomaly that can be obtained by measuring
the vertical magnetic gradient.
Gradient measurement can be usefully employed in shipborne and
airborne surveys. By towing two sensor heads from an aircraft or ship
a direct recording of magnetic gradient is made. Since diurnal changes
and magnetic storms affect both sensors equally, these naturally
occurring time variations are automatically removed from the field
data. This is particularly valuable at sea where shore-based monitor
instruments may be some distance from the survey vessel. In addition
this type of survey is applicable to high latitudes where magnetic
disturbances often render normal magnetic field data useless for
exploration purposes. When measuring magnetic gradients it is im-
portant that the instruments used are accurate to 0·2" or better.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 257

400
10101 field
/
0·100
300

0·075 3
'"0
3
200 :i!
0·050 3"-
100 ~
0'025

FIG. 6.15. Example of the use of magnetic gradients in resolving anomalies

caused by buried structures.

6.3 RESISTIVITY SURVEYS

In the earth resistivity (ER) method the apparent resistivity of the

ground is determined by measuring the potential difference across
two electrodes while introducing a current into the ground through
two other electrodes (Fig. 6.16). The resistivity, p, of a conductor is
defined by the relation:
RA
p=- (1)
L
where R is the resistance, A the cross-sectional area and L the
length. The unit of resistivity is the ohm-metre. The current I passing

I~
'I
~---------- r 2 ----------~.~I
rJ

rl --+

C1 ~
FIG. 6.16. Arrangement of current electrodes (C) and C2) and potential
electrodes (PI and P 2) for measuring earth resistance.
258 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

through a conductor with resistance R under an impressed voltage V

is given by Ohm's law:
1= V (2)
R
From the relations (1) and (2) we derive:
V=IpL (3)
A
H a current + I is passed into level ground through an electrode, the
potential difference across a hemispherical shell of radius rand
thickness dr around the electrode is given by:
dV= Ip dr (4)
27Tr2
Integrating (4) gives:
V= Ip (5)
27Tr
H a current is passed into the ground through electrodes C I and C2 in
Fig. 6.16, the potential at PI is given by:
V = Ip [1_ I]
27T rl r2
Likewise the potential at P 2 is given by:
V= Ip
27T r3
[I_I]r4
Thus, the potential difference between PI and P2 will be

v=i~ [~-k-~+~] (6)

Solving for p gives:
(7)

Electrode arrays
Quite a number of different electrode arrays have been used in
resistivity work, but the two most commonly employed are the
Wenner and the Schlumberger. In the Wenner array the distance
between electrodes is equal and expression (7) reduces to:
V
p = 27Ta T
where a is the distance between electrodes. In the Schlumberger
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 259

1- -1- -1- -1
C
0

P
0

P
0

WENNER ARRAY

rC
c~;:ri
p p
----] C
SCHlUMBERGER ARRAY
FIG. 6.17. The two most common electrode arrays used in resistivity work.

array (Fig. 6.17) the distance between the centre potential electrodes
is very small compared to the distance between the current elec-
trodes, i.e. the distance of the potential electrodes from either current
electrode should be at least ten times the potential electrode separa-
tion. The apparent resistivity can be shown to be given by:
7T (L 2 - X 2)2 Y
P =21 L2+X 2 I
where 21 is the distance between potential electrodes, 2L the distance
between current electrodes and x the distance of the centre point of
the potential electrodes from the centre point of the current elec-
trodes. If the potential electrodes are located at the mid-point of the
array, the apparent resistivity is given by:
7T L2y
P =2/-[-

Field procedures
Basic resistivity equipment is quite simple requmng a generator to
supply current to the ground, an ammeter to measure the applied
current and a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across the
potential electrodes. In fact it is not necessary to measure the current
and potential difference separately to obtain a value for the resistance
and on most instruments the potential across the potential electrodes
is balanced on a potentiometer incorporated in the current electrode
circuit and calibrated in ohms. In d.c. equipment the current is
commutated to counteract polarization at the electrodes and the leads
260 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

from the potential electrodes to the voltmeter are on the same

commutator so that the voltage is only measured during current flow
to avoid spurious measurement of self potentials. Some equipment
uses an alternating current, the frequency of which is very low
varying from a fraction of a cycle to 20 Hz. Since a.c. measuring
instruments are used, interference by d.c. self potentials presents no
problems. There are two main methods of measurement in resistivity
surveying: electric 'drilling' or sounding and electric mapping or
traversing.

Electric 'drilling'
In this method the electrode spacings are continually increased in
steps for each measurement to give greater and greater depths of
penetration, hence the term 'drilling' or 'sounding'. With the Wenner
array the electrode separations are always kept equal, but with the
Schlumberger array the potential electrode separation is kept constant
while the current electrode separation is increased. For example, 21
may be fixed at 2 m and measurements made with 2L at 20, 30, 50, 70,
100, 200 m and so on. Results are presented as a graph by plotting
apparent resistivity along the ordinate and a and L along the abscissa
in the Wenner and Schlumberger arrays respectively.

Electric mapping
In this method the electrode spacing is kept constant and the array
moved about the area being surveyed, thus mapping the lateral
variations in resistivity. With the Wenner system the array is moved
as a whole. This procedure can also be adopted with the Schlum-
berger system, but very often the current electrode separation is kept
constant at several hundred metres and the potential electrodes are
moved between them with a constant small separation (5-20 m, say).
Results are presented as resistivity contours with the plotting point at
the centre of the array in the Wenner system and at the mid-point of
the potential electrodes with the Schlumberger array.

Interpretation
Although a great deal has been written on the interpretation of
resistivity surveys, it still remains very complex as the theories only
apply to relatively simple models such as inclined sheets, horizontal
layers or buried spheres. However, much valuable information has
been obtained from model experiments which allow actual resistivity
measurements to be made over more complex structures. Neverthe-
less, owing to complexities in nature, much interpretation is still
essentially qualitative or only semi-quantitative.
Figure 6.18 gives the common resistivity ranges for a number of
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 261

QUARTZ

MARBLE

SPHALERITE

GRANITE

HAEMATITE

QUARTZITE

SANDSTONE

LIMESTONE

SHALE

AllUVIUM

Till

ClAYS

MAGNETITE

GRAPHITE

PYRRHOTITE

CHALCOPYRITE

GALENA

PYRITE

10-1 1 10 10 2 103 104 105 106 10110 8 109 10 10

OHM-METRES
FIG. 6.18. Resistivity ranges of some common rocks and minerals.

rocks and minerals which vary quite widely from quartz which is a
good insulator to sulphides which are mainly good conductors with
the notable exception of sphalerite. There is also quite a wide range
of resistivities for any given rock type depending on composition. For
instance, argillaceous limestones may have quite low resistivities,
whereas pure limestones have high resistivities. In addition, water
content is a significant factor in governing resistivity in situ. A hard,
compact, dry quartzite has a very high resistivity, whereas a
saturated, porous, permeable, quartz sandstone has a low resistivity.
In cases where there is a horizontal or near-horizontal layering
depth determinations can be made using the method of 'electric
drilling'. Figure 6.19 shows three characteristic resistivity curves for
three different cases of horizontal layering. There is no simple rela-
tion between the shapes of the curves and the resistivities of and
depths to the different layers. In practice the resistivity of the top
layer can be determined by taking a mean value of the measured
262 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

fa
~ elECTRODE SEP.t.RATtOf"<,l
(\<1'2

f,
f2

fa
~ f,>fJ2

ElECTRODE SEPARATION

f,
f2

ELECTRODE sePARATION

FIG. 6.19. Characteristic resistivity curves for three generalized cases of

horizontal layering.

apparent resistivities at small electrode spacings on the assumption

that depth penetration is largely confined to the top layer. A large
number of theoretical curves for different cases have been prepared
by different workers (e.g. Mooney and Wetzel, 1956; La Compagnie
Generale de Geophysique, 1955) and a general method of inter-
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 263

pretation is to compare the actual curves with the theoretical ones.

For the two-layer case a method by Tagg (1934) gives a family of
curves with pal PI as a function of h/ a for different values of k, a
resistivity factor, where h = depth to the interface, a = electrode
separation for the Wenner array and k = (P2 - PI)/(P2 + PI). There are
two families of curves, one for negative k values (PI < P2) and one for
positive k values (PI> P2). Tagg's method may be extended to the
three-layer case if the resistivity of the bottom layer does not affect
the curve too much. Let us consider an example for the two-layer
case using Tagg's method. Table 6.3 gives the results of a resistivity
depth probe which indicates a two-layer case with P2> PI. Using the
small electrode spacings of 5 and 10 m an estimate for PI is deter-
mined at 87 Om. Then values for PI/ Pa are obtained for the other
electrode spacings as shown in Table 6.3. Values of k and h/a are
then read from the upper set of Tagg's curves (P2> PI) in Fig. 6.20 for
each value of PI/ Pa in Table 6.3. For example, this gives the following
set of values for pdPa = 0·70 and a = 20 m:

k h/a h
0·2 0·18 3·6
0·3 0·41 8·21
0·4 0·55 11·0
0·5 0·68 13·6
0·6 0·78 15·6
0·7 0·85 17·0
0·8 0·92 18·4
0·9 0·99 19·8
1·0 1·07 21·4

TABLE 6.3
RESULTS OF A RESISTIVITY PROBE
USING THE WENNER ARRAY

Electrode spacing
(m) pa

5 85
10 110
20 125 0·70
30 155 0·56
60 175 0·49
90 190 0·46
120 210 0·41
150 230 0·38
264 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

o.
o.
o.
o.
~ o.
~

o.
o.
0

OR~=-------~~~~~~~~~--~--------+-------~

o 0.5 1.0 1.5

h/o
FIG. 6.20. Tagg's curves for two-layered cases (Tagg, 1934).
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 265

This is repeated for different values of pt/Pa and a to give additional

sets of values for k and hla. The k values are then plotted against h
values to give a number of curves as shown in Fig. 6.21. These lines
intersect in the region of k = 0·4 and h = 10 m. Thus, the depth probe
indicates an upper layer of resistivity 87 Om ten metres thick resting
on a lower layer of resistivity 203 Om.
As in other geophysical methods it is rarely possible to obtain a

10 20 40 60
h
FIG. 6.21. Example to show how Tagg's curves are used to find the resis-
tivity factor (k) and the depth to the second layer (h) from a resistivity depth
probe.
266 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

unique solution to resistivity measurements. A given curve may

represent widely different subsurface configurations. However, these
can be reduced to one or a few possibilities if there is sufficient
geological control.
Interpretation of resistivity mapping is generally more qualitative,
though theoretical calculations can also be made to aid interpretation
as in the ·case for depth probes. The shapes of the resistivity profiles
often depend upon the orientation of the electrode array with respect
to the structure, particularly in the case of steeply dipping conductors
or insulators. This effect is illustrated in Fig. 6.22 which shows the
resistivity curves obtained in a model experiment over a vertical
conductor plate. When the electrode array is moved parallel to the
plate, a simple resistivity 'low' is obtained, but, when the array is
moved at right angles to the plate, a more complex curve is observed

10 slri ke

perpendicular 10 slrike

FIG. 6.22. Examples of resistivity profiles obtained in a model experiment

over a conductive plate.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 267

with a 'high' directly over the plate flanked by two small 'lows'. This
serves to show that interpretation of resistivity data is often far from
straightforward. Nevertheless, lateral variations in resistivity often
followed a simple pattern and meaningful qualitative interpretations
are possible. In Ireland resistivity surveys have proved useful in
outlining sub-outcrops of reef limestones which are often the hosts of
sulphide mineralization. The reef limestones have much higher resis-
tivities than the off-reef facies, which consist largely of argillaceous
limestones, and the reef limestones are often clearly delineated by
resistivity 'highs' (Fig. 6.23).

~ 2000
~
E
~ 1000

----~ ~off-reef facies-

-----_ ~ reef limestone ~t::-- argillaceous_
~Ii~e~one-
----~~~~~~~ ~------
FIG. 6.23. Reef limestones in Ireland defined by resistivity high.

Nowadays, resistivity surveys are rarely used for direct prospecting

in mineral exploration, though resistivity measurements are always
carried out in conjunction with IP surveys (p. 268) and play an important
role in their interpretation. For indirect prospecting such as determining
depth of overburden and delineating sub-outcrops of different rock
types resistivity surveys can be very useful. In hydrogeology resistivity
is an important method and is widely used in all parts of the world for
siting water boreholes.

Airborne surveys
Recently, methods have been developed for carrying out resistivity
mapping from an aircraft. The method known as E-PHASE,
which has been developed by Barringer Research in Canada, is
really an EM method which uses radio sources in the VLF (15-
25 kHz), LF (200-400 kHz) and BCB (550-1100 kHz) bands (McNeill
and Barringer, 1970; McNeill et ai, 1973), but it is included in this
268 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

section as the final product of the survey is a contoured resistivity

map. The method is useful for locating shallow resistive targets such
as gravel deposits or for the geological mapping of layered structures.

6.4 INDUCED POLARIZATION (IP) SURVEYS

Although the phenomenon of induced polarization or overvoltage has

been known and studied in the laboratory by physical chemists for a
long time, it was only comparatively recently that it was put to
practical use in applied geophysics. Overvoltage was discovered acci-
dentally in the field during the course of resistivity surveys when it
was observed that the voltage across the potential electrodes did not
fall back to zero as soon as the current was cut off, but persisted for a
short time as a fading residual voltage. Experimental exploration
surveys using overvoltage were carried out in various parts of the
world in the late 1940's and early 1950's, but it was not until the late
1950's that the method became more widely used and it was only
during the 1960's that IP became the widely used prospecting tool it is
today.
The phenomenon of overvoltage is extremely complex, but there
appear to be two main effects: electrode polarization and membrane
polarization. It is the first effect that is of most importance in IP
surveying. When a current is passed through the ground, ionic char-
ges tend to build up on conductor-electrolyte interfaces and a voltage
is created which tends to oppose the flow of the current. When the
external current is cut off a residual voltage continues to exist and
slowly fades away as the ionic charges diffuse into the electrolyte and
equilibrium is restored. Membrane polarization is rather more com-
plex, but it is exhibited by non-metallic clay minerals which also give
an IP effect. As overvoltage is essentially a surface effect, the IP
response increases with the number of conductor-electrolyte inter-
faces present and is thus an excellent method for detecting highly
disseminated sulphide ores. In measuring the IP effect either direct
current or alternating current can be used. In the case· of d.c. the IP
effect is said to be measured in the time-domain and in the case of a.c. it
is said to be measured in the frequency-domain.

Time-domain
There are two main methods of measuring the IP effect in the
time-domain: the residual voltage can be read at a specific time
interval (usually a few seconds) after cessation of the current, or the
voltage decay curve can be integrated between two time limits. In the
first case results are usually expressed as per cent IP effect.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 269

IP effect =
v:J x 100(%)
where V t is the residual voltage in millivolts after time t and V is the
voltage in volts of the applied current. In the second case the area
under the voltage decay curve is expressed as millivolt-seconds. This
is divided by the voltage in volts of the applied current to give
millivolt-seconds/volt or simply milliseconds.

Frequency-domain
Measurements of the decaying residual voltage are not made in the
frequency-domain, but rather, use is made of the fact that the ap-
parent resistivity decreases as the frequency of a current passing
through the ground is increased. This effect is caused by the over-
voltage phenomenon and is analogous to passing an alternating
current across a capacitor and a resistor wired in parallel. The potential
difference across the potential electrodes is measured while the
current is being applied to the current electrodes and the apparent
resistivity is calculated in the same manner as for ordinary resistivity
surveys. In practice the apparent resistivity is determined for two
different frequencies (usually 0·1 Hz and 10 Hz) at each station.
Results are expressed as the so-called frequency effect or in terms of
the metal factor:
frequency effect = PI - P2 x 100(%)
P2
metal factor = PI - P2 X 2 X 105
PI X pz
where PI is the apparent resistivity at frequency 1 and P2 IS the
apparent resistivity at frequency 2.
Recently, use has been made of the observed phase shift in the
frequency-domain which is analogous to time delay in the time-
domain. This phase shift, which is measured in milliradians, is defined
as the phase difference between the fundamental harmonic of the
transmitted and received signals. An increase in the phase shift is
observed over conductors and good resolution has been claimed for
the method.

Field procedures
Typical IP equipment consists of a generator, a transmitter unit, a
receiver and a cycling limel coupling transmitter and receiver. Fairly
high voltages are usually necessary and a typical transmitter would
deliver 1000 V at 2 A to the current electrodes. Such currents are
extremely dangerous and great care should be exercised in carrying
270 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

out IP surveys to avoid accidents. When using a direct current in the

time-domain, it is common to use a pulse of short duration followed
by a short gap of current off when the decay curve is measured. The
direction of the current pulses is repeatedly reversed to minimize
effects due to polarization at the electrodes.
Resistivity measurements are extremely useful in assisting with the
interpretation of IP results and a resistivity survey is always carried
out concurrently with an IP survey. In the frequency-domain the
apparent resistivities are determined routinely to calculate the
frequency effect or metal factor values, but in the time-domain it is
necessary to measure the potential across the potential electrodes
during current on to determine the apparent resistivity. Standard
features of time-domain equipment enable the potential to be
measured both during current on (apparent resistivity) and during
current off (IP effect).
Quite a number of different electrode arrays have been used for IP
work, but the most commonly used arrays are the three-electrode or
pole-dipole in the time-domain and the dipole-dipole in the
frequency-domain (Fig. 6.24). For small scale reconnaissance work
the gradient array is sometimes used. In this system the two current
electrodes are placed outside the survey grid and remain fixed while
the two potential electrodes are moved about taking the IP
measurements. Metal stakes are generally used as electrodes, but in
dry areas where there is a high resistivity surface layer it is common
practice to use sheets of metal foil as electrodes. If the ground is very
dry, it is usually necessary to water the area around the electrodes to
reduce the resistivity. Distance between electrodes may be as little as
10 m or as much as 200 m, but spreads of 50-100 m are most com-
monly used. The effective depth of penetration is increased with
increased electrode spacings. In the pole-dipole and dipole-dipole
arrays to give increasing depth of penetration the surveys are usually
carried out for n = 1,2,3,4, etc. with a fixed at 30 or 50 m (Fig. 6.24).
Maximum depth penetration for IP surveys is of the order of 200 m.
As IP equipment is relatively heavy and bulky, it is best to position
the apparatus near a central point on a survey line to minimize
movement of the equipment. IP is a relatively slow and costly method
and is unsuitable for large scale reconnaissance work. A good crew
should be able to complete 20-60 line-km/month depending upon
electrode spreads and terrain.
A number of extraneous factors can affect IP surveys, two of the
most important being atmospheric conditions (electrical storms) and
artificial conductors. If atmospheric conditions are very bad, they can
have a drastic effect on the receiver signal and it is sometimes
necessary to cease field measurements for one or more days until
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 271

I, 12 fi!
1 > 50 1 0 1, 0
"
plottIng POint ',.,

3-electrode array

Il ot CD (>100) 12
1 I- - no

pole-dipole

fi! Pz
DO 1 o 1
,,
,
-- ,
' -"plotting point

dipole-dipole
FIG. 6.24. Some electrode arrays used for IP surveys.

conditions quieten down. Artificial conductors such as power-lines,

wire fences and metal pipes can also affect IP responses and their
presence should always be noted during surveys. In interpreting IP
work, one has to be very careful to try to distinguish formational
anomalies caused by barren rocks such as graphitic shales, cultural
effects caused by artificial conductors and anomalies due to mineral-
ization. It is often very difficult or impossible to do this, but it should
always be borne in mind that very large IP anomalies can be caused
by barren argillaceous, carbonaceous or pyritic rocks.

Plotting of data
IP results are generally plotted along sections, though contoured
plans can also be prepared. In cases where measurements are taken
for different values of n it is common practice to plot contoured
pseudo-sections in the frequency-domain (Fig. 6.25) and a series of
profiles in the time-domain. It is also quite common to show strong
 !:j
. / . . . . . \ . .=1 N
. rJ. .=2
n=3
{) ~ \1~?' .(2.
.. n=4
.~ (R~(?·
OVERBURDEN

III

~
J!!
~
i
Ii
~J...">
~p
~~
>;)~
() ~~
dissemi nated ·i. o 50 100m
. ' ,
pyrite and / '
chalcoPYrite
I
FIG. 6.25. IP pseudo-section showing frequency effect over a copper deposit in Zambia.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 273

anomalous zones along survey lines diagrammatically in plan with a

heavy black line and weakly anomalous zones with a dashed line (Fig.
6.26). A typical IP profile obtained over a disseminated sulphide ore
body using time-domain equipment is shown in Fig. 6.27.

Magnetic induced polarization (MIP)

One of the major drawbacks of conventional induced polarization
surveys is that they are slow and costly and are not suited to
reconnaissance work. This problem is overcome to a large extent by a
new method proposed by Seigel (1974). Current is supplied to the
ground through two current electrodes approximately 1000 m apart
using either time-domain or frequency-domain IP transmitters. Then,
instead of using ground electrodes for measuring the IP effect in the
normal manner, the induced magnetic field is measured, obviating the
need for the detection system to be in contact with the ground. In the
case of time-domain the transient magnetic field due to the polariza-
tion current flow is measured. In the case of frequency-domain, either

1E 2E 3E 4E 5E
4N

3N ; II
8·2"
2N 8·8"

I 9·1" I
4.3"4
1N
II

strongly anomalous 8·2

.& peak frequency effect
- - - - weakly anomalous

dipole-dipole array a = 30 m. n= 4

FIG. 6.26. Conventional method of showing anomalous IP zones in plan.

274 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

..
15

chargeability",,-
'"oc: 2000
~Ia r,
~ I \ 0
'e I
I ,
,
~
3
5 ______ - I ' - - - - .......... 1000 3
.... ... .... /resistivity '" ~
:
...... _----------",

o....' - - - - - - - '100m,
,
TlJIZf"'".,. ". "''
3-eleelrode orray, 0-9Om.

FIG, 6,27, IP and resistivity profiles over a lead-zinc ore body at Pine Point,
Northwest Territories, Canada (after Seigel et ai, 1968).

the change of the magnetic field with frequency, or the phase shift of
the magnetic field for a given frequency can be measured. A vector
magnetometer of an advanced flux-gate type is used to measure the
horizontal component of the magnetic field orthogonal to the line
joining the current electrodes. The method essentially detects areas of
anomalous polarization and should be able to locate both dis-
seminated and massive sulphide conductors. The technique is still in a
development stage, but it may well prove to be a useful exploration
tool, though interference from magnetic rocks and minerals may
present considerable difficulties.

6.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SURVEYING

The basic methods of EM prospecting were largely developed in

North America and Scandinavia during the 1920's and 1930's, though
many refinements to the techniques have been made in recent years.
The theory is quite complex and for this reason EM surveying is very
much a specialist's field and is generally poorly understood by most
geologists. Nevertheless, the basic principles behind the method are
not difficult to understand and the field procedures for some of the
EM methods are relatively simple.
The EM methods are based upon the principle that electromagne-
tic waves induce currents in conductors. These induced currents are
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 275

themselves the source of new electromagnetic waves which can be

detected by suitable instruments. Familiar applications are metal
detection devices widely used in security checks and mine detectors
used in wartime.
A primary magnetic field of frequency W/27T acting on an electrical
circuit induces an emf giving rise to a secondary magnetic field which
lags (1T'/2)+4> behind the primary field, where 4>=tan- 1(wL/Z), L
being the inductance and Z the resistance of the conductor. In a very
good conductor Z ~ 0, 4> ~ 7T/2 (90° out of phase). Thus the degree of
phase shift can be used as a measure of the conductance of a buried
conductor. The primary (P), secondary (S) and resultant (R) fields can
be shown on a vector diagram (Fig. 6.28) where it can be seen that the
component of the secondary field in phase with P, known as the real
or in-phase component, is equal to - S sin 4> and the component of the
secondary field lagging 90° behind P, known as the imaginary com-
ponent or quadrature, is equal to S cos 4>. The real and imaginary
components are usually expressed as a percentage of the primary field
and the ratio, real/imaginary, is used as a measure of the conductance
of a buried conductor, a ratio greater than one indicating a good
conductor and a ratio less than one a poor conductor.

+ P

FIG. 6.28. Vector diagram showing primary, secondary and resultant EM

fields.

The resultant field of the primary and secondary fields can be

resolved into vertical (X) and horizontal (Y) components which form
the axes of an ellipse described by the resultant vector 27TW y'(X 2 +
y2) times per second and the field is said to be elliptically polarized.
The attitude of this ellipse depends upon the size, depth, shape and
nature of conductors and some early methods in EM surveying were
based upon finding the plane of the ellipse of polarization, determin-
ing its azimuth and dip, and locating the major and minor axes. Over a
276 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

very good conductor the ellipse degenerates to a straight line and over
a very poor conductor it degenerates to a circle.
EM methods can be divided into two basic classes:
1. Fixed source-e.g. Tilt angle, Sundberg, Turam, Beeler-Watson
2. Moving source-e.g. EM gun, Slingram, Max-Min

Tilt angle
This is probably the simplest EM method and is therefore quite
popular, though it has a number of disadvantages. A transmitting coil
connected to an oscillator (a frequency of 1000 Hz is commonly used)
is usually held in a vertical plane, though it can also be held horizon-
tally. In the vertical plane a horizontal primary EM field is trans-
mitted. A search coil or receiver connected to an amplifier and
detector (usually earphones) is held at right angles to the transmitting
coil and tilted to either side until the signal is minimum. This occurs
when the search coil is in the plane of the ellipse of polarization and
no current is induced. Figure 6.29 shows two possible ways of
transmitting and receiving. The angle of tilt is easily measured by a
clinometer on the search coil. It is usual to adopt the convention that
tilting to the left is negative and tilting to the right positive. The
transmitter coil is set up at a point in the area to be surveyed and a
series of readings is taken with the receiver coil along traverse lines
across the assumed strike of possible conductors. It is usual to

T R

T
FIG. 6.29. Two possible methods of transmitting and receiving in tilt angle
EM.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 277

orientate the plane of the transmitter coil to pass through the point of
observation for each reading. When the distance between the trans-
mitter and receiver is of the order of 600 m, the transmitter is moved
to a new position closer to the receiver before taking further readings.
Instead of using a fixed transmitter position, one variation of the
method uses two people who alternately transmit and receive in a
manner similar to that shown in Fig. 6.29, keeping a constant separa-
tion between the two coils along the survey lines. In the absence of
conductors the field remains horizontal and the tilt angle is zero. In
passing over a conductor a cross-over is observed with the tilt angle
changing from negative to positive (Fig. 6.30). The main disad-
vantages of the method are its poor resolving power (only shallow
conductors are detected) and the difficulty of finding sharp search coil
positions because of out-of-phase fields. Methods which measure
amplitude and phase shift have much better resolving power and are
more widely used.

Turam
This method was devised in the 1930's in Sweden by H. Hedstrom
and the name comes from the Swedish, 'tva ram', or two frame. As
the name implies, two search coils are used and are moved along the
traverse lines 1~50 m apart. The ratios of the amplitudes of and the
phase difference between the induced voltages in the two coils are
measured on a bridge type compensator. The coils are usually held
horizontally but they may be kept vertical or one may be horizontal
and the other vertical. The source of the primary field is usually a
long cable perpendicular to the traverse lines and grounded at both
ends, but a large loop, usually rectangular, laid out on the ground may
also be used. When measuring the amplitudes in the two search coils,
the variation of the primary field with distance has to be taken into
account. In the case of a long cable, the normal ratio of the primary
field is simply the inverse ratio of the distances of the two coils from
the cable. If a loop is used instead of a cable as a source, it is
necessary to make additional calculations (Fig. 6.31) to find the
required Turam ratios. In the case of a long cable source, if V, and V 2
are the induced voltages and a, and a2 the phases of the vertical field
at positions 1 and 2, the Turam quantities measured are V", V 2'2 and
a2 - a, where " and '2 are the respective distances of the coils from
the cable. When the coils are on a different level from the source, a
correction needs to be applied. In the absence of conductors the
amplitude ratio is equal to one and the phase difference is zero. Over
a conductor the Turam ratios attain a maximum and the phase
differences attain a negative minimum. Distances to which measure-
ments can be made from the source are limited as the voltages in the
278 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

6W 4W 2W o 2E 4E 6E
I \
I I
I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I

,
I I

,
I I I
I I I
\ I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I I I

,,
I I I I
I

...'
I I I

,
I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I
I I
I I
I I I I
I
I I I
I
\ I I I
I I I
I I I
\ I
\ I

I
I

, I

,,
I

,,
,,
I

,I
I

,
I
I I
I I
I ,, I I
I

,
I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
,,
I
o 50 100 m I
I
I

,
I I I
I

T ILT ANGLES
.~ · 2~ ~ ~ ~ o TRANSMITTER POSITION

.............. AXIS OF CONDUCTOR

FIG. 6.30. Tilt angle survey over the Mobrum Copper Ltd massive sulphide
deposit, Quebec (after Seigel et ai, 1957).

search coils become very weak and are difficult to measure at large
distances from the source. Typical Turam equipment consists of; (1) a
motor generator, (2) a primary source cable, (3) two receiver coils and
(4) a ratio and phase meter. The Turam method is ideal for detecting
relatively shallow and steeply dipping conductors. Figure 6.32 shows
a typical Turam profile over a sulphide ore body.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 279

Coil 01 P Ins,de loop Call 01 P oulslde loop

rl
V= Vp ( -
AI

A's. areas 01 reclon,9les of whICh re~pec"ve r's are dl09onol5

FIG.6.31. Formulae for determining Turam ratios with a rectangular loop.

50· o

25· / pho&e d,lIerence

2l

+-__ __________ i
---
~~~~ ~_~_~~~_~_~=-----t10;

\ I
",- '"~
\ I,
\ I 0
\ I
25· ' ·5
I '
\
v
: ratio

50· 20

pyrite ore l 9'--____-'sp m

FIG. 6.32. Typical Turam anomaly over a massive sulphide ore body (after
Rocha Gomes, 1958).
280 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

EM gun
This is a system of EM surveying where the source and search coils
are moved for each new reading. It is probably the most popular EM
method owing to the simplicity and flexibility of operation. A crew of
two is required, one member carrying the transmitter and the other
the receiver. The coils are kept a fixed distance apart (usually 25-
100 m) by a reference cable which connects them as shown in Fig.
6.33. The primary voltage is supplied to the transmitter coil by an
oscillator usually operating in the range 600-1800 Hz and a fixed
reference voltage is tapped from the transmitter coil and fed to a
compensator. The induced voltage in the receiver coil is decomposed

Oscillator
\
R

T "-
Compensator

FIG. 6.33. Basic layout of EM gun equipment.

into two components, one in phase (real) with the reference voltage
and one 90° out of phase (imaginary) with it. The magnitudes of the
real and imaginary components are compared to the reference voltage
and each expressed as a percentage of the primary field. The coils are
usually held horizontally but they may also be held vertically. When
carrying out an EM gun survey, it is important to keep the coils the
same distance apart for each new reading as only a small variation in
the separation can lead to significant errors. In the case of horizon-
tally held coils, the real and imaginary readings are both negative and
reach a minimum over a conductor. H the conductor is very wide with
respect to the coil separation, however, both real and imaginary
values may be positive. The nature of the conductor is indicated by
the ratio, real/imaginary, a large ratio indicating a good conductor.
Over vertical conductors the real and imaginary curves are sym-
metrical, but over a dipping conductor they become asymmetrical, the
amount of asymmetry being a rough guide to the dip of the conductor.
Figure 6.34 shows a typical profile obtained with the EM gun over a
sulphide ore body.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 281

-40"1. imooinory (quodroture)

~ -20"10
~ 0 ~=""""::;;;;;;::=_.;~
,==~;;:::;~==:;;;;;;;;;:;:~::..".-----...;-.;;-:;:-~-I
'_---_
0
~ + 20./., . 20-'..
+ 40"10 '" -40"10
reol (in-phose)

acid
yolconlcs

o
< - 1_ _
100 m
_- - ' ·

FIG. 6.34. EM gun profile over a sulphide ore body, Note the anomaly over
the barren shales (after Malmqvist, 1958).

Pulse EM (PEM)
This is a time-domain EM method developed by Newmount Explora-
tion Ltd in Canada in the 1950's. The original equipment was very
bulky, but smaller, more portable equipment was produced by Crone
Geophysics Ltd in 1972 under an agreement with Newmont. A 3-m
transmitter loop is momentarily energized with a strong d.c. pulse.
After power cutoff, a receiver coil 30 m away picks up the secondary
decay signal at various time intervals ranging from 0·15 ms to
8·85 ms. PEM surveys have the advantage that they can penetrate a
weathered surface and achieve a good depth penetration without large
coil spacings. It also has the advantage in common with the similar
INPUT method that there is no coupling between the transmitter and
receiver and, since secondary signals are measured after the primary
field is cut off, weak secondary fields can be detected without being
obscured by overriding primary fields, which is a principal factor
limiting the sensitivity of other EM methods. Figure 6.35 shows an
example of a PEM profile over a sulphide conductor.

Distant source EM
In fairly recent years there has been a development of EM methods
employing distant sources which are outside the control of the person
operating the receiving instrument. One, known as AFMAG, makes
use of natural electromagnetic radiation and the other known as
VLF-EM makes use of low frequency radio waves.
282 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

--f~-+---+---H----- 0 ' 15

0 ·45

~
..
0
U
I>
0 -85 ~
E
1-45 ,.,
..,.2.,
2·45 .,
E
.............. 5 -85

=- ~ 8-85
IOOw 50W o 50E IOOE
I I I I I

weathered sulphide

maSSive sulphldes----l~

o
'-I_ _
50 100m
- ' - ,_ _- "

FIG. 6.35. PEM profile over the Lasail massive sulphide deposit, Sultanate
of Oman (Crone, 1975).
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 283

AFMAG
The name is derived from audio frequency magnetic fields
0-10 000 Hz) and makes use of natural electromagnetic fields which
are largely derived from local and distant thunderstorms. These vary
seasonally; in northern latitudes they are strongest from June to
September and in southern latitudes from December to February.
They also display a diurnal variation which is generally strongest in
the early morning and late afternoon and weakest at midday. These
fields have a wide range of frequencies and normally have a very
small vertical component with a consequent horizontal or near
horizontal plane of polarization. In addition the azimuth of polariza-
tion tends to be random. In the presence of conductors, however, the
azimuth becomes more definite and the plane of polarization tilts
away from the horizontal. Instrumentation allows the azimuth and tilt
of the resultant field to be determined at a selected frequency. Results
are plotted in plan as a series of AFMAG vectors, the direction
showing the azimuth and the length of the vector being proportional
to the tilt (Fig. 6.36). The presence of conductors is shown by a
cross-over as is observed in the normal tilt angle EM method. It is
common practice to take readings at two different frequencies (e.g.
200 and 500 Hz) at each station. The response ratio, 'low/high', is
indicative of the nature of a conductor; a high ratio (greater than one)
indicates a good conductor and a low ratio (less than one) a poor
conductor.
The AFMAG technique has a lot of appeal because of its sim-
plicity. Owing to high background noise and poor resolution,
however, its precision is inferior to other methods and not much
success can be claimed for it.

+ zero vector
• location of reading
- - - axis of conductor

Q 2.
km.

FIG. 6.36. AFMAG vectors (after Jewell and Ward, 1963).

284 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

VLF-EM
The name of this method is derived from the fact that it makes use of
very low frequency radio waves. These radio waves in the frequency
range 10000-25 ()()() Hz have the ability to penetrate a limited depth of
water and are used to communicate with submerged nuclear sub-
marines. A number of stations around the world (e.g. Cutler, Maine;
Rugby, England; Odessa, USSR; Bilboa, Panama) are continuously
broadcasting on various frequencies in this VLF range. Unfortunately
the name, VLF-EM, is very misleading for, although the frequencies
are very low for radio waves, they are very high for EM surveying
which is usually carried out in the range of a few tens to a few
thousand hertz.
VLF-EM receivers are light and extremely simple to use and for
this reason the method is very popular. The quantities measured are:
amplitude, azimuth, and tilt; in addition some instruments measure a
quadrature component. The instruments are equipped with a tuner
which selects the station, a meter and/or earphones for indicating
signal strength, a clinometer for measuring tilt and a compass for
indicating azimuth. The direction to the transmitting station selected
for a survey should be perpendicular, or as nearly perpendicular as
possible, to the strike of the features being investigated, i.e. parallel to
the traverse lines. At each station the meter is held so that the axis of
the detecting coil, which is wound on a ferrite core, is horizontal and
then it is moved from side to side until either a maximum (coil parallel
to the resultant field vector) or minimum (coil perpendicular to the
resultant field vector) is obtained. The maximum orientation is used
on some instruments which have meters for measuring the signal
strength or amplitude. The azimuth of either the maximum or mini-
mum signal is shown by the compass on the instrument. The detecting
coil is then held in a vertical position and tilted from side to side
about a horizontal axis parallel to the minimum signal azimuth until a
minimum signal is obtained. The clinometer then gives the tilt or
dip-angle using the convention that tilting to the left is negative and
tilting to the right positive. In addition the operator should use the con-
vention of facing in the same direction on all traverse lines before
taking a reading. When plotting the survey data, the direction to the
transmitting station used should be shown on the plans.
Although the method is simple and extremely flexible, it suffers
from high background noise, responding to a wide range of sources
such as sulphide ore bodies, faults, dykes, variations in overburden
thickness, etc. In addition depth penetration is poor because of the
high operating frequencies. The method is useful for detailed work in
areas of good geological control to trace features such as faults,
dykes and mineralized veins. In spite of its ease and flexibility of
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 285

operation, it is of little value for reconnaissance work unless a high

degree of geological control is available. The method should not be
used as a follow-up to more conventional EM surveys, which have
better resolution and depth penetration.

Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) surveys

One of the advantages of EM surveying is that no direct connections
with the ground are required and it has proved possible to adapt the
method to airborne work. This has meant that the method has become
a widely used reconnaissance prospecting tool with numerous suc-
cesses claimed for it, particularly in Canada and Sweden. A great
variety of systems have been employed, but they can be divided into
three broad classes:
1. Source and search coils flown at same height-mounted on a
beam below a helicopter, mounted on the wing tips of a fixed
wing aircraft, or by using two aircraft.
2. Source and search coils at different heights-'bird' towed
behind aircraft.
3. Source on the ground and search coils in aircraft-e.g. airborne
Turam (Turair).
Methods 1 and 3 can be flown as low as 30-50 m, but method 2 is
generally flown at 150 m or more, which is a big disadvantage. Some
of the more common systems are briefly described below:

Helicopter or wing-tip
In this system transmitter and receiver coils are mounted on the wing
tips of a fixed wing aircraft or at either end of a rigid boom 10-20 m
long installed underneath a helicopter. The system can be flown at a
height of 30-50 m and the in-phase and out-of-phase components
picked up by the receiver are continuously recorded and expressed as
a fraction (usually parts per million) of the primary field. Subsurface
conductors give rise to anomalies of several hundred to a thousand
parts per million and the response ratio, in-phase/out-of-phase, is a
rough measure of the conductivities. With this method, it is important
to keep coil separation constant as only small variations give spurious
in-phase signals.

Dual frequency
In this system only the out-of-phase component is monitored by the
receiver at a low frequency (400 Hz) and a high frequency (2300 Hz).
The response ratio, 'low/high', is indicative of the conductivity of any
anomalous body. The transmitter is mounted on the aircraft while the
receiver is towed in a 'bird' up to 150 m behind the plane. Flying
height has to be at least 120 m and depth penetration is poor. In
286 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

addition there is a lot of background noise which makes dis-

crimination between superficial and deeper conductors difficult. The
in-phase component cannot be measured in this system owing to the
bumpy movements of the bird.

Rotary field
In this system, which was devised in Sweden, the transmitter and
receiver both consist of two coils mounted at right angles in vertical
and horizontal planes. The two transmitting coils are fed with a signal
at the same amplitude and frequency but with a phase difference of
90° which results in a rotating elliptically polarized field. The induced
voltages in the receiver coils are balanced against each other after
shifting the phase of one by 90° so that there is a zero signal on a
recording meter in the absence of conductors. Secondary fields from
subsurface conductors affect the receiver coils unequally and a
deflection is picked up by the recording meter. Both the in-phase and
out-of-phase components are measured, usually as a percentage of
the primary field induced in either receiver coil. The system can be
employed by placing the transmitter in an aircraft and receiver in a
bird, but, since no connection is required between transmitter and
receiver, it is usual to use two aircraft flying in tandem 300 m apart
with the receiver towed behind the leading aircraft on a short cable
about 15 m long. Such a system can be flown fairly low (60 m) and
good resolution and depth penetration are claimed.

INPUT
This system which stands for induced pulse transient was developed
by Barringer Research in Canada and is one of the most widely used
systems today. A large transmitting coil mounted on an aircraft is
energized by short intermittent current pulses at the rate of 288
pulses/s (1·1 ms current pulse followed by 2·37 ms 'silence'). A
receiver coil towed in a bird records the amplitude variations of the
transient decay curves in the intervals between pulses on a number of
different channels. For example, Mark III equipment records on four
channels at 200, 600, 1000 and 1600 I-ts after termination of the
primary pUlse. Later equipment uses even more channels. The
method has good depth penetration and very good resolving power, as
superficial conductors do not usually show responses beyond the first
channel.
In addition to the more conventional AEM systems, airborne ver-
sions of the distant source AFMAG and VLF-EM methods are
available. AEM methods are under continual research and develop-
ment and modified versions of the various systems are being brought
out all the time.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 287

Depth penetration
The depth penetration of EM surveying is directly proportional to the
square root of the resistivity and inversely proportional to the square
root of the frequency. From this relationship, it is readily apparent
that a survey carried out at 10000 Hz will only have one tenth the
depth penetration of a survey at 100 Hz. If ground resistivity is high,
depth penetration may be considerable, but depth penetration will be
greatly reduced if a high conductivity near-surface layer is present. For
example, a survey carried out at 1000 Hz over ground with a resis-
tivity of 2000 n m will be 700 m, but a ground resistivity of 100 n m
will reduce the depth penetration to only 150 m. In addition the
practical depth penetration may be a lot less than the theoretical
depth penetration as it depends upon the detection limit of an EM
anomaly over background 'noise'. In general, the maximum depth
penetration will not be more than five times the separation between
transmitter and receiver; very often it will be considerably less than
this. In summary, EM methods are most suited to detecting relatively
shallow massive sulphides concealed beneath a high resistivity over-
burden.

6.6 SELF-POTENTIAL (SP) SURVEYS

SP is one of the oldest geoelectric prospecting methods and was used

quite extensively in the 1920's and 1930's. There are even cases on
record of the method being tried in the 1800's. Today it is very much
out of favour for a number of reasons and is rarely used, though SP
surveys are sometimes carried out in conjunction with other methods.
The method is extremely simple from a field operation point of view,
the only equipment required being a sensitive voltmeter or poten-
tiometer for measuring the potential difference between two elec-
trodes in the ground.
The method depends upon the fact that a potential difference tends
to develop between the top (negative) and bottom (positive) of an ore
body. The reason for this is not clearly understood, but the generally
accepted view is that oxidation of the upper part of the ore body is
necessary for a potential difference to develop. Oxidation of sul-
phides in the aerated, oxidized zone produces salts in solution in
contact with the ore body at a different electric potential to solutions
in contact with the lower, unoxidized part of the ore body. According
to the oxidation theory SP effects are dependent upon climatic
conditions. In a theory proposed by Sato and Mooney (1%0) oxida-
tion is not necessary, but rather the SP effect is due to a redox
potential (Eh) difference between substances in solution above the
288 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

water table and those below. The sulphide ore body does not need to
enter into the electrochemical action, but simply transfers electrons
from reducing agents at depth to oxidizing ones at the top. H this
theory is correct, SP effects should be expected to occur in a wide
variety of climates. The theory also explains SP effects caused by
substances such as graphite in which no oxidation occurs. Whatever
explanations are correct SP effects are a near-surface phenomenon.

Field procedure
There are two basic methods used in carrying out SP surveys: one is
to keep one electrode fixed and move the second electrode in pro-
gressive, equal steps along the survey line and the other method is to
move both electrodes for each new measurement (Fig. 6.37). In the
first method, which is the more commonly used, results are expressed
in millivolts, which may be positive or negative, though negative
anomalies are observed over sulphide-ore bodies. This does not mean
that a negative anomaly indicates sulphides, but a positive anomaly is
highly unlikely to be due to sulphides. In the second method the
potential gradient is measured and results are expressed in mil-
livolts/metre. In both cases non-polarizing, porous-pot electrodes
must be used. The measurements are most commonly made using a

fixed moving 1\ plotting pOint

electrode electrode

a) Movinq electrode method. Numbers refer to

successive electrode positions and plotting
pOints.

2 3 4 5

1 K K X x 1 K
I 2 3 4 5
b) Moving electrode array. Numbers refer to
positions of successive electrode pairs and
plotting points.
FIo. 6.37. Electrode arrays used in SP surveys.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 289

sensitive voltmeter with a very high internal resistance, though it was

common at one time to make SP measurements with a compensating
potentiometer. SP effects are readily affected by a number of
different factors and it is often very difficult to repeat survey results.
It is also necessary for ore to be in contact with electrolyte for best
effects and, for this reason, SP responses are generally weak in areas
with a dry near-surface high resistivity layer. Atmospheric conditions
and telluric currents can also adversely affect SP surveys. H it is
necessary to dampen the ground around the electrodes, there may be
quite a time lag before steady readings are obtained. In addition
changes in ground elevation can cause spurious effects.
Interpretation of SP surveys is often difficult owing to stray inter-
ferences and fluctuating levels of response. In addition, certain rocks
other than sulphide ore bodies may give strong SP effects. For
example, SP anomalies of many hundreds of millivolts have been
observed over graphitic shales. For these reasons, SP surveys are
rarely diagnostic and must be used in conjunction with other evi-
dence. Nevertheless, a number of shallow sulphide ore bodies have

-300

-100

volcanics
phide
ore body
o
I
10 m.
,

FIG. 6.38. SP profile over a massive sulphide ore body at the Temagami
Mine, Ontario (after Bergey et ai, 1957).
290 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

been discovered in various parts of the world by SP surveys. Figure

6.38 gives an example of a typical SP anomaly over a sulphide ore
body.

6.7 EQUIPOTENTIAL (EP) SURVEYS

Equipotential methods were among the earliest types of electrical

geophysical methods used, but, with the exception of the mise-a-/a-
masse variation, they have now become obsolete and have been
replaced by IP and EM methods, which have greater depth penetra-
tion and lend themselves to more rigorous interpretation. Neverthe-
less, equipotential methods are briefly described here as they are of
historical interest and are frequently mentioned in old reports. A
number of mineral discoveries in various parts of the world can be
attributed partly or wholly to EP surveys.
H a current is passed into homogeneous ground, flow lines will have
a regular and symmetrical pattern. H there are any inhomogeneities,
the pattern of flow lines will be disturbed. When the inhomogeneity is
caused by a conducting sulphide ore body, the disturbance may be
considerable and result in a pronounced distortion of the current flow
line pattern. In practice, it is not possible to measure the current, but
it is a simple matter to measure potential difference. Since current
flow lines are at right angles to equipotential lines, the distorted
current flow line pattern will be represented by a distorted pattern of
the equipotential lines which is the basis of the equipotential method.
The field procedure is to use two stake electrodes or two line
electrodes 600 m apart as the current electrodes and then trace the
equipotential lines with two movable, copper-jacketed, pointed steel
search electrodes between the fixed current electrodes. A voltage of
100--200 V is commonly used with a power output of 250-1000 W
using an audio frequency of 100--500 Hz. Then, with an amplifier and
headphone set connected to the search electrodes one search elec-
trode is placed in the ground and the other moved about until no
sound is heard in the headphones. When this occurs, both search
electrodes are on a line of equipotential. Often it is not possible to
obtain a clear null because of inductive effects which cause phase
shifts. Several methods have been devised for overcoming this. An
obvious one is to use a d.c. source and read the potential difference
between the search electrodes on a voltmeter, but this is very cum-
bersome as it requires the use of non-polarizing electrodes and
stronger currents. In addition self potentials can interfere. Another is
to use low frequency a.c. sources of about 25 Hz together with a
suitable a.c. voltmeter for reading the potential difference between
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 291

current
line-electrode

FIG. 6.39. Example of an EP survey showing distortion of equipotential

lines by a conductor.

the search electrodes. The equipotential lines can then be interpolated

between reading points. There is no quantitative theory for equipo-
tential surveys and interpretation is purely qualitative. Figure 6.39
shows the type of response to be expected over shallow sulphide
mineralization.
The mise-a-la-masse method, which is still occasionally used,
depends on having a drill-hole intersection in mineralization. Then,
with one current electrode placed at the depth of the mineralization in
the drill hole (hence the name 'placed in the mass') and one on the
surface, the equipotential lines are mapped. The method has been
employed successfully in outlining probable extensions to mineral-
ization discovered in drill holes.

6.8 MAGNETO-TELLURIC (MT) SURVEYS

This method, which was first proposed by Cagniard (1953), uses

natural variations in the earth's magnetic field and the associated
telluric currents, which are induced by them. Thus, the MT signal is
composed of a magnetic field H and an electric field E. Cagniard
(1953) has shown that the following relationship holds for a homo-
geneous earth:
H/E = V(O·2T/p) (1)
where H is in gammas, E is in millivolts/kilometre, T is the period in
seconds and p the ground resistivity in ohm-metres. The ratio H/E
can be computed for any number of horizontal layers, but the
292 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

problem is much more complicated if the layers are not flat. The
depth of penetration in kilometres is given by:
1
27T V(10pT) (2)

Since frequencies of 1 Hz to 0·001 Hz or less are involved,

theoretical depth penetrations of many tens and even several hundred
kilometres are possible. In practice the ratio HIE is determined for a
set of frequencies and interpretation consists of comparison with a
set of HIE values computed for a set of frequencies and a given
layered model. Alternatively, an apparent resistivity can be defined
from equation (1) as
PA = 0·2T(EIH)2
Apparent resistivities can be determined for various frequencies and
then plotted against the period on a graph. Theoretical plots cal-
culated for various layered models can be compared to the field
curves for interpretation. In addition to using the apparent resistivity
the observed phase shift can be plotted against the period. In a
homogeneous earth, the phase of E lags 7T/4 behind H and any
departure from this indicates non-homogeneity. Computed curves of
phase shift against period are also available for interpretation.
The field procedure consists of using two copper electrodes 25a-
500 m apart for measuring the telluric currents. Very large coils with
highly permeable cores are needed to measure the magnetic fields at
the low frequencies involved and very high gain, low-noise am-
plifiers have to be used to measure the low voltages induced in the
coils. The equipment is bulky and productivity in the field is low. The
method seems best suited to soundings of layered structures in
sedimentary basins where the method has the ability to penetrate to
considerable depths even in the presence of a high conductivity
near-surface layer by the choice of an appropriately low frequency.
Magneto-telluric surveys appear to be of limited value as a direct
method in mineral exploration.

6.9 SEISMIC METHODS

Seismic prospecting is the most widely used of the geophysical

methods in terms of cost and time and is very much a specialist's
field. It is the backbone of the petroleum exploration industry and has
become highly developed using many of the latest techniques in
electronics and computer science. Seismic methods have had little
application in mineral exploration and are mainly used as an indirect
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 293

method, for example in locating fault structures, determining over-

burden depths or tracing sedimentary beds for strata-bound deposits.
As mineral exploration comes to depend more and more on indirect
prospecting, seismic methods may play a more important role in the
future.
The seismic method is based on tracing induced shock waves
transmitted through the earth's crust. There are two types of waves
propagated in elastic solids: longitudinal or primary (P) waves and
transverse or shear (S) waves. In P waves, which travel faster than S
waves, the direction of particle oscillation is the same as the direction
of propagation and they are in fact ordinary sound waves. In S waves
the particle oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
and these waves cannot be transmitted through liquids. There are
other waves known as Rayleigh and Love waves, which travel along
surfaces. P waves are of most importance in applied seismology, but
increased use is being made of S waves in the latest equipment. They
are useful in engineering site test work, but are difficult to detect as
they arrive after the P waves and have to be selected from a
complicated signal. The velocity of P waves in a medium is given by:

v =~ (K +p41// 3)
where K is the bulk modulus, 1/ the shear modulus and p the density.
Explosives are the most commonly employed sources of waves in
seismic prospecting, but other sources include electric sparks,
mechanical vibrators, dropped weights and hammer blows. Some
seismic velocities are given in Table 6.4.

TABLE 6.4
SOME VELOCITIES OF P WAVES IN
METRES/SECOND

Air 330
Soil, sand 170-800
Water 1450
Sandstone 2000-2800
Marl 2000-3000
Ice 3670
Chalk 2200-4200
Shale 2750-4270
Limestone 1000-4500
Slates 3200-5000
Granite 4000-5500
Salt 4500-7000
Basic igneous rocks 5500-8000
294 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Basic seismic equipment consists of electric detectors known as

geophones, amplifiers and special recorders. The exact instant when
the shock wave is initiated is recorded and all signals from the
geophones are amplified, filtered and recorded on paper, photographic
film or magnetic tape. The record, known as the seismogram, shows
the precise arrival times of the various signals detected by the
geophones. There are two basic methods in seismic prospecting,
refraction and reflection.

The refraction method

This method depends upon the refraction of P waves at interfaces
between solids with different seismic velocities in the same manner as
light waves are refracted. An incident ray AB in Fig. 6.40(a) striking
the interface between layers with velocities VI and V2 with incident
angle i l is refracted along path Be with angle i2 where
VdV2 = sin ii/sin i2
according to Snell's law. When the incident ray strikes the interface at

e
a) P wave being refracted at interface

$1
A o 0' 0"

VI

V2
\ B
~

e e' e"

b) P wave striking interface at critical angle

FIG. 6.40. Refraction of P waves at an interface between two horizontal
layers with velocities VI and V2 (V2> VI).
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 295

the critical angle, i2 becomes 90° and the ray travels along the
interface (Fig. 6.40(b)). As the ray travels along the interface, it sends
out secondary waves which arrive back at the surface as shown, for
example, at D, D' and 0" in Fig. 6.40(b). In refraction seismic work
the first arrival times after the shock instant at each geophone are
plotted on a graph against their respective distances from the shock
source. For geophones near the shock source, the first arrivals will be
the surface wave, but, if a lower layer has a higher velocity, there is a
critical distance at which a refracted wave from the lower layer
overtakes the surface· wave and reaches the geophone first. This is
seen on the time-distance graph as a break in slope (Fig. 6.41) and it
can be shown that the slopes represent the reciprocals of the velo-
cities of the different layers. A number of different geophone
arrangements is used depending on the targets. The simplest and most
common is known as profile shooting and consists of spreading the
geophones along a line. Other arrangements include fan shooting, arc
shooting and triangle shooting.

Two-layer case
At the critical distance Xc in Fig. 6.40(b) the time taken for the ray to
travel along the path AD is the same as the time to travel along
ABCD. If t is the time to travel along AD and th t2 and t3 the times to
travel the distances AB, BC, and CD respectively,
t = t\ + t2 + t3

500

400

_---II
~ 300 time intercept t2
c "-"",pe. 0-00041oec/m

--
o of second layer
<J
Y2' 11000041 • 2439 mlsee
~ I
'E 200 I
I
I Xc' 189m
I
100 slope' 0-0015 Helm I
V, • 1/0-0015 '667m/1ec 1 h • 1. '89 2439-667 .70
2 2439+667 m
I
14?"~---xc-----·1,
i i
200 300 400
metres
FIG.6.41. Time-distance graph for a two-layer case.
296 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

At the critical angle sin i = VdV2' so

AB = CD = hlcos i = h/( 1- ~DI/2

. 2hvi
BC = Xc - 2h tan I = Xc - V'(d - v I)
Now,
t =AB+BC+ CD
Vi V2 VI

_ 2h 1 + Xc 2h
(1- ~D1/2
VI _ Xc
t- ~ V2 - V2 v'(v~- vi) - VI

X c(V2 - VI) _ 2h(v~ - VI)

VIV2 - VIV2V'(V~ - VI)
which reduces to

so that

Detection of faults
For the faulted two-layer case a time-distance curve such as is shown
in Fig. 6.42 is obtained when the shock source is on the upthrown side

600

500

-g'" 400
o
w
u __ - --....
~ -'
E 300 !12=I88m~_--------
200
11
-----
= ~~~~/---
V2 v, (449)(769)
throw ( z ) =(T2-T'J(v~_vr) =(0 188-0095)j04492_769 2) =84m
100 -- slope=00013s/m
v,=1I00013 =769 m/s

100 200 300 400 500

metres

FIG. 6.42. Time-distance plot for a faulted two-layer case.

 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 297

of the block. In this case the fault throw (z) can be shown to be given
by the expression
(Dobrin, 1960)

Dipping beds
To determine the dips of an interface time-distance graphs are plotted
for two directions of shooting, updip and downdip (Fig. 6.43). The
angle of dip (a) can be shown to be given by:
a = !(sin- t Vtmd - sin- t Vtmu) (Dobrin, 1960)
where md and mu are the downdip and updip slopes of the time-
distance lines respectively (Fig. 6.42). The perpendicular distance to
the interface from the shot point is given by:

for downdip shooting and

for updip shooting (Dobrin, 1960).

'"
up.dip shooting

500
slope(m") =0·00016 I . ./In
400
down-dip shooting

..
"
/'
.
6300
u
~

200

100

o 100 200 300 400 500

500 400 300 200 100 o
metres

FIG. 6.43. Time-distance plots for dipping beds.

298 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL ExPcLORATION

Three-layer case
For the three-layer case where V3> V2 > v\ the derivation of the
formula is similar to the two-layer case, though it is somewhat more
complicated. The distance (z\) between the second and third layers
can be shown to be
_1[t-2
z\ - 2 3 Zo
V(V~-VI)] .. I
V3V\
2
V3 V 2
V (V3 -
2
V2)

where Zo is the depth to the second layer and t3 the time intercept for
the third layer. These cases can be extrapolated to apply to any
number of layers as long as the velocity in each layer is higher than in
the one just above.
The cases illustrated above are of the simplest types and in practice
it is often very much more complicated than this. Refractive inter-
faces are rarely horizontal or smoothly inclined and interpretation can
become complex. In addition velocities are often non-linear, i.e. they
may show an increase with depth or very often may show a marked
anisotropy with velocities parallel to bedding 10-15% greater than
across the bedding. All examples discussed here are based on first
arrivals, but more sophisticated equipment makes possible the detec-
tion and resolution of later arrivals to aid interpretation.
Disadvantages of the refraction method
If a lower layer has a velocity lower than a layer above, it cannot be
detected by refraction. Such a layer is known as a blind zone and
ignorance of the existence of such a layer will result in the com-
putation of the depth to the next higher velocity layer being too high.
If a particular layer is very thin and the velocity of the layer
immediately below very much higher than the thin layer, the ray from
the higher velocity layer may overtake the ray from the thin layer and
arrive first. When this happens, the thin layer will not be detected and
is known as a hidden layer. In cold regions of the world where the
ground is frozen, refraction techniques may be nullified completely as
the frozen surface layer may often have a higher velocity than the
unfrozen ground below it. The refraction method is also at a disad-
vantage for deep exploration as the shot spreads become very long
and shot energy requirements are high.

The reflection method

The reflection method has a number of advantages over the refraction
method. Shot energy requirements are less for reflection than refrac-
tion, much greater subsurface detail can be obtained and depth
penetration is greater. The reflection method is not affected by hidden
layers and blind zones and much shorter geophone spreads are used
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 299

which makes the method easier to deploy in the field. For these
reasons the reflection method is used far more widely than the
refraction method, particularly in petroleum exploration where depth
penetration to 5000 or 6000 m might be required. In addition the
detection and resolution of deep structures is almost as good as that
of shallow ones which makes the reflection method unique among
geophysical techniques.
As a seismic wave travels downwards, part of its energy will be
reflected back up at any interface where there is a change in acoustic
impedance, which is defined as the product of seismic velocity and
density. Thus, it is not strictly necessary for the layers to have
different seismic velocities to be detected by the reflection method.
Figure 6.44 shows a reflection at an interface where v = the velocity
of the top layer, t = the arrival time of the first reflection, h = the
depth to the interface and x = the distance from shot to geophone,
then
2~( h + ~) = vt
2

~(h2+~2) = ~
h2 =v 2-
t 2- x-2
4 4
h =h/(V 2t 2_X 2) (1)
Thus, the depth can be determined if the velocity of the top layer is
known. This velocity can be determined from velocity logs measured

shot point geophone

i----x I

FIG. 6.44. Reflection of a P wave at an interface.

300 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

in boreholes or it can be abstracted from the reflection data itself. It is

normal practice to have a number of geophones spread out along a
line from the shot point and therefore an arrival time for each
geophone can be determined for the first reflection. Solving equation
(1) for t 2 , we get
(2)

H t 2 is plotted against x 2 , the slope of the graph will be equal to 1/v 2•

The depth can also be determined from the graph, since the time
intercept is equal to 4h 2/V 2• H several reflecting interfaces are present,
a series of lines will be obtained on the graph for the different
reflections. In each case the velocities determined from the slopes of
the lines will be equal to the average velocities to the various
reflecting horizons and not the interval velocities of the layers. The
depths to the successive reflecting horizons are readily determined
from the time intercepts. In the derivation of the formulae (1) and (2)
the effects of refraction were ignored as they are very small, but
corrections for refraction can be applied for accurate work.
In reflection seismic work the signals received at each geophone are
recorded on a separate line or channel. On the old seismograms
recorded mechanically or photographically on paper, up to 48 signal
traces are recorded simultaneously. This produces a series of wavy
lines (one for each geophone) across the seismogram and the reflected
signals, which arrive after the surface wave, are recognized by a
lining up of the crests and troughs. As the time delay increases with
the geophone distance from the shot point, there is a step-out of the
arrival times (Fig. 6.45). H the step-out is greater than normal, the dip
is directed away (rom the shot point (Fig. 6.46) and, if the step-out is

FIG. 6.45. Step-out for reflecting rays from a horizontal interface.

 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 301

shot point

seism09ram

FIG. 6.46. Step-out greater than normal indicates dip away from shot point.

less than normal, the dip is towards the shot point (Fig. 6.47). Arrivals
of refracted waves may also appear on the seismogram, but they can
be recognized by the much longer step-outs. Usually the maximum
shot-detector distance in reflection work is kept equal to or less than
the depth to the shallowest horizon, which ensures that all signals
received are from reflected rays. A simple graphical procedure for
determining the position of a dipping reflecting horizon is shown in
Fig. 6.48. Arcs equal to the product of the average velocity v and the
travel times tl> t2, t 3, etc. to geophones G), G2 , G3, etc. are drawn with

seismogram

FIG. 6.47. Step-out less than normal indicates dip towards shot point.
302 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIG. 6.48. Graphical procedure for determining position of dipping reflecting

horizon.

centres at the respective geophone centres and intersect in a point D.

The perpendicular bisector of a line joining the point D and the shot
point is the reflecting horizon. Modern seismic recording is made on
magnetic tapes and there are a number of techniques to transform the
data to visual records, which are similar to the old seismograms,
though the various methods of presentation used make them very
much clearer. Figure 6.49 shows an example of a shallow reflection
seismogram, with interpretation, from the North Sea.
n the seismic shooting has been carded out so that the reflections
recorded on the last trace of the seismogram come from the same
source as the first trace on the next seismogram, it is known as
continuous profiling. The seismograms from each spread can then be
placed edge to edge and the various reflecting horizons traced along
the profile. One common method of shooting is known as split-spread
(Fig. 6.50). The geophones between A and B and B and C record the
reflections from a shot at B. Then the geophones between A and B
are moved to between C and D to record the next shot at C. This
'leap-frogging' procedure continues for the length of the profile
required. Since continuous profiling is expensive, shots are often
spaced at distances greater than the geophone coverage for each shot.
This leaves gaps, but it is adequate for reconnaissance work in areas
where the reflection quality is good.
The field procedures adopted are often quite complicated and will
 lED
o
~:=
., -<
III
DIPPINC u.n:U III Rl)MCX
r:;
>
t""
."
~
III
."
~..,
lOO hz ":- 3 kh:& '" '.
," .,
SO .. " .... Z
100 J .,.. • ,... ~._ o
ti1'". ,,-Y~:.~.-..:~ : , ~. HUNTING S~~VJ;YS _ L!MlTEO ' .... i~ i . •.... . ~ ', ,,,

"f::.':·,~~~t t: · ) . . . "~~~:~~~;"';y.~
N. SEA KAY 1977
."
.... .....- ... ... M. V. S1'lATHftE' '.~';;. . :,...(j .. "'r;

FIG. 6.49. Seismic record with interpretation from a shallow survey in the North Sea (courtesy of Hunting
Surveys Ltd). Such surveys using electric sparks or electro-mechanical sources known as boomers have a
limited penetration, but are being rapidly developed as a technique for determining layering and thickness of
soft sediments on the sea floor. Using a repetitive source continuous profiling can be done in the same manner
as a sonar survey. The surveys have particular application in civil engineering projects and in searches for \.H
sand and gravel deposits (see McQuillon and Ardus, 1977). o\.H
304 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

A B c o

FIG. 6.50. Split-spread shooting.

vary from area to area and with the experience of the geophysicist in
charge. Geophones are often coupled together in groups so that a
number of geophones are recorded as a single trace. This is done to
minimize noise due to surface waves with a predominantly horizontal
motion. The actual theory is quite complex, but basically the method
depends on selecting the geometry of the layout so that the vertical
component of the surface wave will be upwards at some geophones
while it is downwards simultaneously at the other geophones. H these
geophones are coupled together, the net output will be zero. When a
reftected wave travelling almost vertically upwards arrives at the
geophones, the motion will be in the same direction at the same time
and a trace will be recorded by the coupled geophones. In addition to
the problems involved in choosing geophone spreads and shooting
procedures it is usually necessary to make corrections for elevation
differences between the shot point and geophones and for the near-
surface weathered zone. There are a number of methods for doing
this (Dobrin, 1960).
Seismic records may be complicated by multiple reflections, which
can be a problem if there is a horizon present with an unusually high
acoustic impedance. These multiple-reftected rays result when a ray is
reftected back and forth between two horizons several times before it
reaches the surface. Since the distance travelled is much greater than
the singly reftected ray from the same horizon, depths calculated
from mUltiple reftections will appear to be much greater than they
really are. The spurious data and distorted pictures caused by mul-
tiple reftections can be a real problem in some areas and can make
reftection seismic work very difficult.
The account of seismic prospecting presented here has only been a
very brief sketch of the basic principles. As already mentioned,
seismic work has become very specialized and methods of treating
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 305

and interpreting data may be very involved and complicated. For

instance, filtering of the signals is often done to suppress or remove
unwanted frequencies. Also, magnetically recorded signals may be
played back and mixed in various combinations to produce results
similar to those gained by using multiple geophone arrays. It is also
normal practice to employ computers for the various calculations
used in interpretation and synthetic seismograms can be computed for
different reflecting horizons and compared to actual ones determined
in the field.
In addition to using single explosive charges as wave sources, it has
become fairly common practice to use repetitive shock sources
produced mechanically, hydraulically or with controlled explosives.
One such technique, developed by the Continental Oil Company, is
known as Vibroseis®, in which a truck-mounted vibrator makes
contact with the ground and generates repetitive controlled-frequency
wave trains. Another technique, developed by the Sinclair Oil Com-
pany, is known as Dinoseis®. With this method, mixtures of propane
and oxygen are exploded repeatedly in a cylinder with a bottom plate
free to move and in contact with the ground.

The hammer seismograph

This is a type of seismic equipment, for shallow surveys, in which a
sledge hammer is used to provide the shock wave by striking a steel
plate on the ground. A trigger on the hammer head is connected to the
recording instrument by a cable so that the instant of impact starts the
electronic timers. In its simplest form, it is used for refraction surveys
by measuring precisely in milliseconds the first arrivals at the geo-
phone or geophones. With the latest multichannel equipment,
reflection surveys can also be undertaken. Shallow penetration in the
range of 30-50 m is possible and the equipment is most commonly
used for determining overburden depths in engineering site in-
vestigations.

6.10 RADIOMETRIC SURVEYING

Ever since the discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel in 1896, it has

been known that a number of materials spontaneously emit invisible
high-energy radiation. This phenomenon is caused by the trans-
formation of atomic nuclei into those of the other elements. Although
numerous types of transformation take place in nature ranging from
atomic fusion in the sun and stars to nuclear disintegration caused by
cosmic ray bombardment of the atmosphere, radioactivity in rocks
and minerals is due to three principal transformations: (1) emission of
306 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

alpha (a) particles, (2) emission of beta (f3) particles and (3) electron
capture. An a-particle is equivalent to a helium nucleus which con-
sists of two protons and two neutrons and its loss by an atomic
nucleus results in the reduction of atomic number by two and atomic
weight by four. A f3-particle is equivalent to a nuclear electron and its
loss by an atomic nucleus increases the atomic number by one. In the
case of electron capture by an atomic nucleus the atomic number is
reduced by one. The transformation due to emission of a l3-particle or
electron capture is usually accompanied by the emission of elec-
tromagnetic radiation of extremely short wavelength known as a gamma
( y) radiation. In some cases y-radiation also accompanies the release of
an a-particle. The energy of this radiation is measured in millions of
electron volts (MeV). An electron volt is the kinetic energy acquired
by an electron falling through a potential difference of 1 V and is equiv-
alent to 1·6 x 10- 12 erg. a-particles commonly have energies of several
MeV, f3-particles have a continuous spectrum of energy up to
several MeV and y-rays usually have energies in the region of 1 MeV.
The disintegration of a radioactive element takes place at a con-
stant rate with the number of atoms disintegrating per unit time being
proportional to the number of atoms present.
-dN =AN (1)
dt
where A is the decay constant.
Integrating (1) gives:
- At = 10~(N/ No)
where N is the number of atoms at time t and No the original number
present at t = o. The time taken for half the atoms to transform
(N = N o/2) is known as the half-life and is equal to:
Oo~ 2)/ A = 0·693/ A
Half-lives vary with different elements and isotopes from fractions of
a second to billions (1(f) of years. Examples of some half-lives are:
uranium-238 4·51 x 109 years; radium-226 1622 years; lead-210 20
years; bismuth-214 19·7 min and polonium-216 0·16 s. In a radioactive
decay series the element undergoing transformation is known as the
parent element and the product is known as the daughter element.
Sometimes an element can undergo two different transformations to
form two different daughter elements. An example of this is potas-
sium-40 of which 89% transforms to calcium-40 by emission of a
f3 -particle with decay constant Af3 and 11% transforms to argon-40 by
electron capture with decay constant Ae. The total decay constant A is
the sum of the decay constants, Af3 and A., and the ratios Af3/ A and
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 307

Ae/ A are known as the branching ratios. The rates of decay of certain
elements such as uranium, rubidium-87 and potassium-40 are used to
measure absolute ages of rocks and minerals and form the basis of
the science of geochronology.
There are over 60 naturally occurring radioactive isotopes and
another 1000 or more have been created artificially. The majority of
these naturally occurring radioactive isotopes are part of the uranium-
238, uranium-235 and thorium-232 decay series (Table 6.5). There are
also a number of singly occurring radioactive isotopes (Table 6.6) in
addition to the three decay series. From the radiometric surveying
point of view the most important ones are potassium-40, the thorium
series and the nranium-238 series.
The unit of radioactivity is the curie (Ci) which is the amount of
radiation emitted by 1 g of radium and is equivalent to 3·7 x 1010
radioactive disintegrations/second. Since this unit is very large, units
of millicuries or microcuries are more commonly used. Radiation
intensity is measured in counts/second, counts/minute or in milli-
roentgens/hour (mR/h). The roentgen is the quantity of y- or X-
radiation which produces 2·083 x Hf ion pairs/cm3 of air at STP.
Instruments which measure radiation intensity can be calibrated with
known radioactive sources. For example, 1 mg of radium enclosed in
a platinum capsule 0·5 mm thick emits a radiation flux of 0·84 mR/h at
a distance of 1 m.
Although a - and f3 -particles carry considerable energy, their
penetration or range is very limited. a-particles can only travel a few
centimetres through air and are stopped by a few sheets of paper.
(3 -particles have a considerably greater range, and are stopped by a
thin sheet of metal or a few centimetres of sand. The range of y-rays
is very much greater, but their penetration of matter depends on the
density and falls off exponentially. As a rough guide 50% of y-
radiation is absorbed by 6 cm of rock, 10 cm of soil or 130 m of air
and 90% is absorbed by 20 cm of rock, 35 cm of soil or 440 m of air.
Thus, radiometric surveying essentially depends upon the detection of
y-radiation.

Detectors
There are three basic types of y-ray detectors: (1) gas-filled tube
counters such as the Geiger-Millier counter, (2) scintillation counters
and (3) semi-conductor detectors.
Geiger-Milller counters counters consist of a thin metal cylindrical
cathode with a wire anode along the central axis all enclosed in a
glass tube. The tube is filled with argon at low pressure and a small
amount of a quenching agent such as ethyl alcohol or chlorine is
added to prevent 'cascading'. A potential difference just below that
 TABLE 6.5
THE URANIUM AND THORIUM RADIOACTIVE DECAY SERIES

Uranium-238 Uranium-235 Thorium-232

238U 235U 23~

a a a
t t t
2:w-rb 231Th 228Ra
{3 {3 {3
t t t
234Pa 231Pa 228Ac
{3 a {3
234U
t t
2rJ Ac
t
2~

a a
t t
2»rb 224Ra

a {3 a a
t \. II'
223Ra
t
226Ra 220Rn

a a a
t t
21~
t
216pO
222Rn

a a a {3
t t
215pO
II' \.
218pO 212Pb 216At
a {3 a {3 {3 a
II' \. II' \. \. II'
214Pb 218At 211Pb 215At 212Bi
{3 a {3 a {3 a
\. II' \. II' II' \.
214Bi 2IIBi 212pO 208n

"fo I ' ';'\ I

{3 a a {3
{3 a
\. II'
208Pb

\. 210n 207n
{3 {3
t t
21"Pb 207Pb
{3
t
210Bi
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 309

TABLE 6.6
SOME NATURALLY OCCURRING SINGLE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Parent Type of decay Daughter Half-life (years)

bismuth-209 ex thaIlium-205 2·7 x 10 17

carbon-14 {3 nitrogen-14 5568
lanthanum-138 {3 caesium-138 7 x 10 10
33% {3 hafnium-176
lutectium-176 2·4 x 10 10
67% e capture ytterbium-176
89% {3 caJcium-40
potassium-40 1·33x109
11 % e capture argon-40
rubidium-87 {3 strontium-87 6·15 x 1010

tellurium-130 double {3 xenon-130 _1021

required to discharge the tube (usually about 1000 V) is applied across

the anode and cathode. Any of the gas atoms struck by ')'-rays
entering the tube are ionized causing the tube to discharge. These
discharges are monitored by suitable electronic circuitry and relayed
to earphones where they are heard as a series of clicks. In addition
Geiger counters often have meters which indicate the radiation in-
tensity in milliroentgens/hour or counts/second and in such cases they
are commonly referred to as ratemeters. ,),-rays are only weakly
ionizing and, as only 1% of ')'- rays entering the tube are counted,
Geiger counters are rather inefficient ')'-ray detectors. On the other
hand charged particles have strong ionizing power and high energy
{3 -particles which can penetrate the walls of the tube give a good
response. However, the detection of (3-particles is of little importance
in radiometric surveying and, since scintillation counters are much
more efficient ')'-ray detectors, ratemeters are rarely used today
except for rough reconnaissance work.
Crystals of certain substances such as caesium fluoride, cadmium
tungstate, anthracene and sodium iodide emit small flashes of light
when bombarded by ,),-radiation and this phenomenon is made use of
in scintillation counters. The most commonly used phosphor is
sodium iodide with a minute amount of thallium added. In a typical
instrument a large crystal of NaJ(Tl) is positioned against a pho-
310 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

tomultiplier tube which is connected to a recording circuit and meter.

The number of flashes produced by the phosphor is roughly propor-
tional to the incident radiation and the meter is calibrated to read in
milliroentgens/hour or counts/second. Small portable scintillation
counters similar in appearance to ratemeters are available.
It has been found that Ge(Li) semiconductors are excellent 'Y-ray
detectors with a very good resolution up to 10 times that of NaI(Tl)
scintillometers. The main disadvantage is their small volume and low
efficiency for high energy 'Y-rays. They have not been developed as
field instruments because of the necessity for the Ge(Li) semicon-
ductor to be cooled by liquid nitrogen. However, they are useful
laboratory instruments for the detailed study of complex 'Y- or X-ray
spectra.

'V-ray spectrometers
'Y-rays from different sources have quite a wide spectrum of energy
from fractions of MeV to several MeV. For instance, the main source
of 'Y-radiation in the 238U decay series is emitted by 214Bi with an
energy peak at 1·76 Me V and the main source of 'Y-radiation in the
232Th decay series is emitted by 20811 with an energy peak at 2·62 MeV
(Fig. 6.51). Instruments which can distinguish these different energy
peaks are known as gamma-ray spectrometers and they make it
possible to identify the radiation '8ource (e.g. K, U or Th). In a

1.46 K40

QI
:; 1.76 BP14
2.62 Tl208
.6 I
.E
QI
Co
I

J!l
c
::l
8

1·40 1.70 2·00 2·30 2·60

Energy (MeVI

FIG.6.5l. 4OK, 214Bi(U) and -r1(Th) peaks showing up on part of the y-ray
spectrum of a rock sample.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 311

scintillation counter the phosphor crystal and photomultiplier tube

produce an output pulse whose height is proportional to the intensity
of the light flash. The intensity of the light flash is in turn proportional
to the energy expended in the phosphor by an incident 'Y- photon.
These various pulses are monitored by a multichannel pulse height
analyzer which is able to discriminate various energy bands
through fairly complicated electronic circuitry. For example, a typical
field 'Y-ray spectrometer would distinguish energy bands at 1·37-1·57,
1·66-1·86 and 2·41-2·81 MeV corresponding to K, U and Th respec-
tively. In addition field 'Y-ray spectrometers also measure a total
radiation energy band, usually from 0·41-2·81 MeV. The measure-
ment is complicated by a number of factors the main one being due to
Compton scattering in the crystal. When a 'Y-photon strikes an orbital
electron, it may lose all its energy (photoelectric effect) or it may only
expend part of its energy and glance off at an angle with reduced
energy (Compton scattering). The scattered photons may lose a part
or all of their energy by repeated Compton scattering or eventual
photoelectric absorption. The result of this Compton scattering is that
some of the 'Y- photons with initial high energies may be recorded at a
lower energy level if and when they are eventually photoelectrically
absorbed. The net effect from a practical point of view is that radia-
tion recorded in the U energy band may be partly derived from Th,
and radiation in the K energy band may be partly derived from
both Th and U. For accurate determinations corrections have to be
applied in the form:
for uranium
and
K.: = Ku - BUu- CThu for potassium
where U c and K.: are the corrected U and K values, Uu, Thu and Ku
are the uncorrected U, Th and K values and A, B and C are
correction coefficients for the Compton scattering. In the case of Th
no correction is required since Th radiation is in the highest energy
band. The Compton scattering is peculiar to each detection system
and known radiation sources have to be used to determine the
correction coefficients for each instrument. If no correction for
Compton scattering is applied, readings in the U and K channels may
be too high by 30% or more. In addition to Compton scattering in the
detector crystal, the energy levels of 'Y-rays are also reduced by
Compton scattering in the air and this effect shows an increase with
altitude. In uranium exploration the Compton scattering is often
referred to as the uranium stripping ratio which is defined as the ratio
of counts detected in the U window from a Th source to those
detected in the Th window.
312 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Radioactive equilibrium
A decay series is said to be in equilibrium when the rate of decay of
the daughter elements is as rapid as their rate of formation from their
respective parent elements. This relationship may be expressed in the
form:

where 2 is the daughter of 1, 3 is the daughter of 2, 4 is the daughter

of 3 and so on. When a series is in equilibrium, the only variables are
the diminishing parent and increasing stable end product. If the
half-life of the parent is shorter than the daughters', a state of
equilibrium cannot be attained. Only when the half-life of the parent
is very much longer than the daughters', such as in the uranium decay
series, is equilibrium possible. If the half-lives of the parent and
daughter are similar, only a transient equilibrium will be reached. In
actual fact absolute equilibrium is never attained in any series, though
the variances may be very small.
Radioactive equilibrium is extremely important in the evaluation of
uranium prospects from radiometric measurements. If the decay
series is in equilibrium, y-ray logging of boreholes, pits, trenches and
outcrops can be used to make a fairly accurate evaluation of the
prospect. If the series is not in equilibrium, however, an evaluation
based on y-ray logging will be incorrect and may err very much on
the optimistic side. When the extent of the disequilibrium for a
particular deposit is known and if it is constant over the deposit, a
correction can be applied so that y-ray logging can be used to
evaluate the deposit. The main cause of disequilibrium is chemical
fractionation of the various members of the series. For example,
uranium is more readily oxidized than thorium and has greater mobil-
ity. This may result in a depletion of uranium with respect to the
various daughter elements and, since y-rays emanate from daughter
elements such as 214Bi and 226Ra, radiometric measurements will
indicate a higher uranium content than actually present. Dis-
equilibrium is also caused by the escape of radon gas, but this is not
as important a factor as chemical fractionation.

Field procedures
In addition to their use in uranium exploration, radiometric surveys
may be carried out to assist with geological mapping (e.g. distinguish-
ing granites, tracing slightly radioactive beds) or to search for
deposits of other radioactive minerals such as monazite and pyro-
chlore.
Ground surveys are carried out by holding a scintillometer or
ratemeter up to 1 m above the ground and taking a series of readings
along traverse lines. The readings can be taken at fixed station
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 313

intervals along the traverses, but it is always advisable to keep the

instrument switched on during a traverse in case there are any strong
localized sources between stations. Instruments equipped with ear-
phones or an audio signal are useful for this type of work as one can
walk along without having to keep a constant watch on the meter. H
there is any increase in the signal strength, a reading or readings can
be recorded. In addition to carrying out surveys on foot, car-borne
surveys can be conducted by mounting a detector on top of a car,
provided that observations are not made over metalled roads. Ground
radiometric surveys have been carried out in Scandinavia during the
winter by mounting detectors on snow scooters.
Significant anomalies are considered as those which are at least two
or three times greater than the background count rate which varies
from area to area and has to be known before making any inter-
pretations. Background is mainly due to cosmic rays, potassium-40
and minute amounts of thorium and uranium which occur in a wide
range of rocks. Cosmic rays consist of atomic nuclei and protons
from outer space with very high energies of the order of several
thousand MeV. These particles collide with atoms in the atmosphere
producing nuclear disintegrations which are accompanied by 'Y-radia-
tion. Background can be determined by taking a number of readings
just outside the area of interest or over ground in the survey area
which is known not to contain any radioactive minerals or significant
quantities of radioactive minerals. In the interpretation of radiometric
surveys it must always be remembered that the magnitude of an
anomaly is not necessarily a good guide to the amount of radioactive
material present. For example, outcropping uranium mineralization
can give rise to very strong anomalies of O· 5 mR/h or more, whereas
the same mineralization buried under 1 m of overburden may only
produce an anomaly of 0·05 mR/h or less.

Airborne surveys
Airborne radiometric surveys are superior to ground surveys for
regional reconnaissance work because large areas can be covered
quickly and relatively cheaply, but there is always the danger of
missing important targets because of uneven coverage. There are
numerous documented cases of good ground anomalies that were not
picked up by an airborne survey owing to too wide a flight line spacing
or rugged terrain which prevented the aircraft from maintaining a
satisfactory ground clearance. In addition ground surveys have much
greater resolution. For example, a uranium deposit consisting of a
number of veins might produce a single large airborne anomaly,
whereas a ground survey with a high density of readings will define
the individual vein sources as a series of separate anomalies.
Nowadays airborne radiometric surveys are carried out with 'Y-ray
314 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

spectrometers which monitor K, Th, U and total count radiation. The

survey is flown at a height of 50-150 m, though it may be necessary to
fly slightly higher than this in areas of rugged terrain with consequent
loss of effectiveness. The altitude at which a survey can be flown
depends upon the sensitivity of the instrument being used. Before the
deVelopment of modern 'Y-ray spectrometers, it was necessary to fly
at altitudes of 50-60 m to achieve meaningful results with the scin-
tillometers and ratemeters available. The sensitivity of modern in-
struments is governed by the volume of the crystal or crystals used
and with crystal volumes of 4500 cm3 and more, it is possible to fly at
altitudes of 200 m. Since altitude is critical in assessing anomalies, the
aircraft is fitted with a radar altimeter which 'contours' the ground to
± 10 m or better. Background determinations are made at high altitude
or by flying over a lake and threshold values are usually taken at two
to three times background. Slow aircraft are preferable as detection
of the smallest radioactive zones depends upon the length of time the
detector is exposed to a particular area. For total coverage the
flight-line spacing should be I! times the altitude, but this is rarely
achieved in regional reconnaissance surveys owing to the cost, and
line spacings of four times the altitude or greater are commonly used.

6.11 GEOTHERMAL METHODS

The average heat flow from the earth is approximately 1·3 x

10-6 cal/cm2 s, but it can show wide differences owing to volcanic
activity and the presence of fissures and cracks which permit the
convective transfer of heat from depth by groundwaters. The average
solar heat flow reaching the ground is approximately 1·2 x
10-2 cal/cm2 s which is several orders of magnitude greater than the
heat flow from the earth and it is clear that surface measurements of
the earth's heat flow will be completely swamped by solar radiation.
Owing to the extremely low thermal conductivity of soils and rocks,
however, the effects of solar heat flow are barely noticeable at
shallow depths below the surface. The solar heat flow can be con-
sidered to have diurnal and seasonal components. The diurnal effects
can be detected to depths of about 1 m and, although the seasonal
effects penetrate to depths of 20 m, they have a very long period with
negligible day-to-day changes. Thus, temperature measurements at
depths of 1-2 m below the surface can be used as a geophysical
method for searching for anomalous heat flow patterns which may
have some relation to subsurface structures.
The basic field procedure consists of drilling a series of short auger
holes up to 2 m deep and placing temperature sensing devices at the
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 315

bottom of the holes. The usual probe is made of plastic and has a
temperature dependent platinum resistance sensor at the end which
can measure temperature to an accuracy of 0·025°e. Mter inserting
the probe, a time lapse of 1 h is normally allowed for conditions to
stabilize. Measurements are preferred in dry ground, but, if con-
ditions are wet, it is desirable that the water table is as high as
possible. Measurements in the transition zone between saturated and
dry ground tend to give unreliable readings. In addition, the presence
of vegetation affects the temperature readings and corrections need to
be applied in crossing from forest to open country. In the tropics
readings in forest can be as much as 2-3°e higher than readings in
open savannah. Readings can be compared from one season to
another provided base readings are taken and a correction made for
the seasonal variation.
The method has been used with some success in locating faults and
salt domes (poley and Steveninck, 1970). Thermal anomalies (both
positive and negative) of the order of l°e have been observed over
some fault zones and salt domes may produce positive thermal
anomalies of 1-2°e. Geothermal surveys have also been employed in
prospecting for geothermal energy and groundwater. Since the oxida-
tion of sulphides is an exothermic reaction, it is likely that thermal
anomalies may occur over zones of mineralization and it is feasible
that geothermal methods might have some application in mineral
exploration. Very little work has been done in this field, however, and
there is insufficient data available to assess the efficacy of the method.

6.12 WELL-LOGGING TECHNIQUES

Most of the geophysical techniques have been adapted for measure-

ments in boreholes and there is a wide range of instruments avail-
able. The first borehole measurements were resistivity and SP sur-
veys undertaken in the 1920's and known as electric logging. The
petroleum industry made considerable use of such surveys and soon
extended the methods to include seismic logging, neutron logging and
')'-ray logging. In more recent years techniques which have become
available include IP measurements, Eho and pH measurements, tem-
perature measurements, borehole magnetometers and even borehole
gravimeters.

Resistivity log
With this method a probe may be fitted with two current and two
potential electrodes which press against the borehole sides as the
probe is lowered down the hole, or one current electrode can be
316 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

placed on the surface at some distance from the borehole in which

case one current electrode and two potential electrodes are used on
the probe. The method is useful for correlating between holes as
different stratigraphic units often show marked variations in resis-
tivity.

SP log
SP logs are generally undertaken in conjunction with resistivity logs
and are included under the term 'electric logging'. The presence of a
self potential is usually indicative of permeable porous strata. In
addition various economic minerals may give rise to self potentials.
There is no way of predicting the type of SP profile that will be
obtained, but it is a very simple technique and can sometimes give
results which are useful in correlating from hole to hole.

Velocity log
Ordinary velocity logs are carried out by lowering a seismometer
down a hole and firing a shot close to the surface. By measuring the
travel times for various depths of the seismometer, the average
velocities of material between different seismometer depths can be
calculated.

Continuous velocity log (CVL) or sonic log

With this method seismic velocities are measured over very small
intervals down the hole by using a special probe with a transmitter for
producing an acoustic pulse and a receiver at a distance of 1-2 m
from the transmitter. To eliminate the effects of travel time in the
borehole fluid, two receivers are usually fitted to the probe. The
conventional CVL measures travel times of compressional waves in
microseconds/metre or metres/second and has become one of the
routine tools of applied seismology. By integrating the logs with
respect to depth, the total travel time between any two points in the
hole can be obtained which allows reflection times to be converted to
depths.

Neutron log
Hydrogen atoms are particularly efficient at capturing neutrons ac-
cording to the reaction:
n+IH--rH+-y
Thus a neutron source can be used to measure the relative concen-
tration of hydrogen atoms. In one method, known as the neutron-
gamma method, a neutron source such as americium-beryllium is
fitted to a probe in addition to a -y-ray detector some 40-50 cm away.
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 317

The y-ray count is then a measure of the neutrons being captured,

which in turn is related to the amount of hydrogen present in the
rocks. This in turn closely reflects the amount of water or oil present,
both of which have an abundance of hydrogen nuclei. Instead of
measuring the y-radiation to determine the amount of neutrons cap-
tured, the degree of scattering of neutrons by hydrogen nuclei can be
measured by counting neutrons at the detector. This is known as the
neutron-neutron method and is carried out by using a boron
trifluoride counter as the detector. Neutron logs employed together
with other logging techniques can be very useful in correlation studies.

'Y-ray log
y-ray logs, which measure the intensity of natural y-radiation in the
hole, are used principally in uranium exploration, but have wide
application in ordinary correlation work. For example, argillaceous
sediments, particularly older ones, tend to have high background
y-ray count rates, whereas coal, anhydrite and salt have low activities
and dolomites, limestones and sandstones have intermediate ones. Of
course, there is great variation depending on the local geology, and
some sandstones, for instance, have very high background count rates.

Density log
In this method the attenuation of y-radiation by the wall rocks is
measured. A y-ray source such as Co-60 or Cs-137 is mounted on a
probe together with a detector 10-15 cm away. The count rate
received by the detector is inversely proportional to the electron
density (n) which is given by:
n = NaZ/A
where N is Avogadro's number, U' is the density in g/cm 3, Z is the
atomic number and A the atomic weight. Thus, the count rate is
inversely proportional to the density in any system where Z and A
are fixed. In practice the instrument is usually calibrated to give the
density of a calcite-water system. A correction for Z/A is then
required to give correct densities of other systems.

Caliper log
This is simply an instrument which measures variations in the bore-
hole diameter. It is widely used in the petroleum industry where
variations in the diameters of uncored holes can provide useful data
in correlation studies. The softer and more readily eroded rock
formations may result in a slightly larger diameter hole than the
harder rock formations. Used in conjunction with other logging
methods the caliper log is a useful tool in correlation work.
318 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

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Seigel, H. 0., Hill, H. L. and Baird, J. G. (1968). Discovery case history of the
pyramid ore bodies, Pine Point, Northwest Territories, Canada, Geophy-
sics, 33, 645-656.
Sixth Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical Congress, (1957). Methods
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Society of Exploration Geophysicists, (1966). Mining Geophysics, vol. l-case
histories, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 492 pp.
Sumner, J. S. (1976). Principles of Induced Polarization for Geophysical
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Tagg, G. F. (1934). Interpretation of resistivity measurements, Trans. Am.
Inst. Mining Met. Engrs. 110, Geophysical Prospecting, 183-200.
Tagg, G. F. (1964). Earth Resistance, George Neunes Ltd., London, 258 pp.
Telford, W. M., Geldart, L. P., Sheriff, R. E. and Keys, D. A. (1976). Applied
Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, 860 pp.
Threadgold, P. (1969). Applications of well-logging techniques to mining
 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 321

exploration boreholes, Ninth Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical

Congress 1969, Paper 11, Instn. Min. Metall., London.
Van Nostrand, R. G. and Cook, K. L. (1966). Interpretation of resistivity data.
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Waeselynck, M. (1974). Magnetotellurics: Principle and outline of the record-
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Ward, S. H., O'Donnell, J., Rivera, R., Ware, G. H. and Fraser, D. C. (1966).
AFMAG-applications and limitations, Geophysics, 31, 576-605.
Ward, S. H., O'Brien, D. P., Parry, J. R. and McKnight, B. K. (1968).
AFMAG-interpretation, Geophysics, 33, 621--644.
Yiingill, S. (1956). Prospecting for chromite with gravimeter and mag-
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Prospecting, 20, 626-648.
 CHAPTER 7

Drilling Methods

In Chapter 5, a number of drilling techniques suitable for sampling

unconsolidated overburden were described. Although it is not pos-
sible to categorize drilling methods into those suitable for rock and
those suitable for unconsolidated material, since some drilling methods
can be used in both environments, only those drilling techniques
capable of penetrating solid rock will be described in this chapter.
There are four main methods used for drilling rock: percussion,
churn, diamond and rotary. In percussion drilling compressed air is
used to drive a hammer unit which imparts a rapid percussive action
to a drilling bit at the end of a length of steel rods. In churn drilling,
sometimes referred to as cable-tool drilling, a heavy chisel-like steel
bit at the end of a wire cable is repeatedly jerked up and down. Since
this is a percussive action, churn drilling is often referred to as
percussion drilling. This may lead to much unnecessary confusion in
describing two very different methods. In diamond drilling a cylindri-
cal sample of rock or core is cut by a rotating annular drilling bit
impregnated with diamonds. In rotary drilling a special non-coring bit
is rotated at the end of a length of steel rods. There is much confusion
in distinguishing rotary and diamond drilling since both involve a
purely rotary action. Diamond coring bits are also used on rotary rigs
from time to time and non-coring bits are often used in diamond
drilling. The distinguishing feature is that the rotary motion in
diamond drilling is imparted to the rods by a chuck, whereas in rotary
drilling the rotary motion is applied by a device called the rotary
table. Rotary rigs are generally very much bigger and more powerful
than diamond-drilling machines and extremely large ones are used in
oil-well drilling.

7.1 PERCUSSION DRILLING

Percussion drills consist basically of a hammer unit which is driven

by compressed air. This hammer unit imparts a series of short, rapid
322
 DRILLING METHODS 323

blows to the drill steel or rods and at the same time slowly rotates
them. The drills vary in size from small hand-held rock drills for
drilling charge holes to large truck-mounted rigs capable of drilling
large diameter holes. There are two main types of percussion drills:
down-the-hole hammer and top hammer.

Down-the-hole hammer drills

As the name implies the hammer unit of this type of drill is lowered
down the hole at the end of the rods. The cylindrical hammer unit is
in effect an extension to the rod string although its diameter is usually
somewhat greater than that of the rods. The bit on the end of the
hammer unit contains a number of tungsten carbide inserts, either
button-shaped (button bits) or chisel-ended (X-face bits). Only the
percussive action is supplied to the bit by the hammer unit. Rotation
of the rods is accomplished by a rotation unit on the rig itself. This
rotation unit is track mounted and fed up or down by a chain feed.
The rods generally vary in diameter from 85 to 115 mm and bits from
100 to 200 mm. The rigs vary in weight from 1·5 to 3·0 tonnes and
entire truck mounted units complete with compressor and ancillary
equipment may weigh 5 tonnes or more. Depth capabilities of up to
250 m are possible with some types, though most rigs are only capable
of reaching depths in the range 100-125 m. Flushing of the drill
cuttings from the hole is carried out using compressed air, though
special foaming agents are available and are sometimes used to assist
in flushing out holes in wet ground. Down-the-hole hammer drills are
mainly used for shot hole and water well drilling and are not com-
monly used in mineral exploration. Figure 7.1 shows a typical down-the-
hole hammer machine in action.

Top hammer drill

In this type of drill, both the percussive action and rod rotation are
provided by a hammer unit which is track mounted on the rig and is
moved up or down by a chain feed. The holes drilled by top hammer
drills are smaller in diameter than those drilled by down-the-hole
machines, with rods varying in diameter from 38 to 45 mm and bits
from 64 mm to 102 mm. For use in mineral exploration the drills are
usually mounted on trailers, trucks or large tractors. For use in
quarries and open pits drills are sometimes mounted on track-laying
vehicles and are then referred to as crawler drills. The latest machines
are all hydraulically controlled and can easily be operated by one man
and a helper.
Most percussion drills only use air for flushing the hole, but some
machines use equipment designed for water circulation and flushing.
For mineral exploration drills with water flushing facilities are far
324 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

superior. H only air is used, sample return is virtually restricted to

depths above the water table, for, although samples can often be
blown clear for several metres below the water table, depending upon
the depth and capacity of the compressor being used, eventually
sample return ceases as it becomes impossible for the compressed air
to blow the heavy, wet sludge up the hole. (This is not a problem for big
down-the-hole hammer drills using high-capacity compressors.)
Machines equipped for water circulation do not have this problem and
sample return is unrestricted provided that no cavities are encountered.
H the drill runs into cavernous ground, water circulation may be lost and
no further samples can be collected. Casing can be run or drilled down to
seal off cavities, but, if numerous cavities are present, percussion
drilling may prove ineffective.

FIG.7.1. A down-the-hole percussion drill in action.

 DRILLING METHODS 325

When drilling with air, the samples may be collected by methods

described for wagon drilling in Chapter 5. When drilling with water,
samples may be readily and easily collected by attaching a T-piece to
the top of the casing projecting above the hole collar. Containers
placed beneath the side-projecting pipe will catch the sample as it
flows from the hole. Since samples are bulky (a 102-mm hole will
produce over 30 kg of sample over a 1· 5-m run), it is necessary to split
them. This is most conveniently done by having the sample run
straight into a sample splitter as it comes from the hole. The simplest
type of splitter consists of three Jones riiflers in series so that a
one-eighth split is achieved.
The samples produced by percussion drills vary from fine dust to
small chips depending upon the nature of rock being drilled. A
coarse, friable grit, for example, may result in samples with a high
proportion of coarse fragments, whereas samples from a massive
limestone may be largely dust. Whatever rock is being drilled,
however, it is usually possible to recognize rock types from the
sample fragments as there are always a fair proportion ranging in size
from 1·0 to 2·0 mm. To assist with logging and making correlations
from hole to hole on a particular property, visual logs can be made up
by glueing the sample powders on to stiff cards or boards. A con-
venient size for the cards or boards, which should be white, is
100 cm x 20 cm. They are then ruled into columns and rows 2·5 cm x
2·5 cm with each row representing a complete sample interval (e.g.
1·5 m). There should be a space at the top of the card for the property
name and hole number. The sample depths can be written down the
left hand column with the columns to the right reserved for differently
treated sample powders. For instance, the first column might be for
untreated sample material, the second for + 16 mesh washed sample,
the third for a heavy mineral separate, the fourth for a magnetic
fraction, and so on. The powders are stuck to the card by applying a
liberal amount of quick drying cellulose cement to the square and
sprinkling the dry powder over the wet glue. Excess sample can be
shaken off and the process repeated for other squares. To complete
the cards it is also useful to include a graphical assay log down one of
the columns.
When logging the holes, it is useful to be able to gauge the
percentage of sample recovered. This can be done easily by compar-
ing the actual volume of sample collected with the calculated volume
of the hole. For example, let us suppose that the total volume of the
dried one-eighth split of a sample collected from 21·0 to 22·5 m was
1300 cm3 • H the hole being drilled was 102 mm in diameter, it would
have a volume of 12260 cm3 over a length of 1·5 m. Now the pow-
dered material has roughly a 10% greater volume than the rock in situ
 PERCUSSION DRILL LOG Vol
~
PROPERTY 'ttOOpER ROC.IS~ HOLE No. ~ TOTAL LENGTH 13·50m. PAGE LOF_I_

GRID REF 1t·5£ 15N BEARING _ __ INCLINATION - '10· LOGGED BY -c:J.=-.=HR~._ __

BIT SIZE:casing _ __ DEPTH:casing 6·Om. METRES:with airmL DRILLED BY B.C.L

drill~ water table.l2.:im.... with water-=--

Metres Dry Calc. °/. Sample °/. °/. "10

Description
from to Vol. Vol. Rec. No. Cu Zn Pb
a I red-brown sOll 39 ~·51 100 32.1 0,(3 0·82 0'05
I 2 red- brown llll:eribc '!.oiL ;',5 3·5 100 322 0'(8 0·Q3 0·01
Z ~ red-brown lllier,te witn p,,,ooLilfls 3·5 0'05
gJ
?> lj. IlS abcNe. With ~ Ileelile'r> oS wille .... 'te ~5
3'5
3·5
100
100
3B 0·/9 .2·~1
324- 0·21 Ho 0·06
i
Z
It- 5 dOJl\p. dDt~broW!l mdll..9d1l·,feroU5 l4ter(t;e 0'1 .3-5 20 32.5 0·22 .u" 0'01
5 b 4.5 above to 51m tlIt'JI redd~ lst. to 6'0 ... \ ·It
3·5 4<> 326 0·28 1t-·28 0·02
b 1 whd:e L:'>t_ 3S 35 (00 32.1 0'03 0-30 0-01
1 B reddi~h Lst. 35 3-5" 100 32.8 0-03 0'30 0-01
8 'I cts abooIe :;·5 :;,5 100 32.'1 0-02 0·42 0'01
~
'I 10 wit,te lst. w,1;h !'!Unor willem.,te 3·5 3-5' 100 330 0-05 /-~<. 0-02
10 1/ 115 Gbove 3-5 3·5 100 ~?>I 0·01 /-25 0'02
II 12- wh,te Lst_ .,",,- 3·5 100 3'!>2 0-02 0-25 0'01
12. 13 redctish Lst. 3·2. ~-5 qo 333 o·o~ 0''1'3 0'01
13 1350 ItS above - flO S6mple return be1uN 13-JOm. 0'4- 3·5 2.0 331t 0·01 0'1.2. 0'01

- -
-END of. HOLE-
i
FIG. 7.2. Example of a typical percussion drill-hole log.
 DRILLING METHODS 327

so that the drill-hole should produce approximately 13 500 cm3 of

sample for every 1·5-m advance. Therefore, overall recovery for this
example is given by:
8 x 1300
% recovery = 13 500 x 100% = 77%

Graphs can be plotted showing percent recovery against sample

volume for different hole sizes so that actual recoveries can be read
directly once the volume of the dried sample is determined. Figure 7.2
gives an example of a typical percussion drill-hole log.
For drilling overburden and cavernous formations, equipment has
been developed which makes it possible to under-ream the hole and
thus keep the casing close behind the advancing drill bit. This is
achieved by using a special expanding bit which is lowered down the
casing. Once through the casing, the bit expands and drills a hole
slightly larger and just ahead of the casing which follows the bit
down. The bit can be retracted and withdrawn up the casing at any
time.
Percussion drills are excellent for testing targets to depths up to
100 m where core is not required. Since costs are one-third to one-
quarter those of diamond drilling, they have proved especially useful
for evaluating deposits which present more of a sampling problem
than a geological one such as porphyry coppers. Drilling with per-
cussion drills is very quick and penetration rates of up to 1 m/min in
granite are possible with some machines. It is, therefore, quite feasi-
ble to complete two 60 m holes/day under good drilling conditions and
still allow sufficient time for running casing, moving between sites and
collecting samples satisfactorily. One disadvantage that is not often
mentioned is that it can be rather unpleasant to work with percussion
drills for any length of time as they are extremely noisy. To avoid
impairment of hearing, people operating percussion drills on a regular
day-to-day basis should wear ear plugs.

7.2 CHURN DRILLING

Churn or cable-tool drills were first used for drilling oil wells in the
1860's, but were later replaced by rotary drills which were much more
efficient at drilling the deeper and deeper holes required as the
petroleum exploration industry expanded. Today churn drills are
mainly used for water well drilling, though in certain circumstances
they may be useful in mineral exploration.
The basic lay-out of a churn drill is shown in the diagrammatic
sketch in Fig. 7.3. A heavy drill stem, to which a sharpened steel bit is
attached, is repeatedly raised and dropped by a cable which is paid
328 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

mo,t

cable

0 0 0 ·0 ca~lng
0
() a .~. 0
0
0
0 ~ () dr ill "em
0

FIG. 7.3. Sketch showing the main working parts of a churn drill.
 DRILLING METHODS 329

out gradually by a winch as the hole deepens. The drilling action is

supplied to the cable by a pulley on a beam which rocks up and down
with a rectilinear motion at a rate of 30-60 strokes/min. The 'throw'
of each stroke depends upon the size of the machine and the rock
being drilled, but it usually varies between 40 and 100 cm. The striking
edge of the bit is blunt, crushing rather than chipping the rock and, as
the bit moves up and down, it twists round on the cable giving a
'churning' action. The correct tension on the cable is extremely
important to maintain optimum drilling efficiency. The bit is allowed
to fall and it should start its upward movement just before it hits the
bottom of the hole. This results in the cable stretching slightly as the
bit hits the bottom causing it to rebound quickly with a jerk or 'snap'.
The speed of the drilling cycle and rate at which the cable is paid out
is judged by the driller resting his hand against the cable to feel the
correct'snap'.
Cuttings and sludge are periodically removed by a bailer which is
lowered to the bottom of the hole every 1-1·5 m of advance. A small
amount of water is required both for drilling and bailing and, if the
hole is dry, several bucketfuls of water are poured down the hole
each time the bailer is used. Once the hole is below the water table it
is usually unnecessary to add water.
Holes are generally 50-300 mm in diameter, but may be as small as
63 mm and very large machines can drill holes up to 1 m in diameter.
The smaller machines have depth capacities of up to 200 m, while the
larger machines can attain depths in excess of 500 m. In practice it is
usual to start a hole at 250 or 300 mm and case off and progressively
reduce the hole size as necessary. A number of different fishing tools
are available to recover any equipment accidentally lost down the hole,
which may happen if the cable breaks or the driller is careless. It is
necessary to keep a good edge on the bit if efficient drilling progress is
to be maintained. This is done by periodically dressing the bit by
heating it with a blow torch or small forge, hammering an edge and
retempering. Drilling rates per 12-h shift can be as much as 30 m in
overburden or soft formations, but may be as little as 1 or 2 m in very
hard rock.
Churn drills can be useful in exploration work for sampling soft
formations up to depths of 100-150 m. Costs are comparable to and
may be slightly less than percussion drilling. The main disadvantage is
that churn drilling is very slow, but, if time is not particularly
important and if only vertical holes are required, churn drilling is
worth considering. Samples may be conveniently taken over lengths
of 1-1·5 m, but it is important to ensure that the driller removes all the
cuttings from the hole at the end of each sample interval. A common
fault with churn drilling is that the bailer does not clean out all the
330 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

cuttings and, if there are any high density minerals present, there will
be a tendency for them to accumulate at the bottom of the hole. Since
the minerals of interest in exploration generally have high densities,
improper bailing may result in a false increase of values with depth. It
is also important to case off any overburden to avoid contamination.
If the overburden is thick, or if the formation being drilled is very
friable, it is good practice to run the casing as the hole advances. By
keeping the casing close behind the bit, contamination risks are
reduced.
Plastic dustbins make convenient containers for receiving the
samples as they are recovered by the bailer, but, since the samples
are bulky (a 180-mm hole will produce over 100 kg of sample for
every 1·5 m of advance), it is best to split them before bagging and
removing from the site. A one-eighth split is convenient and may be
carried out by passing the sample through a Jones riffler three times
or, better still, by using a specially constructed splitter consisting of
three Jones rifflers in series. Logging is generally not too difficult as a
high proportion of the cuttings are usually coarse (3 mm).

7.3 DIAMOND DRILLING

Diamond drilling is by far the most important type of drilling under-

taken in mineral exploration. The recovery of drill core enables
details of the geology, ground conditions and mineralogy to be
obtained that are not possible with any other method. The first
diamond drill was built by a Swiss engineer in 1862 and by the early
1900's diamond drilling had become a well established technique. The
earliest drills were powered by steam and, although steam power was
still in use in the 1920's and 1930's, petrol and diesel engines had
become the main source of power. Today the larger drills are usually
powered by diesel engines, while petrol engines are most commonly
used on the smaller machines. For underground drilling electric or air
motors are used.

Machines and equipment

Figure 7.4 shows the basic layout of a diamond drill. The hollow drill
rods pass through a tube in the swivelhead and are held firmly in
place by a chuck. The swivelhead rotates the rods and has a feed
mechanism for advancing the rods as drilling proceeds. The feed
action may be achieved by a screw feed through a system of gears, it
may be hydraulic (the most common system) or it may be manual
through a leverage system. Manual feed is now obsolete, though it is
still used on the small, lightweight, portable Winkie drill. With the
 DRILLING METHODS 331

waler swivel

rod

0 ()
0
0 0 C) a
0 casing 0

a a <:)
·0 0
'0
(j- 0
<:J.
0
0 0 0
0
0

FIG. 7.4. Sketch showing the main working parts of a diamond drill.
332 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

exception of the smallest machines, diamond drills have gearboxes so

that drilling speed can be varied according to the rock being drilled.
Drilling fluid (water, drilling mud, or air in special circumstances) is
supplied to the rods by a water swivel which permits the rotating rods
to be connected to a hose. The drilling fluid passes down the hollow
rods, through the core-barrel to the bit where it cools and lubricates
the cutting faces. The fluid then carries cuttings and sludge back up
the hole outside the rods where it is discharged at the surface. To
prevent the hole from collapsing in unconsolidated or soft, friable
ground a pipe or casing of larger diameter than the rods is inserted to
protect the hole. The rods and casing can be withdrawn from the hole
by a winch on the machine operating through a sheave wheel on a
shear-legs or tripod set above the rig. Some machines have a specially
constructed mast for this, particularly truck-mounted machines, and
on very large rigs a tall derrick is used. As drilling proceeds the drill
core passes into the core-barrel where it is held firmly in place by the
core spring or core lifter. The drill core is recovered by periodically
withdrawing the rods and core-barrel from the hole.
Today there are two main types of diamond drilling: standard or
conventional and wireline. In conventional drilling the rods have to be
removed from the hole each time it is necessary to recover core from
the core-barrel. In wireline drilling the core can be removed from the
hole without withdrawing the rods. This is achieved by a special core
tube which slots into the core-barrel and can be withdrawn by a
device known as an overshot which is lowered down the inside of the
rods on a cable and locks onto the top of the core tube. The action of
the overshot locking onto the core tube causes latches which hold the
core tube in the core-barrel to be withdrawn thus freeing the core
tube so that it can be hoisted to the surface. After the core has been
removed from the core tube, it is replaced in the core-barrel simply
by dropping it down the rods. If the hole is very shallow or inclined
upward, the core tube is pushed into position by pumping drilling fluid
down the rods. Once the core tube is in the core-barrel, it automatic-
ally locks into place.

Hole sizes
Diamond drills have been built to a wide variety of sizes and recover
core ranging from 19 mm in diameter to 300 mm and more. The most
commonly used sizes in exploration drilling are shown in Table 7.1
which lists the standard North American and metric sizes.

Bits and reaming shells

Diamond drill bits, or crowns as they are sometimes known, come in
a wide variety of shapes and sizes depending upon the drilling
 DRILLING METHODS 333

TABLE 7.1
COMMONLY USED DIAMOND DRILL SIZES

North American Diamond Drill Sizes

Standard Wireline

Hole Core Hole Core

XRT 30mm 19mm

EX 38mm 22mm
AX 48mm 31mm AQ 48mm 27mm
BX 60mm 42mm BQ 60mm 36mm
NX 76mm 55mm NQ 76mm 48mm
HX 96mm 74mm HQ 96mm 63mm
PQ 123mm 85mm

Standard Metric Diamond Drill Sizes

Core Approximate
North American
Hole Thin bits Thick bits equivalent

36mm 22mm EX
46mm 32mm 28mm AX
56mm 42mm 34mm
66mm 52mm 44mm BX
76mm 62mm 54mm NX
86mm 72mm 62mm
101mm 75mm HX
116mm 90mm
131mm 105mm
146mm 120mm

conditions for which they are required. A reaming shell is always

fitted behind the bit to ensure that the hole size is maintained at the
correct diameter. In most bits the drilling fluid simply passes down
the inside of the bit, but for soft formations where it is necessary to
protect the core in the bit from the eroding effect of the drilling fluid
special bottom discharge bits with hollow walls and discharge ports in
the cutting face have been designed. Bits are specified by their size,
manufacturer's part, serial and type numbers and weight of diamonds
in carats. In addition the number of diamonds/carat might also be
given. In diamond bits large size diamonds (better for soft formations)
range from 5 to 15 stones/carat and small size (better for hard
formations) from 50 to 60 stones/carat. For example, two BX bits
334 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

might both contain 12·0 carats, but one might have 60 stones and the
other 300. In addition to normal diamond bits, impregnated bits
consisting of diamond dust and very small stones within the metal
matrix are made for special jobs; these are good for hard rock.
Special non-coring diamond bits are sometimes used where core is
not required, particularly when re-drilling a cemented section. For the
drilling and coring of soft formations much cheaper tungsten carbide
bits can be used in place of the more expensive diamond bits. Figure
7.5 shows some typical bits used in diamond drilling.

REAMING SHELL
IMPREGNATED BIT

BOTTOIoI DISCHARGE BIT

BIT ~NARY BIT

CONCAVE NON-CORING BIT

STEP BIT

FIG. 7.5. Some typical bits used in diamond drilling.

Core-barrels
The simplest type of core-barrel is a single tube 1· 5-9 m long to which
a reaming shell and bit are attached with a circular core spring or
lifter fitted inside just above the bit to prevent core from falling out.
Since the drill core is continually exposed to the eroding effect of the
drilling fluid passing down to the bit, single-tube core-barrels are
rarely used today. The double-tube core-barrel, which is the most
widely used, contains an inner core tube for holding the core. This
protects the core from the drilling fluid and improves core recovery in
soft rock. The core tube is taken out of the core-barrel each time it is
necessary to remove the core, which is then shaken out, pushed out
 DRILLING METHODS 335

with a thin metal rod or pumped out with water. For drilling very soft
or friable formations, triple-tube core-barrels have been designed.
These contain a further tube, split along its full length and nested
inside the core tube. Core is protected in the split tube which is
extracted from the core tube each time it is necessary to remove the
core. Used in conjunction with bottom-discharge bits, these core-
barrels give optimum protection to soft or friable core. The wireline
core-barrel is essentially a double-tube core-barrel from which the
core tube can be withdrawn without having to disassemble the core-
barrel. The mechanism by which the core tube is removed has already
been described. In addition wireline core-barrels contain a shut-off
valve which is designed to minimize core blocking and grinding and
hence improve core recovery. If the core starts blocking, the increase
in water pressure causes the shut-off valve to close, thus cutting off
the drilling fluid circulation and drawing the attention of the driller to
the core blockage. The core tube can then be retrieved to remove the
blocked core and allow drilling to commence until the core tube is full
or a further blockage is observed.

Rods
Standard drill rods usually come in lengths varying from 1· 5-6 m and
can be joined together by threaded couplings. They are flush-jointed
on the outside, but not on the inside where the couplings have
narrower internal diameters than the rods themselves. Wireline rods
have thinner walls and are flush-jointed internally as well as exter-
nally so that the core tube can be withdrawn without obstruction.
Thread designs and specifications vary slightly according to the
manufacturer.
Casing
Casing is seamless steel tubing which comes in a number of different
lengths and can be screwed together with flush joints on the inside
and outside. It has thinner walls than the rods and is designed to be
slightly larger than the corresponding rod size. For example, AX rods
will pass inside AX casing, AX casing will pass inside BX casing, BX
rods will pass inside BX casing, BX casing will pass inside NX casing
and so on. In addition, casing of a specific size will fit into a hole
drilled by bits of the next size up. For example, NX casing shoes are
the same size as HX coring bits, BX casing shoes are the same size as
NX coring bits and so on. Casing can be driven down a pre-drilled
hole by repeatedly raising and dropping a drive hammer on the top
end of the casing or it can be drilled down if a special diamond
bit known as a casing shoe is used. The running of casing in a hole can
be a difficult operation and, if a lot of casing is required, it might be
336 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

necessary to make several size reductions. For example, a particular

hole might have HX casing to 50 m, NX casing to 150 m and BX
casing to 250 m.
Mter completing a hole, it is normal practice to recover the casing
from the hole unless access to it is likely to be required again either
for deepening or for geophysical logging. The casing often becomes
tightly wedged in the hole and it is rarely possible to extract it with
the hoist on the rig. For this reason large hydraulic jacks or a jarring
hammer on the hoist have to be used; in many instances it is not
possible to recover all of the casing.

Drilling fluids
Water is the most commonly used drilling fluid, but when drilling in
overburden or soft, friable rocks, it is found to be too erosive. In such
cases drilling mud, which consists of a bentonite-water mixture is
used. This has a two-fold action. Firstly, it plasters the walls of the
hole filling small cavities and cracks with clay. This reduces erosion
and prevents caving into the hole. Secondly, the bentonite increases
the density and viscosity of the drilling fluid which aids in the removal
of cuttings and sludge. In certain instances the density of the drilling
mud can be further increased by adding powdered barite. In addition
special cutting oils may be used with the drilling water. For drilling
very soft or friable rocks such as wet muds or coal seams, air is
sometimes used as the drilling fluid. Bottom discharge bits have to be
used and excellent core recovery is achieved. Air can only be used in
very soft muds or rocks and, if any hard, abrasive material is present,
the bit will be ruined very quickly.

Pumps
Except for use on the smallest machines, drilling pumps have to be
capable of delivering water, mud or grouting cement. The size of the
pump required will depend upon the size of the hole being drilled, but
for most exploration drilling requirements pumps should be able to
deliver 50-100 Htres/min at pressures ranging from 30 to 50 kg/cm2 •

Fishing tools
If drill rods or tools are accidentally lost down a hole, the driller has
a number of different fishing tools with which to retrieve the lost
equipment. The most commonly used is the recovering tap which is
tapered and threaded with 'V' threads for screwing into and gripping
the top end of a lost rod or core-barrel. If recovering taps fail to
work, a bell tap, which is designed to overlap and encase lost drill
tools, can be used. To recover metal fragments magnetic extractors
are sometimes used.
 DRILLING METHODS 337

Cementing
If bad ground with cavities and caving material is encountered, it may
be necessary to cement the hole to stabilize conditions so that drilling
can continue. Neat cement and water are pumped down the hole until
the bad section is completely filled. If quick drying cement has been
used, it may be possible to re-drill the cemented section several hours
after cementing, but, if ordinary cement is used, it usually requires
24-48 h before the cement sets hard. The drying time of cement can
be speeded up by adding calcium chloride to the cement/water
mixture. Core recovery of cement should be 100% if it has been
carried out properly, though cemented sections are often re-drilled
with non-coring bits.

Drilling rigs
The machines most commonly used in mineral exploration have depth
capacities ranging from 200 to 1500 m depending upon the size of the
machine and hole diameter being drilled. Much larger machines with
depth capacities of 3000 m and more are also available, but holes of
this depth are not common in mineral exploration. The controls on
most machines include engine throttle, drill clutch, gear lever,
hydraulic head feed control, swivel head up-down lever, hoist clutch
and hoist brake. These are all centrally located so that the driller can
maintain positive control of every operation. The chuck is usually
manually operated with Allen keys, and rods and casing are joined
and broken with pipe wrenches, which makes drilling a tough job.
Automatic, hydraulically operated chucks are now available and even
rod handling, breaking and joining is carried out with hydraulic
controls on some of the latest machines, making the job of the driller
much easier and greatly increasing productivity. A gauge to show the
hydraulic feed pressure is usually part of the standard equipment on
most machines. The productivity achieved depends on the size of the
hole, the depth of the hole, the rock type being drilled and lastly, and
probably most importantly, on the skill of the driller. For depths up to
300 m under good drilling conditions 2~30 m can be achieved with
conventional equipment in a 12-h shift and 100-120 m with wireline
equipment. These advances are exceptional and daily advance is
usually very much less than this, but it should not fall below 5-6 m for
conventional equipment and 20 m for wireline unless the holes are
very deep or drilling conditions very bad. Drilling is a highly skilled
business and a great deal of experience is necessary to know the best
drilling speed and rate of penetration for different rock types so that
optimum productivity and core recovery is achieved. Figure 7.6 shows a
typical diamond drill in action.
338 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIG. 7.6. Exploratory diamond drill hole being drilled at -45 on a copper
0

prospect in Zambia.

Portable diamond drills

Small machines that can be carried by one or two men have been built
for drilling shallow targets. These machines include the Pak-sak drill
and the 'X-ray' drill. which use XRT rods and bits, and the Winkie
drill which uses EX size rods and bits.
The Pak-sak drill is roughly the size of a hand-held rock drill and is
designed to be used in a similar manner. It is powered by a small
petrol engine and has a separate water pump. Depths of up to 30 m
are possible. but it is rarely practical to drill over 15 m. These drills
are of little value except for collecting short core samples from rock
outcrops.
The 'X-ray' and Winkie drills are somewhat larger and are really
miniature versions of the larger machines. They can be carried by two
men and mounted on heavy timbers for drilling. Depth capabilities of
50 m are possible. but this can be almost doubled if lightweight,
magnesium-zirconium rods are used. The machines are very useful
for testing shallow targets if drilling conditions are good. Owing to the
small size of the XRT and EX bits, however, core recovery is very
 DRILLING METHODS 339

poor in bad ground and in areas with thick overburden or deep

weathering they are almost completely ineffective.

Conventional versus wireline

The development of wireline methods in the 1960's was a major
revolution in diamond-drilling techniques. Productivity and core
recovery were dramatically increased and drilling costs reduced.
Nevertheless, there are some disadvantages and conventional drilling
may be preferable in certain cases. Wireline rods are thinner than
conventional ones and their life is shorter and breakages more com-
mon. For a given hole size wireline core is smaller than conven-
tional core with a wireline bit having to cut an annulus up to 40%
larger than a conventional bit. This increases diamond wear and
reduces penetration rates in hard rock. Hole deviation is also a
problem. Owing to the thin rods and higher drilling pressures used in
wireline, deviations are much greater than in conventional drilling and
in many instances are completely unacceptable, though special
minimum deviation reaming shell assemblies are now available to
reduce this problem. Wireline has a distinct advantage in bad or
caving ground, provided bit life is long. The core can be removed
from the hole quickly each time there is a blockage and drilling can
proceed without having to remove the rods and disturb a possible
caving section in the hole. If bit life is short (less than five times a full
core run), wireline becomes less attractive. In deep holes in excess of
500 m with hard rock formations and consequent short bit life, con-
ventional drilling using long core-barrels of 6 or 9 m has advantages,
'particularly when using the latest all-hydraulic rigs.

Drilling overburden
When drilling through unconsolidated overburden, it is common
practice to use a roller rock bit such as those used in rotary drilling
until hard rock is reached. To reduce the chances of the open hole
collapsing drilling mud is often used. The casing is then inserted in the
open hole. If the overburden is very thick, it may be necessary to
start the hole at a size well above HX so that several reductions in
casing size can be made in order to case off the deep overburden
section. Although casing shoes enable casing to be drilled down, the
life of a casing shoe is often very short, particularly if the ground
contains many quartz fragments and boulders. It is for this reason
that open holes are often drilled with roller rock bits and the casing is
only drilled down a few metres with a casing shoe if at all. If core
recovery is required in overburden, it has been found that drilling
340 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

very slowly for short runs using tungsten carbide bits with little or no
water gives good core recovery of unconsolidated ground.

Reverse flow (dual tube) drilling

A new development in drilling, which in some ways is as rev-
olutionary as the introduction of wireline techniques, is that of
reverse flow or dual tube drilling. In this system special drilling rods
containing inner rods of smaller diameter are used. Drilling fluid is
passed down the outer tube and returns to the surface up the inner
tube, hence the term 'reverse flow'. A small proportion of the drilling
fluid returns up the hole annulus to provide adequate hole lubrication.
The system is particularly good for drilling and sampling areas with
thick overburden or deeply weathered rocks. The outer tube acts as a
casing and return of cuttings and sludge up the inner tube reduces
circulation loss due to cavities and fractures. In addition compressed
air can be injected in the drilling fluid to improve sample recovery in
bad lost circulation zones by reducing the hydrostatic head in the
inner tube. With roller rock bits penetration rates in overburden or
soft rock are very high and, since rock cuttings up to 2 cm across are
brought up, it is often unnecessary to core. When core is required, it
is a simple matter to change over to ordinary diamond drilling. The
Walker-Neer Company of the United States has introduced a system
which makes continuous coring possible with the reverse flow system.
With a special diamond bit in place of the roller rock bit core enters
the inner tube and is broken off in 12·5 cm lengths by a special core
breaker inside the tube and is pumped to the surface by the returning
drilling fluid. The diagram in Fig. 7.7 shows the basic principle behind
dual tube drilling.

Drilling costs
Diamond drilling is the most expensive type of drilling undertaken in
mineral exploration, generally being three times as costly as per-
cussion or chum drilling and up to twice as expensive as rotary
drilling. The actual costs vary widely according to the part of the
world, size of the contract, depth of holes and diameter of core, but in
1977 normal drilling in different parts of the world varied anywhere
from US$20 to US$120/m for normal BX or NX drilling. In parti-
cularly remote areas and/or in very difficult ground costs might be
much higher.

Time sheets and drillers' logs

It is common practice for diamond drilling contractors to use time
sheets to show the nature of work carried out during each shift. The
normal time sheet is divided into columns corresponding to half-
 DRILLING METHODS 341

drilling fluid
o 0 droll cuttings
• <) 0

<l dual swivel

o
<>
o
o

~
outer pipe
0

0
D
D

D
inner pipe

FIG. 7.7. Sketch to illustrate the principle of dual tube drilling.

hourly intervals of a shift and rows for the different jobs undertaken.
These are: running rods, running casing, pulling rods, pulling casing,
drilling mud, drilling rock, fishing, repairs, down time, surveying,
rigging up, rigging down. The driller simply puts a tick against each
half hour spent on a particular job. For example, a typical time sheet
during a drilling shift might show 3 h running casing, 4 h drilling rock
1 h repairs, 1 h pulling rods, 1 h running rods. In addition the driller
342 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

should enter the numbers of any new bits or casing shoes used. The
time sheet should also show the amount and sizes of casing used and
any items of equipment lost. The geologist in charge of the drilling
should sign each time sheet he accepts as correct. The importance of
the time sheet varies with the type of contract, but under some
contracts it is extremely important that the time sheets are correct as
it may affect considerably the drilling charges made by the contractor.
In addition to the time sheets the driller should also keep what is
known as the driller's log. This should list such items as the drilling
characteristics, circulation losses, cavities and cavings against the
respective depths. This information is often very useful to the geolo-
gist. For instance, the absence of core over a section with a definite
cavity will not be interpreted as core loss.

Sludge sampling
When drilling through unconsolidated overburden or in bad ground
with very poor core recovery, it is good practice to collect sludge
samples. This is quite easily done by digging a small trench near the
hole collar with a gently sloping narrow channel way leading to the
hole. A launder can be placed in the channel or it can be lined with
cement or polythene sheeting. A small lip should project from the
channel way out over the trench so that sludge will run into con-
tainers placed in the trench. The trench should have an outlet so that
any drilling fluid passing into it can drain away. Samples may be
collected in any suitable large container, or special sludge boxes can
be used. Over each interval of sample collection the drilling fluid can
be allowed to overflow from the collecting container while the sludge
settles out. If it is considered necessary to collect as much of the fines
as possible, several sludge boxes can be used in series to allow
sufficient time for most of the fine material to settle out. When the
sampling run has been completed, or when sufficient material has
been collected, the container can be removed and replaced by an
empty one to repeat the process. If the sludge samples are of a
qualitative nature, such as the geochemical sampling of overburden, a
small amount of sludge can be removed from the box and the rest
thrown away. Samples required for quantitative purposes can be split
on the site to facilitate handling and force-dried over a fire or gas
burner if necessary. It should be remembered that it is not always
possible to collect sludge samples because of loss of water return.

The drilling contract

As drilling is such an expensive undertaking, it is normal for the
parties to enter into a formal contract. Essentially, there are two
types of contract, unit cost and cost-plus, though the two may be
 DRILLING METHODS 343

combined. In a unit cost contract the contractor agrees to carry out

the work at so much per metre and, regardless of the effort expended
and materials used, the final cost is fixed by the total meterage drilled.
In a cost-plus contract the contractor agrees to carry out the work at
so much per metre plus additional costs of fuel and materials used,
drillers' time, equipment rental, etc. The cost-plus contract should be
avoided as it is always to the contractor's advantage and the final cost
to the client is not dependent on results. For obvious reasons con-
tractors are often unwilling to enter into a strictly unit cost contract
and there is almost always a cost-plus element included. For example,
if a contractor feels that drilling in a particular area may involve a lot
of trouble with overburden, he may specify a rate of so much per
metre plus an hourly charge together with additional costs of fuel and
materials for drilling the overburden. The prospective client should
always be extremely wary of any cost-plus items in a contract. For
example, the final cost to a client from a contractor offering an
attractive rate per metre in a contract together with a cost-plus clause
may be much higher than the final cost from a contractor offering a
less favourable rate per metre in a contract without a cost-plus
clause.

Borehole surveying
Since a borehole rarely maintains its collar inclination and direction
for any appreciable length and may show a marked deviation from the
projected course, it is important to be able to survey the true path of
the hole. The simplest surveying method is the acid etch from which
the inclination can be measured. With this method a glass tube is half
filled with hydrofluoric acid, stoppered and lowered down the hole in
a special cylinder to the depth at which the measurement is required.
It is left in the hole for 20-30 min to allow the acid to leave a clear
etch mark on the glass. The bottle is then retrieved from the hole, the
acid is washed out and the angle the etch mark makes with the tube
measured to give the inclination of the hole. Owing to surface tension,
however, the apparent angle of the liquid is always greater than the
true dip of the hole and a meniscus correction has to be made for an
accurate measurement. The amount of deviation from the true angle
varies with the inclination of the hole, the size of the tube and the
strength of the acid; correction graphs (Fig. 7.8) are used to determine
the inclination.
As the acid etch test measures only inclination, a number of survey
instruments, which measure both inclination and azimuth, are
manufactured in different parts of the world. These include the
Tro-Pari made in Canada, the Eastman borehole camera from West
Germany and the Humphrey gyro survey instrument made in the
344 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

V
80 /
/'
70
V
V
1:7
60
...0
-"

E
.<: 50
~
'0 40 /
.!!
'"
c
<[
30
/
20
f/
/
I
10
17
17
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Hole inclination

FIG. 7.8. Correction graph for determining the true inclination from the etch
mark in 25-mm tubes.

United States. The Tro-Pari instrument consists of a compass element

and clinometer free to rotate until locked in place by a pre-set
clockwork timer. The instrument is lowered down the hole in a
special cylinder on the end of a brass or aluminium rod with the timer
set to lock the instrument 5 or 10 min after reaching the required
depth. A disadvantage of the Tro-Pari is that it is a single-shot
instrument and only one measurement can be made each time it is
lowered down the hole. This disadvantage is overcome in the rather
more expensive multi-shot borehole camera such as the Eastman
surveying instrument. This instrument takes a series of readings at
fixed time intervals and records the azimuth and inclination on a
miniature film. Both the Tro-Pari and Eastman instruments have the
disadvantage that they are magnetic and cannot be used in the cased
section of a hole or in strongly magnetic rocks. These disadvantages
are overcome by the very much more expensive Humphrey gyro
survey instrument which contains a miniature directional gyro for
determining azimuth. This instrument can be lowered down the hole
on a cable and a survey data are continuously displayed on a control box
at the surface. A new borehole surveying instrument, produced by the
 DRILLING METHODS 345

ABEM company in Sweden and known as the Reflex-Fotobor DD1,

can also be used in cased holes and in magnetic formations. It
consists of a 12-m rod or probe which contains three internal reflector
rings set at distances of 3, 6 and 9 m respectively from a photographic
recorder which uses 16-mm black-and-white film. The position of a
vertical or bull's-eye bubble is also recorded. As the probe is lowered
down the hole it flexes with the deviation of the hole and the degree
of bending is measured by the offsets of the reflector rings and
recorded on the film. The instrument continuously measures the
deviation of the hole and is accurate to 10 cm in 100 m. The smallest
holes that can be surveyed are 46 mm (AX) in diameter.
The importance attached to a borehole survey depends upon the
nature of the job and depth of hole. Short holes of 100 m or less
rarely show much deviation, but deeper holes may deviate consider-
ably. There are known examples of 300-m wireline holes which show
deviations of 60 m and more in plan. Surveying is not particularly
important in cases where only one or two exploratory holes are
drilled, but in the evaluation of a prospect the importance of survey-
ing cannot be overemphasized. An acid etch test is very simple and
takes very little time and for this reason it is a very useful method for
checking vertical holes. If the acid etch indicates a bad deviation, a
more time-consuming survey can be carried out with a Tro-Pari or
similar instrument.

Plotting surveyed drill holes

The usual drill hole survey consists of a number of readings at
different intervals down the hole and it is necessary to plot the actual
continuous curve of the deviating drill hole from these few
measurements. There is one simple method which gives a very good
approximation for all but the most extreme cases. Figure 7.9(a) shows
in section the hypothetical curve of a deviating drill hole which was
vertical at the collar. The angles made by the tangents to the curve at
points 1,2,3,4 and 5 give the hole inclination at the respective points.
These are tabulated below:
Survey point Inclination Depth down the hole
1 -90° o
2 -76!0 100m
3 -66io 200m
4 -52° 300m
5 -33io 350m

The procedure is to take the mean value between successive

inclinations which gives: 83~0, 71!0, 58~0 and 42~0. Then 0-100 m is
346 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

(a ) deviating drill hole ( b) plotted from lurvey ( c ) plaited from survey

dolo 01 1,2,3,4,5 dolo 01 I, 3 , 5

1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

I
,
I
,
I

, I

,,
I I
I
I

,
I
I
/'
I
I
I
4
o,
I
I
I 100 m
I
I
5

FIG. 7.9. Diagram to show how a deviating drill hole is plotted in section
from survey data.

plotted at 83~0, 100--200 m at 71!0, 200--300 m at 58~0 and 300--350 m at

42~0 giving the result in Fig. 7.9(b). The dashed curve drawn through
these plotted points gives almost a perfect fit with the original curve.
Figure 7.10(a) shows in plan an extreme case of the hypothetical
curve of a deviating drill hole. In this case the tangents to the curve at
points 2, 3, 4 and 5 give the hole azimuth at the respective points.
These are tabulated below:

Survey point Azimuth Horizontal distance

1 - * 0
2 10° 14m
3 28° 33m
4 75!0 54m
5 109!0 37m

*No azimuth as hole assumed to be collared vertically.

 DRILLING METHODS 347

2 I

0) Deviating drill hole b) Plotted from survey

data at 1.2.3.4.5

FIG. 7.10. Diagram to show how a deviating drill hole is plotted in plan from
survey data.

Then 14 m is plotted at 10° (there is no azimuth at point 1 so no

mean value can be calculated between 1 and 2), 33 m at 19°, 54 m at
51io and 37 m at 92!0. The result in Fig. 7.1O(b) is not such a good fit
with the original curve as the example in Fig. 7.9, but this is an
extreme case with a 90° change in azimuth. If there were more survey
points, the plot would be much better. It is interesting to note that in
the less extreme example shown in Fig. 7.9 a plot using only the data
at points 1, 3 and 5 (Fig. 7.9(c» still gives a fairly good ap-
proximation to the original curve.
In a deviating drill hole both the azimuth and inclination tend to
change together (the hole often spirals) and the survey measurements
for both inclination and azimuth have to be used in conjunction to
plot the drill section and plan. Let us consider an actual example. A
diamond drill hole X22 was inclined at -70° towards 259° magnetic
and drilled to a final depth of 297 m. From the survey results given in
Table 7.2 we are required to plot a plan view and a section through
the collar position along 259° magnetic.
The required calculations are given in Table 7.3. To plot the
borehole course in plan, the horizontal distance of 29· 5 m is measured

TABLE 7.2
SURVEY RESULTS FROM BOREHOLE X22
Depth Inclination Azimuth (magnetic)
(m)

collar -70 0 25~

102 -76 0 312 0

152 -78 0 3W
251 _77 0 305 0

297 -75 0 302 0

348 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

along a bearing 285!0. This is followed by 11·5 m on a bearing of 313°,

22·5 m on a bearing of 309!° and finally 12·5 m on a bearing of 303!0 to
give the result in Fig. 7.11. To plot the vertical section through the
collar along 259°, the vertical distances in Table 7.3 are plotted down
the hole and perpendiculars dropped to the line on the bearing 259° in
the plan view give the respective distances of the hole from the
vertical below the collar. The final result is shown in Fig. 7.11.

~ 1

1 I
1
1
1
259o••_ _ _ _ _---,--iI_I;...,I:--~~------

1
I
1 I

II I

I
1

I
I
I
1
---I
I
1
1
----I
I
I
1
1 oL..'_....&'_----L.'_...J'
10 20 30 m
1
I
_____ 1
I
1
1
____ -.1
FIG. 7.11. Diagram to show how a deviating diamond drill hole is plotted in
plan and in section from survey data.
 TABLE 7.3
CALCULATIONS REQUIRED TO PLOT DRILL-HOLE X22 SHOWN IN Fig. 7.11

Horizontal Vertical
Depth Interval Inclination Mean distance distance Azimuth Mean ~
t"'
0 -700 2590 ....t"'
Z
102 730 102 cos 730 = 29·5 102 sin 730 = 97 285~0 Cl
102 -760 3120 ~
50 7r 50 cos 77 0 = 11·5 50 sin 770 = 49 313 0 ..,ttl
152 -780 3140 :t:
0
99 77~0 99 cos 77~0 = 22·5 99 siri 77~0 = 96 3~0 0
CIl
251 -770 3050
46 760 46 cos 760 = 12·5 46 sin 760 = 44 303~0
297 -750 3020

\.H
~
Ie
350 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Deflections
Occasionally during the course of drilling a hole, it is necessary to
change the direction of the drill hole. This procedure is known as a
deflection and there are three main reasons why it may be necessary:
(1) to correct the course of a deviating hole, (2) to obtain another
intersection of a particular zone, and (3) to avoid an obstruction in the
hole. Deflections are accomplished by setting a long tapering steel
wedge in the hole just above the point at which the deflection is
required. The wedge gradually forces the drill bit to one side until it is
drilling a new hole slightly off the line of the old one. There are two
types of wedges: non-directional and directional. Directional wedges
have to be used in cases where the course of a deviating hole has to
be corrected or where it is necessary to hit a restricted 'target'.
Non-directional wedges can be used in cases where direction is not
critical, such as avoiding an obstruction or obtaining an additional
intersection of a particular zone. The typical wedge for a BX or NX
hole is a solid steel rod 2-2·5 m long with a tapering facet 1·5-2 m
long.
To set a non-directional wedge the hole is filled with cement or
sand up to the point where the wedge is to be set, a block of wood is
then placed at the bottom of the cemented hole and the wedge is
pushed down on the wooden plug. Drilling off the wedge is carried out
slowly and cautiously to make sure that the deflection is successful.
Once the hole is on its new course drilling can be carried out as
normal. The actual course taken by the deflected hole can be deter-
mined later by surveying.
The setting of a directional wedge (Fig. 7.12) is much more difficult
and requires considerable skill on the part of the driller. The pro-
cedure is as follows. The hole is cemented and a wooden plug is set at
the point where the deflection is required. A drive wedge, fastened by
light copper rivets to a test shoe, is lowered down the hole on the end
of the rods and driven down on the wooden plug. A spike at the
bottom of the drive wedge locks it firmly into the wooden plug and
the force of pushing it home shears the copper rivets. The rods and
test shoe are withdrawn from the hole leaving the drive wedge in
position after allowing sufficient time for an acid etch tube or survey
instrument, contained in a compartment in the top of the test shoe, to
measure the actual attitude of the drive wedge. The wedge itself is
now joined to a wedge pilot shoe, which is rotated to the correct
position, so that the wedge will be set at the correct angle for the
required deflection when the wedge pilot shoe engages with the drive
wedge in the hole. The wedge is now lowered down the hole until it
slots into position on the drive wedge. H the whole operation has
been carried out correctly, drilling off the wedge should result in the
 DRILLING METHODS 351

oCld -+-+-__
boll Ie

wedoe
test
shoe

wedo·
pilot shoe
drive
wedoe

drive copper
wedoe rivets

wooden
pluO

cement

FIG.7.12. The various parts of a directional wedge. Left: set in the hole.
Right: drive wedge attached to the test shoe before placing in the hole.

desired deflection. Correcting a deviating drill hole with directional

wedges can be a laborious and expensive process as it is generally
found that the hole has to be wedged a number of times (Fig. 7.13) to
keep it on course. The cost of wedging and possibilities of success
have to be carefully weighed against the cost of drilling a new hole.
352 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

"--~,,~--------o

\
\.
\\
o

\~
\ 4th wedge
5th
\
6th wedge 352m
hole abandoned 362 m

o 60 120 m
~,------~,~------~,

606'5 m
FIG. 7.13. Example of directional wedges used to correct a deviating
diamond drill hole (after Walsham, 1967).
 DRILLING METHODS 353

Orientation of drill core

It is possible to obtain a considerable amount of structural in-
formation from diamond drilling, but it may be ambiguous if the true
orientation of the drill core is not known. In areas where there is good
exposure and structures are relatively simple, the orientation of
structures in the drill core can be deduced with little difficulty,
particularly when several holes have been drilled. In areas with poor
exposure and complex structures, however, it may prove impossible
to ascribe true orientations to structures such as bedding, foliation,
jointing, lineations, etc. intersected in drill holes.
A number of techniques for obtaining oriented core samples from
drill holes have been developed in various parts of the world. One of
the earliest methods was to obtain a wax impression of the end of a
stub of core at the bottom of the hole by pushing a string of rods
down the hole with a wax plug at the end. Knowing the orientation of
the rod string, it was a simple matter to recover the core stub by
drilling and then match it to the oriented wax impression. There are
many difficulties with this method, one of the biggest being that of
ensuring that the bottom of the hole is absolutely clean so that a
satisfactory wax impression can be obtained.
A relatively simple method that is quite commonly employed today
involves the use of an acid bottle. In this method an acid etch bottle
containing hydrofluoric acid is placed in the upper part of a core tube
which has a longitudinal line marked along its full length. The acid
bottle also has a longitudinal mark along its side and it is placed in the
core tube with its mark coinciding with the line on the core tube. The
acid bottle is firmly fixed in place and a short run of core 20-30 cm
long is drilled with the core barrel. The acid bottle is then left in the
hole for about half an hour for a clear etch to form and is then
withdrawn. Before the core is removed from the core tube a mark is
placed on it coinciding with the line on the core tube. The core is then
removed and a line drawn along its side with a marker pen. If the
operation has been carried out correctly, this line on the core will
correspond to the line on the core tube and hence the line on. the acid
bottle. The low point of the etch on the bottle is marked and its
clockwise angular displacement from the longitudinal line looking
down the hole is measured. This angular displacement is then trans-
ferred in the same sense to the core. This mark now lies in the
vertical plane in which the hole is inclined. The angular displacement
of the bottom of the points of structures such as bedding are then
measured from the bottom of the etch mark (Fig. 7.14). The hole is
then surveyed with a Tro-Pari or similar instrument which gives the
inclination of the hole and true azimuth of the bottom point of the
etch mark. This method assumes that the short length of core reco-
354 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

~'--_ line drown on core

corresponding with
line on core tube and
acid boltle

,.........,+-f~-- bedding trace

~-f--tL-- poSition of low pOint of etch mark

transferred from acid boltle

"'- = angle between bedding and core axis

~ = alll]ular displacement betweer' low point

of etch mark and low point of bedding

Y = angular displacement between reference

I in. and low poi"t of etch mark

FIG. 7.14. Orientation of structures in drill core.

vered has not rotated in the core tube during drilling and for this
reason swivel-type core barrels, in which the core tube is free and
does not spin as the outer barrel is rotated, must be used.
Another instrument for obtaining oriented core samples is the
Craelius core orienter made in Sweden (Roxstrom, 1961). This instru-
ment operates on the same principle as the wax impression method,
but achieves the result mechanically with six locator pins which
protrude from the end of the instrument. When core presses against a
central trigger piston extending beyond the locator pins, a spring
pushes the locator pins against the top end of the core and the pins
are pushed in by different amounts depending on the shape of the
upper rough end of the core. A ball bearing indentation mark on an
aluminium marker ring on the instrument indicates the lowest point in
the plane of inclination of the hole (equivalent to the high point of an
etch mark) and the recovered core can be oriented by matching its
upper end against the locator pins.
A number of ingenious instruments have been designed and cus-
 DRILLING METHODS 355

tom-built by different companies for their own specific needs. Al-

though they differ somewhat in detail, they all work on the principle
of placing an oriented mark or scratch on the core in the hole.
Once an oriented core sample has been recovered, the true orien-
tation of structures measured in the core can be determined. One way
of doing this is to use a two-circle goniometer for fixing the core in its
original orientation and measuring the orientation of structures
directly. It is not necessary to do this, however, and quick and
accurate determinations can be made using stereographic projections.
Let us consider an actual example of a drill hole inclined at - 60° to
50° from which an oriented core sample was obtained with bedding
intersected at 42° to the core axis and the low point of the bedding 59°
from the low point of the etch mark. The basic procedure (Fig. 7.15),
which assumes that the hole is vertical and then rotates it to its
correct inclination, is as follows:
1. Place a piece of tracing paper on a stereonet with a drawing pin
through the centre so that the paper can be rotated around the
centre point. Mark the north position (N). Measure off 50° for
the hole azimuth and mark this position (H). Measure off another
59° from H and mark this position (A).
2. Rotate the tracing paper so that A lies on an E-W diameter.
Measure 42° along the E-W diameter from the centre and trace
the great circle through the poles.
3. Rotate the tracing paper so that H lies on the E-W diameter.
Now move the hole 30° from the vertical position to its true
inclination (HI). The bedding intersection also has to be moved
through 30° in the same sense. This is done by moving a number
of points along the bedding plar;e great circle through 30° along
small circles as shown.
4. Rotate the tracing paper until the plotted points all lie on the
same great circle. Trace the great circle through the points. Mark
the end of the E-W diameter on the opposite side of the centre
to the trace of the great circle (B). Measure the number of
degrees from the end of the E-W diameter to the trace of the
great circle (39°). This is the true dip of the bedding.
5. Rotate the tracing paper so that N lies on north. The position of
B now gives the true direction of dip of the bedding (140°). Thus,
the beds dip at 39° to 140°.
A somewhat simpler procedure (Fig. 7.16) can be used by plotting
the poles to the bedding planes. The procedure is as follows:
1. Proceed as in the first step for the example above.
2. Rotate A to the E-W diameter and plot Al 42° from the equator.
3. Rotate H to the E-W diameter and plot HI 30° from the centre at
the correct position of the inclined hole. Also rotate Al 30° in the
same sense along a small circle to B I .
 I..H
N ~
~
!::::::: So 0

~,H 1t

~~o
\). o-l
',y trl
) n
A 2
.....
10
c:trl
til

(I)
:.., Z
(2) (3)
~
.....
~ Z
N~
H\ -'
~
~o ~
~
0
Z

(4) (5)

FIG. 7.15. Diagram showing how an equal area stereographic projection is used to determine true dip and strike of
bedding from an oriented core sample.
 N
~ "f
So. ~, ~1-
~;-S-
o_.BI
\ "f
i-::t:
• f L.._. e \~ ( • 300. H,
J
.l.

~ / ~ / ~
( 1) (2) (3) ~
F
t""
H Z
0
~~ a::
t!1
>oj
~, ~ :I:
'£ 0
• t;)
.; .~, CIl
rii ' 0
.. 39· •
.~,
}~ ( :)
.l.

(4) (5)

FIG. 7.16. Diagram showing how an equal area stereo graphic projection is used to determine true dip and strike of
bedding of an oriented core sample by plotting poles to the bedding planes. Yo)
VI
-l
358 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

4. Rotate so that Bl lies on the E-W diameter. Mark B on the

equator on the same side of the centre as B 1• Measure the
number of degrees from the centre to Bl (39°). This is the true
dip of the bedding.
5. Rotate N to north and read off the position of B on the equator
(140°). This is the direction of dip.
To practise the method the reader may wish to solve the following
problem.
An oriented core sample was retrieved from a borehole inclined at
-45° to 225°. H the bedding angle is 35° and the low point of the
bedding 70° from the low point of the etch mark, what is the true dip
of the beds? (The answer is 53° to 330°.)

Determining structures without oriented core

In the absence of oriented core, it is still possible to determine
structures if there are several drill holes with different orientations
and if the structures are consistent over distances greater than the
distances separating the boreholes. Let us consider an actual exam-
ple. A diamond drill hole Bl was drilled at an inclination of - 45° due
west and intersected bedding at 45° to the core axis. Two possible
solutions that come to mind immediately are that either the bedding is
horizontal or it is vertical. In fact, any dip from 0° to 90° is possible. A
second drill hole B2 was drilled at - 60° to 195° and intersected the
bedding at 25° to the core axis. Using the information from this
second hole it is possible to reduce the number of solutions to two
possibilities. The procedure shown in Fig. 7.17, using tracing paper
over a stereonet is as follows:
1. Mark the north point N and plot Bl at 45° from the centre on the
west side of the E-W diameter. Mark a point (B2) on the
circumference at 195°. Rotate the tracing paper so that the
azimuth of B2 lies on the E-W diameter and plot B2 30° toward
the azimuth mark.
2. Rotate the tracing paper until Bl and B2 lie on the same great
circle. Move both holes along small circles to the positions B;
and Bi on the principal diameter.
3. Rotate the tracing paper so that B; lies on the N-S diameter and
trace small circles at 45° from each pole. This traces the locus of
all possible positions of the poles to the bedding intersected in
the hole.
4. Rotate the tracing paper until Bi lies on the N-S diameter and
trace small circles at 65° from each pole to plot the locus of all
possible positions of the poles to the bedding intersected in the
hole. The intersection points, P and Q, give the two possible
solutions.
 ~

~~
r ~~ .. -- •..\- ~
.s. e,
z~ di.
t
/ ~,
/ -" ~ / ~ ./
if> (3)
~
t"'
(I) (2) t"'
....
Z
N 0
. ...
a:lCD ~ s::ttl
>-l
::I:
0
~~
t:l
/'...\ \ CIl
8'. -------- \
B,

(6)
(4) (5)
~
FIG. 7.17. Use of an equal area stereographic net to determine orientation of structures from several boreholes with VI
\0
different orientations.
360 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

5. The drill holes, BI and B2, now have to be restored to their

correct inclinations from the horizontal positions they were
rotated into in step 2. Rotate the tracing paper until BI and ~ lie
on a great circle as in step 1 and move B; and B2 along small
circles back to their correct inclinations. Points P and Q also
have to be rotated in the same sense and by the same amount
along small circles to QI and PI.
6. Rotate PI and QI to the E-W diameter in turn, mark the position
at the end of the E-W diameter on the opposite side to the
centre and measure the angular displacements from the centre.
This gives the two possible dips, 38° and 84°.
Now, a third hole B3 was drilled at -55° to 100° and intersected the
bedding at 26° to the core axis.
7. This hole B3 is paired with either of the first two and the
procedure described above is followed. When this is done it is
found that one of the points coincides with P giving the correct
solution. Thus, the beds dip at 38° to 159°.
In areas with poor exposure it can be very useful to drill at least
one hole with a different direction to the others to determine the true
orientation of structures such as bedding, foliation, joints or veins.
Sometimes two holes will give a unique solution, but it is generally
necessary to have data from three holes. It is not necessary that the
holes have different azimuths. In the example given, for instance, a
third hole drilled due west at -70° would have had a bedding inter-
section at 50° to the core axis to give the correct solution.
To practise the method the reader may wish to solve the following
problems.
1. A vertical drill hole intersected a number of quartz veins at 35°
to the core axis. A second hole inclined at -70° to 120° also inter-
sected the veins at 35° to the core axis. What is the dip and what are
the two possible dip directions of the veins? (The answer is 55° to 22°
or 55° to 216°.)
2. A hole angled at - 45° south intersected bedding at 30° to the
axis. A second hole angled at - 70° to the northwest intersected the
bedding at 31° to the core axis. What is the dip of the beds? (The
answer is 50° to 84° or 28° to 250°.) A third hole is drilled southwest at
- 65° and intersects the bedding at 57° to the core axis. Which is the
correct solution?

Core logging
Core logging forms an important aspect of an exploration geologist's
job, as diamond drilling is usually the final and most important stage
in the follow-up work to an exploration target. No special skills are
required other than the ability to make competent mineral and rock
 DRILLING METHODS 361

identifications. The core should always be examined in good light,

preferably natural light, though this may not always be possible. The
core boxes should be laid out in correct order and, if a lot of core is
being logged, it is best if the boxes are placed on trestles at a
convenient height. Core that has been correctly placed in the boxes
should run from left to right with the shallowest depth in the top
left-hand corner and the lowest depth in the bottom right-hand corner.
Small wooden blocks with the depth clearly written on with a
marker pen should be placed at the end of each drill run by the driller.
For logging the geologist will require a notebook or logging sheets, a
pen, a tape measure, a penknife, a clinometer or protractor and ruler
for measuring angles, dilute Hel if there are any carbonate rocks, and
possibly some test reagents (see following section). The core should
be clean and it is the job of the driller to ensure that the core has been
washed off before it is placed in the boxes. For easy identification of
rock types it is always best to look at wet core so a bucket of water
and paint brush or a watering can should be at hand during logging.
Besides noting lithologies and mineralization the geologist should
also note core recovery for each run and it is important to ensure that
the core has been placed in the boxes correctly and not 'stretched out'
to give the appearance of better recovery than has been achieved.
The percentage recovery can easily be determined by measuring each
run with a tape measure. For example, if there is 1·52 m of core in the
box within a run from 101·20 to 104·4 m, the recovery indicated is
54%. Any depths of interest should be interpolated if they fall within
a run of less than 100% core recovery. For instance, in the example
just quoted a lithological contact 56 cm from the 101·20 m marker
would be calculated at a depth of 102·24 m and not 101·76 m.
As a core sample is a small cylinder of rock it is possible to
misinterpret certain sedimentary or tectonic structures if the geologist
does not try to visualize the rock as it might appear in situ. All
structures such as bedding, foliation, joints, lineation, minor folds,
etc. should be noted and dips measured with respect to the core
wherever possible. There are two conventions for doing this: one
measures the dip with respect to the core axis and the other with
respect to the normal to the core. The core axis convention is the
more common, but it is important to specify which convention is
being used; if it is not specified, it is usually assumed to mean the
core axis. For example, bedding in a particular hole might be
measured as '300 to core axis' or '600 core normal'. Some workers
prefer the core normal convention, which is sometimes referred to as
the 'core dip', since it is equivalent to true dip in vertical holes.
In addition to going through the core centimetre by centimetre and
box by box, it is extremely important to layout in order all the boxes
362 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

for a particular hole, so that the geologist can obtain an overall view.
Very often major divisions that are not readily apparent if the core is
simply examined box by box can be seen when the entire hole is laid
out. In core logging it is important to break down the hole into a few
major units. In areas with a clearly defined stratigraphic sequence this
is generally straightforward, but even in new and unknown areas it is
usually possible to define major rock units. This is easiest in a
sedimentary succession, but major textural and compositional
changes can also be noted in igneous rocks. A core log is easier to
follow if it is broken up into a number of larger divisions. Nothing is
worse than looking at page after page of meticulous logging without
any breaks. The principle is illustrated below with a simple example
from the hypothetical Bahati prospect, but it should not be considered
as a good example of core logging as the descriptions are too brief
and no structural information is given.
Core Log 1 Core Log 2
0-5·3 m argillaceous limestone 0-32·4 m UPPER LIMESTONE
5'3-7-4m argillite FORMATION
7'4-10-0 m calcareous mudstone 0-5·3 m argillaceous limestone
10·0-11-1 m argillite 5·3-7·4m argillite
11-1-11· 5 m calcareous sandstone 7·4-10·0 m calcareous mudstone
11-5-12'5 m argillite 10·0-11·1 m argillite
12· 5-24·4 m argillaceous limestone 11·1-11· 5 m calcareous sandstone
24·4-26·8 m massive limestone 11·5-12·5m argillite
26·8-30·6 m argillaceous limestone 12·5-24·4 m argillaceous limestone
30·6-32·4 m calcareous mudstone 24·4-26·8 m massive limestone
32·4-50·1 m fine-grained sandstone 26·8-30·6 m argillaceous limestone
50·1-58·7 m argillaceous limestone 30·6-32·4 m calcareous mudstone
58·7-62·0 m calcareous mudstone 32·4-50·1 m BAHATI SANDSTONE
62·0-62·5 m siltstone FORMATION
62·5-64·9 m argillaceous limestone fine-grained
64·9-65·6 m argillite sandstone
65·6-66·0 m sandy limestone 50·1-73·2m LOWER LIMESTONE
66·0-68·1 m calcareous mudstone FORMATION
68·1-73·2 m argillaceous limestone 50·1-58·7 m argillaceous limestone
58·7-62·0 m calcareous mudstone
62·0-62·5 m siltstone
62·5-64·9 m argillaceous limestone
64·9-65·6 m argillite
65·6-66·0 m sandy limestone
66·0-68·1 m calcareous mudstone
68·1-73·2 m argillaceous limestone

Various forms have been designed for diamond drill core logging
and they may vary considerably depending on circumstances. For
 DRILLING METHODS 363

general purposes, it is useful to have a form that combines assay

results with the core description. It is also preferable to have a
separate column for mineralization as distinct from lithological des-
cription (Fig. 7.18). This does result in reduced space on the forms
unless they are very wide, but it shows clearly the mineralized
intervals which are of most interest. H mineralization is described
within the main body of the litholigical description, as is done on
some logging forms, it is not easy to abstract the mineralized intervals
from the core log. Therefore, if a separate column is not used for
describing mineralization, it is important to place the description of
mineralization on separate lines below the lithological description, as
shown below:

222·5-224·3 m Light-grey, hard massive dolomite with abundant

disseminated pyrite. Core rec. 100%.
224· 3-227·4 m White to brown, somewhat oxidized sandy dolomite.
Bedding indistinct. Core rec. 100%.
Mineralization: weakly disseminated bornite to
226·0 m becoming much richer from 226·0 to 227·4 m.

In addition to ordinary logging forms special ones have been

designed for computer plotting. This method is used more and more
widely today, but it is of most value on mines where one is dealing
with a narrow range of rock types and mineralization. For general
exploration work computer plotting is of dubious value, though it
should definitely be considered when an exploration target reaches
the status of a prospect and is being drilled off.
Another aspect of core logging that should be considered is geo-
technical logging which is the noting of features relating to rock
strength. This is not important in cases where a project is abandoned
after drilling a few holes, but in cases where a project reaches the
status of a prospect on which feasibility studies are undertaken, it is
extremely important as the geotechnical properties have a direct
bearing on the potential mining economics. There are cases of mines
which proved to be uneconomic largely owing to poor rock strength
which drastically affected the stability of stopes or pit walls; such
expensive mistakes might have been avoided had more attention been
paid to the geotechnical characteristics at the drilling stage. Geotech-
nical studies are part of the specialized field of engineering geology,
but the features to note in core logging are fairly simple and include
the following:
1. Core loss is a good guide to rock strength. Strong, competent
rocks tend to core well and soft, friable ones badly, though there
are exceptions.
 IoU
DIAMOND DRILL CORE LOG - SAMPLE RECORD i::
TOTAL LENGTH 2b5·Om. PROPERTY MWAMM'!.wl HOLE No ....M..:.u;W..,:3"--_ _ _ __

SURVEYS GRID REf IIOoE b("IrN CORE SIZE 16mlll. to Iblm. ""mill
collar .::1sl.... ~ DRillED By~&~e",o:!!:"'!!!in.L''--_ _ _ __
£Ohsrn
LOGGED BY 1)·6· 4,x.H·g:
.1i9-.. ~ ~ STARTED 5-5-15 fiNISHED !>-b-ls
&!5.... =1ir.... .l63° BEARING .45'1 0 "'Old'
ELEVATlON-,-"I2.::6~ItC.!m!!.-_ _ __

metres assays metres

from to LITHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION MINERALIZATION
sample
No 2'~ ~ tOn from to ree. rep.
;
g
ttl
CIl
0 2"'~ OVERBURDEN
0 4·3 rul-browll soil no Co~e
Z
ld .H?> ~l!llo",,-brO,"1n "pi~litic Laterite
s::
core rec. '+-'1%

DIAMOND DRI LL CORE LOG - SAMPLE RECORD ~

PROPERTY MWAMBA~\\I HOLE No~ PAGE "10 L
metres assays metres
sample
LITHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION MINERALIZATION % % %
from to No Cu
Pb Zn from to ree. rep.
LOWER. R.oAN
1'~t-1 22.2:5 BIa.cK Sh~le I
oI.a.rk:9n:~ fis~ile hi.9hly p:t~itic. sha.1e
SoIIIewhAt lea.ehed. 1lJ1t:i porous to 2.12.nt
o 0
6ecId.i~ vo.r'es mm bS to 15 to C~ /IlL.!>
FIG. 7.18. Example of part of a diamond drill log.
 DIAMOND DRILL CORE LOG - SAMPLE RECORD
PROPERTY MWM\e.A.~\:\\ HOlE No~ PAGE No~

metres !
assays metres
sample
from to LITHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION MINERALIZATION "10 "10 "10
No Cu Pb Zn from to ree. rep.
2.2.1·'t 25~·'t FOQ!;wQ.ll FOI"MQ.tion 5'" 2.·1.1 2.'11\'0 11>2:0 "0 "0
lll·'t 22.1% Somewh4t weo.the.red poroo&, poorlY Sorted d,i$!oVY\. chA.ltap~r'~ An4 511 2..2.1> ..2!>2:0 .1~"~·O \'0 \'0
coqglomerAt£ with ,gr4llite pebble$. ~ ~ la '1.. ch41coc.i.tc 518 .2:51 .2?>~·o ~!'Ij.·o \'0 "0
2.:tS. E. 2.35·;- hiif'';' trl4Mive, doJomiti( qllllf'b.ite$ with oliS$eW\. dw.Cop$i.t.e-VIeQi( 51q .n!! .UIj.·O l?>S·o \'0 "0 ~
t""
occo.siontll. dAtK,billtitr.-l"ich gro.nit.e cobble~. to 2.~"'. mod" qooci below 52.0 3·12 .1.Mj·o ..2 !>b' 0 1'0 \'0 t""
Core rec. \00'/0 2~W\. 52.1 .3"11 l!>b'o ;'~il'O \'0 1'0 Z
o
2M. If. 2.5~·'t Con,!lIOfllel"lI;te with a.buntJant d.uk biot~~h di$$eIY\. c.p,:j Mol rllA! 52.2. 4-·05 ~m·o .2.38'0 \'0 \'0 ~
,9r'Q1\lte -pebbles - 5e'let'a.l C4lcare()l}S born.te-qui~ rich in pI~s 5.t3 4-.1j.j l38'0 2.YJ·5 "5 '·5 ~
qlJClJ"l:tite 1A.~et"s up to SOcm thit.K.~t.!'l to 24-2.171. '1irtull.l!-l ~ 511f- 3'00 2.~'1·5 ,2/.j()·5 1'0 :I:
"0 o
CIIpflll<..1o° core (\Xis. I!In. ~C. 100% .2,lj.l-.2.itb weak 2.'+4.-25l 52.5 '·ll lItO· 5 ~'t2.·O '·5 1'5 o
(Il

- uncon:formil,Y - 52.b 0·11-2 l'+4.·o 2.'18'0 2.'0 2'0

a...~EMENT 52.1 1·2.2. 2.1te·o 2.50·5 2·5 2·5
.25~·'t 2.6.5'0 h4nt ~ canA poorI~jointed. Iw:o:ndic 528 0,"1 Z50·5 252.·5 Z·o 2·0
biotite, qrl1l\\'l:e

FIG.7.18.-contd.

\#l
0'1
VI
366 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

2. Drilling breaks per metre should be noted and natural breaks

(joints, bedding, faults) distinguished from drilling ones.
3. Planes of weakness, which include bedding planes, joints and
schistosity, should be recorded, giving the core angles. Orien-
tations are also important and, if true orientations are not
known, as is usually the case, orientations relative to one ano-
ther should be noted if possible.
4. Rock strength can be noted qualitatively using a scale that varies
from the extremes 'impressions can be made with a fingernail' to
'broken with difficulty with a hammer'.
5. Potential aquifers should also be noted using porosity and
fracture density as a rough guide.

Staining techniques
To assist with logging there are a number of staining techniques that
can be applied to drill core for the identification and differentiation of
various minerals. A common problem is to differentiate the various
carbonate minerals, particularly calcite and dolomite. These can be
roughly distinguished by the fact that calcite reacts readily with cold
dilute Ha whereas dolomite reacts only very slightly and slowly, but
there are two staining tests that are more diagnostic, one using
alizarin-S and the other potassium ferricyanide.
Carbonate test no. 1. Etch the surface to be tested for a few
minutes with dilute Ha. Then cover with cold reagent (0·1 g alizarin-
S in 100 ml 0·2% Ha) and leave to react for about 15 min. Any
carbonates present will take on the following stains:
calcite, aragonite, witherite-deep red
ankerite, ferroandolomite, strontianite, cerrusite-purple
dolomite, magnesite, siderite, smithsonite-unstained
Carbonate test no. 2. Combine equal parts of 2% HCI and 2%
potassium ferricyanide to form the test reagent. Immerse sample to
be tested in reagent for several minutes. Calcite and aragonite remain
unchanged, ankerite and ferroandolomite turn dark blue with cold
reagent and dolomite and siderite also turn dark blue, but only if the
solution is hot and it is left to react for up to 5 min.
There are also some useful tests for sulphides. An old test (Gaudin,
1935) to differentiate pentlandite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite
is as follows:
Dissolve 20 g chromic oxide in 100 ml H 20 and then top up to
250 ml with concentrated HC!. This mixture is then diluted 1: 2 with
H 20 and left to age for half an hour before use. Immerse the sample
in the test solution for 6 min at room temperature (20°C). Remove and
wash off with water, then with ethyl alcohol and finally with diethyl
 DRILLING METHODS 367

ether. Allow to dry and the following stains should result:

pentlandite-brilliant blue
pyrrhotite-dark bronze
chalcopyrite-brass yellow
pyrite-unchanged
The temperature and time of contact are important for this test.
A useful stain for sulphides in general is known as Mangula paint.
This is made up as follows:
Dissolve 40 g ammonium molybdate in 100 ml H 20. Allow to stand
for 2-3 h and add 20 g sodium pyrophosphate and dissolve. Any
ammonium molybdate that remains undissolved will dissolve readily
after addition of the phosphate. Pour into a polythene bottle and add
200 ml concentrated HO followed by titanium dioxide which is used
to give the white base. Up to 170 g titanium dioxide is recommended,
but less than this may be sufficient to form a satisfactory white
'paint'. The indicator is now ready and needs to be used within a few
hours of mixing. It is applied to the core or rock to be tested with a
paint brush and will quickly turn blue if any sulphides are present.
The test is useful for indicating the presence of fine-grained sulphides
which are not readily visible, e.g. chalcocite in a dark argillite.
Some tests specific for certain metals may also be used. In the case
of nickel the dimethyl-glyoxime test described in Chapter 2 is useful.
Drops of aqua regia are first placed on the surface of the sample to
be tested and then some drops of the DMG test solution are applied.
A red colour indicates nickel.
A useful test for secondary zinc minerals is as follows:
Dissolve 30 g potassium ferricyanide in 1000 ml H 20 (solution 1).
Dissolve 30 g oxalic acid in 995 ml 0·1 N HCI, add 5 ml N,N-
diethylaniline and shake well (solution 2). For field use mix equal
parts of solutions 1 and 2 to form test reagent. (The mixed solution
deteriorates over a week or two so only enough for a few days use
should be made up at a time.) When applied to the test sample any
secondary zinc minerals present will turn orange.

Sampling core
Two types of samples are commonly taken from drill core: chip
samples and split core samples. The more important are split core
samples which are taken for accurate evaluation work of definite
mineralized intervals. Before taking the samples, the geologist
examines the core and marks off the intervals to be sampled by
drawing a line along the core with a marker pen. When the intervals
have been selected, the core is split in half by using a diamond saw or
core splitter, which consists of a special press or hollow metal block
368 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

for holding a short length of core. A long chisel blade is pressed

against the core and struck with a hammer. H done correctly, the core
should break longitudinally into two equal pieces, though the break is
often uneven. H a diamond saw is available, it is preferable to a core
splitter as it results in a perfect 'split', but, as most core splitting is
done in the field, diamond saws are not commonly used. Once the
core is split the geologist selects the individual sample lengths, taking
care to note lithological boundaries and changes in grade and/or style
of mineralization. The lengths chosen should normally vary from 1 to
3 m, unless sampling a definite narrow vein or mineralized bed with
barren country rock on either side. Narrow sampling widths are
sometimes taken for promotional reasons of rather dubious ethics to
draw attention to a high grade. Assay tickets are made out and each
sample placed in a numbered sample bag. Figure 7.19 shows a typical
assay ticket which is usually placed in a book of 50 or 100 tickets and
is divided into three portions by two rows of perforations. The end
ticket is torn off and placed in the sample bag together with the
sample, the second ticket is torn off and placed in the core tray or box
with the split core that is retained for reference llnd the stub is left in
the book. The bags of split core are then dispatched to a laboratory
where they are crushed and a small split taken for analysis.
H there is a change in core size, it is important not to include both
core sizes within a single sample, i.e. the depth where the core size
changes should also mark the end of a sample. Assay results can be
assumed to be proportional to length and weighted averages can be
calculated for intervals spanning different core sizes, but samples for
assay should not be made up from different core sizes. This principle
can be illustrated by considering a simple example of changing from
BX (44 mm diameter) to AX (28 mm diameter) core. H a I-m sample
immediately above the core size change assays 4·4%Zn and a I-m
sample immediately below the size change assays 9·6% Zn, the

Remains in book Place in core troy Place in sample bog

No. 0901 No. 0901 No· 0901

Property _ _ _ __ Property _ _ _ __ ASsay for:
Hole No. _ __ Hole No. _ __
From _ _ to _ _ metres From _ _ to _ _ metres
Assay for _ _ _ __ Assay for _ _ _ __
Signed _ _ _ _ __ Signed _ _ _ _ __

FIG. 7.19. Typical assay ticket used in diamond drill core sampling.
 DRILLING METHODS 369

weighted average for the 2 m spanning the core size change is 7·0%.
If, on the other hand, a single 2-m sample was taken over the same
interval, the assay would produce a result of 5·9% Zn assuming the
same s.g. Owing to the smaller size of the AX core, it has been
under-represented in the total amount of material sent for assay. It is
important to be aware of this problem when making up composite
samples from existing sample material, e.g. using the coarse rejects of
split core samples to make up a large sample for metallurgical testing.
As an illustration, consider 25m of AX (28 mm) core averaging
lO'I%Zn, 35m of BX (44mm) core averaging 8·2%Zn and 15m of
NX (54 mm) core averaging 5·6% Zn, which are used to make up a
composite sample for metallurgical tests. The weighted average,
which represents the material in situ, gives 8·3%Zn, but when the
samples are bulked a representative portion would assay only
7·3%Zn.
Chip samples are taken for semi-quantitative purposes, usually as a
check against missing any mineralized intervals during logging or for
rock geochemistry studies. The procedure consists in breaking off a
small chip of core every 25-30 cm and making up composite samples
corresponding to lengths of 2-3 m. Some companies take chip sam-
ples from all drill cores as a matter of routine whether any mineral-
ization has been observed or not. This policy has much to commend it
since the cost of the geochemical analysis is so small in comparison to
the cost of drilling the hole, and it is a safeguard against missing any
mineralization which may be difficult to identify, such as secondary
zinc minerals in limestone or chalcocite in black argillite.

Drill sections
In any drilling job it is important to plot drill sections as the work
progresses so that a full three dimensional picture ~an be obtained.
Under the section on borehole surveying the method of plotting a drill
hole in section from survey data was given. Since drilling is usually
undertaken on an accurately surveyed grid, a series of sections is
drawn along various grid lines across the strike. Figure 7.20 gives an
example of a drill section across a stratiform copper deposit in
Zambia.
To enable a deposit to be visualized in three dimensions it is useful
to be able to show a number of sections together. One method of
doing this is to plot the drill sections on transparent plastic or glass
sheets which can be mounted in a wooden frame to produce a three
dimensional model of the deposit being drilled. Instead of producing
an actual three dimensional model, a three dimensional representation
can be made on a two dimensional drawing. A common method of
doing this is known as an isometric section. To plot an isometric
 ~

JOON I.OON SOON 600N 700N BOON

~

", \
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _BeN._2-1---=-=_BN6 ..... - - _ _ !N8 MWJ'~22 BNJO
o .... __ 0--: ~- = ~:- _ 0

1250
~
j
1200
Z

1150

1100
~~
1050

1000
MWAMB,t,SHI
SECTION ON llOOE
I
9S0

FIG. 7.20. Example of a drill section.

 DRILLING METHODS 371

FIG. 7.21. Example of some isometric drill sections through part of the
Mwambashi copper deposit on the Zambian Copperbelt.

section three rectilinear axes to represent two horizontal directions

and a vertical direction are drawn on the paper, usually at 60° to each
other and then all distances are plotted at true scale along the three
axes. Figure 7.21 gives an example of some isometric sections
through a deposit.

7.4 ROTARY DRILLING

Rotary drilling techniques are unequalled for drilling. through over-

burden and soft rocks. The rigs vary in size from truck-mounted
machines capable of a depth penetration of 600 m to extremely large
machines used in drilling oil-wells to depths of 6000 m and more. The
typical rotary bit used for most general work is shown in Fig. 7.22 and
is known as a tricone or roller rock bit. Before 1956, it was not
practical to drill hard rocks with such bits since the steel-toothed
roller rock bits in general use were not capable of drilling igneous or
372 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Bollom vrew

SIde vrew

FIG. 7.22. Sketch of roller rock bit used in rotary drilling.

hard metamorphic rocks and diamond coring or 'full-hole' bits had to

be used for penetrating hard rock formations. In more recent years,
however, tricone bits with tungsten carbide button inserts have
become available and it is possible for a rotary drill to penetrate
almost all rocks without resorting to diamond bits.
Rotary drills are capable of an extremely high rate of penetration in
soft rocks and the larger machines used in oil-well drilling can drill
over 100 mth, which is virtually as fast as the cuttings can be pumped
clear. In igneous rocks penetration with roller rock bits is very much
slower and may be as little as 1 mth. For this reason rotary drills used
in mineral exploration or water-well drilling are combined with
down-the-hole percussion drills. Such combination rigs are available
mounted on large trucks complete with compressor, hoisting tower,
automatic rod handling facilities, mud pump and all ancillary equip-
ment. These machines are very versatile and can drill holes quickly
through any type of formation by using roller rock bits for over-
burden and soft rocks and the percussion drill for hard formations.
Some of these rotary rigs are equipped for dual tube drilling which
gives extremely good results in overburden or fractured and cavern-
ous formations.
Roller rock bits are available in a wide range of sizes starting
from 2~ in (73·9 mm), but most commonly used sizes in mineral
exploration are from 41 in (108 mm) to 61 in (158·8 mm). Larger
sizes are used in oil-well drilling and may be up to 24 in
(609·6 mm), though somewhat smaller diameter holes are usually
drilled. The rods are normally 25 ft (7·62 m) in length, but in oil-well
drilling large derricks are able to handle rods four times this length.
Rotary drilling can be carried out at half the cost of diamond drilling
and in cases where core is not considered necessary, rotary drilling
has considerable merits in mineral exploration. It should also be noted
that diamond coring can be carried out with combination rotary rigs,
 DRILLING METHODS 373

but it is worthwhile only if short sections of the hole are to be cored.

A major disadvantage of rotary drills is their large size which makes
them totally unsuitable for drilling in remote locations. The much
smaller diamond drill rigs can be manoeuvred into very awkward sites
and can be easily slung beneath helicopters if necessary.

Sampling and logging

R,otary drill sampling is essentially a sludge sampling operation as
described earlier in this chapter, the only real problem being the large
volume of sample that is produced in a very short space of time so
that facilities have to be available for handling large amounts of
sludge. Since drilling muds are used, the samples collected will
consist of a mixture of drill cuttings and mud, and for logging the
sludge needs to be screened and washed to remove the drilling mud.
After screening, the mud can be recirculated for further use in
drilling. Roller rock bits drill by a crushing and breaking action so that
cuttings tend to be fairly coarse, but in rock formations such as soft
shales a considerable proportion of the sludge may be extremely fine
and not separable from the drilling mud. This may result in sampling
problems since contamination is unavoidable in such circumstances.
To assist with logging open holes a wide range of geophysical
techniques is available (see Chapter 6) and can be of great assistance
in identifying various rock formations and mineralized zones. In
addition to these older established methods, new techniques have
been developed which permit determination of metal content in situ.
One such method, developed by Scintrex Ltd in Canada and known
as Metalog@, makes use of the phenomenon of neutron activation (see
Chapter 4). Most of the common base metals can be determined and
the method has an advantage over a conventional assay in that the
metal content of a much larger volume of rock is determined in situ.
The equipment is very costly and is carried in the back of a specially
equipped pick-up truck so that it is not a practical method for most
exploration work. However, in the evaluation of a mineral deposit
where a large number of drill holes are put down, the technique has
considerable appeal. The cost saving in being able to drill open rotary
holes instead of diamond drill holes may more than offset the cost of
logging the holes by Metalog®.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Campbell, R. C. (1963). Borehole surveying and directional drilling, Quart.

Col. School Mines, 58(4), 185-193.
Cumming, J. D. and Wicklund, A. P. (1976). Diamond Drill Handbook, J. K.
Smit & Sons Ltd, Toronto, 541 pp.
374 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Gaudin, G. (1935). Staining minerals for easier identification in quantitative

mineragraphic problems, Econ. Geol., 30, 552-562.
Phillips, F. c. (1955). The Use of Stereographic Projection in Structural
Geology, Edward Arnold Ltd, London, 86 pp.
Roxstrom, E. (1961). A new core orientation device, Econ. Oeol., 56, 1310-
1313.
Smail, E. L. J. (1966). Diamond drilling at Llanharry iron ore mine, South
Wales, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 75, AI75-181.
Walsham, B. T. (1967). Exploration by diamond drilling for tin in west
Cornwall, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 76, A49-56.
Zimmer, P. W. (1963). Orientation of small diameter drill core. Quart. Col.
School Mines, 58(4), 67-82.
 CHAPTER 8

Surveying

Surveying is the science of measuring man-made and natural features

of an area of land and plotting these measurements to scale on a plan
or section. Geodetic surveying is the science of determining the shape
of the earth. It is the method used for surveying large areas such as
entire countries and it is the main framework in which other surveys
are located. Topographic surveying is the measurement and deter-
mination of physical features. Cadastral surveying is defined as
measuring, defining and recording boundaries of properties. Very
often topographic and cadastral surveys are carried out together.
Engineering surveying is the accurate measurement of small areas for
the purposes of constructing buildings, roads, railways and other
engineering structures. Very often engineering work involves survey-
ing in reverse, i.e. measurements have to be transferred from plans to
the ground. With the exception of geodetic surveying, which involves
spherical trigonometry, other types of surveying are based on simple
trigonometrical relationships involving the measurement of angles and
distances.

8.1 CHAINING

This is the simplest type of surveying and it is based purely on the

measurement of distances. The land chain or surveying chain is made
up of heavy gauge steel wire links each 20 cm long joined together in
standard lengths of 20, 30 or 50 m. At either end of the chain are
robust brass handles which enable the chain to be dragged along the
ground and to be pulled taut between measurement points. Plastic
tags are placed along the chain at intervals of I m with tags of a
different colour every 5 m so that distances less than the full length of
the chain can be measured with little difficulty. The length of a chain is
always measured between the outside edges of the handles.
375
376 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Field procedures
Chaining surveys are adequate for detailed surveys of small, rela-
tively open areas with little topographic relief. The basic method of a
chaining survey is to divide the area up into a series of triangles since
the triangle is a geometric figure which can be determined uniquely
simply from the measurement of its sides. This is done by selecting a
number of points which will form the apices of an interlocking
network of triangles within the area to be surveyed. These points
should be selected so that the triangles formed are as close to
equilateral triangles as is practically possible. Such triangles are
termed well conditioned triangles. The various points or stations
selected should be marked with ranging rods or pegs before the
survey commences. Ranging rods are wooden or metal poles 2-3 m
long, tipped with a steel point at one end and painted red and white in
alternate bands 0·5 m long. In ~ddition the approximate shape of the
triangle network being used should be sketched in the field notebook
and the stations correctly numbered or lettered. Ranging rods should
be placed on the stations between which measurements are being
made. This requires two people, a leading chainman and a follower.
Each carries a ranging rod and in addition the leading chainman
carries ten surveying arrows. These are straight lengths of heavy
steel wire about 50 cm long, sharpened at one end with a ring for
carrying at the other end. The leader pulls the chain out along the line
of measurement while the follower holds the handle of his end of the
chain against the survey station. When the chain is taut, the follower
signals the leader exactly onto line by sjghting along the ranging rods.
The chain is shaken to make sure it is absolutely straight and the
leader pushes an arrow into the ground against the outside edge of the
chain handle. Then, while the chain is on the ground, offset
measurements can be made to features of interest to either side of the
line. When this is complete, another chain length is measured in the
same manner as above, the leader places another arrow in the ground
to mark the chain length and the follower removes the other arrow
from the ground when the advance to the next chain length is made.
The purpose of the arrows is not only to mark the chain lengths, but
also to avoid any uncertainty in the number of chain lengths
measured. On completion of the measurement between two stations
the number of arrows carried by the follower will be equal to the
number of full chain lengths measured. Offsets are made at right
angles to the chain line and, if objects are fairly close (less than 6 or
7 m), the right angle can be estimated by eye. For larger offsets an
optical square is very useful. This is a simple device which contains a
pentagonal prism so that when it is held in the hand on a survey line a
ranging rod to the side of the line can be lined up so that its image in
 SURVEYING 377

the optical square coincides with that of a ranging rod sighted at the
far end of the survey line. When this occurs, the ranging rod to the
side of the line will be at right angles to the survey line at the point
where the optical square is held. In addition to offsets, detail to the
side of the chain line can be determined by measurements known as
ties. The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 8.1 and, as this is a type of
triangulation, points fixed by tie lines are very accurate. Field notes
and measurements are written in special surveying notebooks which
consist of good quality paper bound in hard, waterproof cloth covers.
The pages are 20 x 10 cm and are bound along the short side in the
same manner as a shorthand notebook. Two red lines about 15 mm apart
to represent the chain line are ruled down the centre of the page.
Bookings are always made from the bottom to the top. An example of a
survey is given in Figs. 8.2 and 8.3 which illustrate the method of
booking.
Although chaining surveys are usually carried out over areas where
the slope of the ground does not need to be taken into account, it is
sometimes necessary to chain up or down a fairly steep slope. When
this happens, corrections have to be applied for the slope since the
distance along the slope will be greater than the horizontal distance
which is the measurement plotted on a plan. The simplest method to
account for slope is known as 'stepping' the chain. This is done by
measuring the slope in a series of steps with the up-slope end of the
chain on the ground and the down-slope end above the ground so that
the chain is approximately horizontal. The point of measurement on
the ground on the down-slope side is then vertically below the end of
the chain and is located with a plumb bob or drop arrow (a surveying
arrow with a lead weight on the end). It will be appreciated that it is

chain line-

FIG. 8.1. The use of tie lines to locate detail to the side of a chain line.
 Vol
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FIG. 8.2. Example of booking a chaining survey.

 SURVEYING 379

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380 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

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382 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

not possible to step a full chain length and it is usually necessary to

step the chain in a series of lengths of 5-10 m. If too long a step is
made, errors due to sag in the chain may well be greater than the
error due to slope. It should also be appreciated that it is much easier
to step a chain downhill than uphill.
Long even slopes can be corrected for by measuring the angle of
slope with an instrument such as an Abney level. This simple instru-
ment consists of a sighting tube to which a graduated arc is attached.
A small bubble tube is mounted on and at right angles to an index arm
pivoted at the centre of the graduated arc. An inclined mirror moun-
ted in one half of the sighting tube enables the bubble to be seen at
the same time as a target being viewed. To determine a vertical angle
the target is sighted through the tube and the index arm turned left or
right by a milled knob until the bubble appears in the centre of view
and the knob is carefully adjusted until the target and bubble are
exactly in line with a horizontal sighting wire in the tube. The angle of
slope is then read from the graduated arc which is marked from 0 to
+90° and -900 and a vernier enables angles to be determined to 10'.
The principle of the Abney level is illustrated in Fig. 8.4 To make an
accurate measurement of slope it is normal practice for the observer
to use as a target a pole with a mark placed at the same height as the
observer's eye.
A number of problems are often encountered during chaining
surveys and solutions of two of the most common problems are given
here. One problem (Fig. 8.5) is chaining between two stations A and B
which are not intervisible owing to an intervening hill. A solution is

adjustment knob
I
bubble tube
/

FIG. 8.4. Principle of the Abney level.

 SURVEYING 383

c o

c..
Cit _____ ----00,
--------e;-.;------- .=..;:Da -
=== - --.....-~--- --
A B
FIG. 8.5. Method of ranging in a line between two points A and B which are
not intervisible.

for the leader to hold a ranging rod at point D\ and the follower at C\
such that C\ and A can be sighted from D\ and D\ and B sighted from
C\. Then the leader signals the follower from C\ to C 2 where he is in
line with D\ and A and the follower signals the leader from D\ to D2
where he is in line with C\ and B. C 2 and D2 are now closer to the
straight line between A and B than C\ and Dh but it is highly unlikely
that they will be on it exactly. To achieve this the process above is
repeated as many times as is necessary until both the leader and
follower find they no longer need to signal each other on to line.
When this happens, the two ranging rods will be on line between A
and B. Chaining of the line can now be carried out with the two
intervening ranging rods used as guides to keep on the true line.
Another problem is measuring across an obstruction such as a large
excavation or river or pond which is wider than a full chain length. A
procedure which can be used is illustrated in Fig. 8.6. The line being
chained is AB and the obstruction in this case is a river. Ranging rods
are placed at C and D so that they are both in line with A and B. Then
a right angle to AB is measured at C and a line chained to E. CE can
be any length but it is best to choose it roughly equal to the width of
the obstruction. Then a further distance EF is measured in line with
EC so that EF = EC. A right angle to FC is measured at F and a
ranging rod moved down the new line until a point G is reached which
is in line with E and D. Since triangle EFG is congruent with ECD,
the distance FG is equal to the unknown distance CD.
384 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

F
~------~~----~c

G A
FIG. 8.6. Method of chaining across a river wider than a full chain length.

~~ __________________--,E

FIG. 8.7. Method of plotting the basic framework of a chaining survey.

 SURVEYING 385

Plotting the survey

Before plotting the survey, it is necessary to select a suitable scale.
This will depend upon the amount of detail measured, but for most
chaining surveys a scale between 1/200 and 1/2500 is usually used.
Plotting should be done on good quality paper or permatrace to avoid
shrinkage. Before starting the accurate plot, it is a good idea to sketch
the framework of the survey to make sure it is orientated so that it
will fit on the paper properly. 4H pencils can be used for lightly
drawing in the chain lines and 2H pencils for plotting detail. The final
plot should be drawn with India ink. Figure. 8.7 shows how the basic
framework of chain lines is drawn using a compass to arc off the
respective lengths of the different lines to locate the station positions
at arc intersections. In the example given EF is scaled off accurately
and all other station positions found at arc intersections. It is then a
simple matter to plot detail from the field notes. As a check to
plotting, it is always useful to measure a check line in the field across
the survey area. In the example given (Fig. 8.3) a useful check line
might have been AE or CF.

8.2 COMPASS AND TAPE SURVEYS

The compass and tape survey is probably the method of surveying

most commonly used by exploration geologists for surveying small
areas in detail. If carried out carefully, compass and tape surveys are
suitable for quite accurate work. The only restriction is that they
cannot be undertaken in areas with strongly magnetic rocks and
consequent magnetic disturbance. In some parts of the world the
remanent magnetization of rocks is so strong and variable that a
magnetic compass is quite useless. These areas are exceptional,
however, and compass and tape surveys can be carried out in most
regions.
Many different types of compasses are available, but the most
suitable for geological work are the standard military prismatic com-
pass, the Brunton compass, the Swedish Silva compass and the Swiss
Meridian compass. The Silva compass is not particularly suited to
surveying, but it is excellent for geological mapping. It was designed
for the Scandinavian sport of orienteering and the compass is mounted
on a clear perspex plate in such a way that it can be used for
measuring and plotting bearings on a map. It is oil damped and very
quick to read, it can be adjusted for declination to give true bearings
and can be supplied with a built-in clinometer which is essential for
geological work. The Brunton compass is excellent for geological
mapping as it incorporates an accurate clinometer and it is good for
386 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

surveying. Its main disadvantage for survey work is that some people
find it difficult to obtain steady readings when hand held. It can be
mounted on a small tripod and, when so used, is probably the best
compass for the most accurate work. The standard military prismatic
compass is the best for ordinary survey work as it is very easy to
sight and read accurately. Its main disadvantages are that it cannot be
adjusted for declination and it does not have a clinometer. The Swiss
Meridian compass, which is also a type of prismatic, is useful in this
respect as it incorporates a clinometer, but it is not as robust as the
ordinary military prismatic. Whichever compass is chosen, it is im-
portant to ensure that it is adjusted for the latitude range in which it
is being used. The Brunton compass has a small copper weight on the
needle which can be adjusted so that the needle remains horizontal
whatever the latitude, north or south. The standard prismatic and
Silva compasses, however, are sealed and cannot be adjusted. Thus, it
is important to ensure that the region of the world in which they are
to be used is stipulated to the makers when ordering a compass. For
example, the compass card or needle of a compass set for a high
latitude in the northern hemisphere will tilt off the horizontal when
used in the southern hemisphere. In many instances this can be
tolerated, but, if the tilt is too pronounced, it will prove impossible to
obtain reliable bearings.
To undertake a survey a number of ranging rods are required in
addition to a good compass and surveying tape. A second tape is also
useful for tying in detail to either side to the line. The normal type of
surveying is a traverse which should be closed on the starting point or
an accurately fixed survey point such as a triangulation station.
Compass readings should be taken with the observer standing over
the survey station and a bearing taken by sighting on a ranging rod at
the second station. As a check for magnetic deviations or errors in
reading, back bearings should always be taken. The best bearing for
the line can then be taken as the mean of the forward and back
bearings. If slopes are more than a few degrees, an Abney level
should be used to measure vertical angles so that slope corrections
can be made. Detail close to either side of the line can be measured
with offsets as in a chaining survey, but for more distant features a tie
line with a compass bearing should be used. Figure 8.8 gives an
example of how a survey should be booked. An ordinary notebook
can be used, but a booking form such as that shown in the above
example is a good idea.

Plotting tbe survey

The normal compass and tape survey can be plotted using a scale and
protractor, since angles can be measured with a protractor as ac-
 SURVEYING 387

Project _ _ _ _ __ Areo _ _ _ _ __ Oote _ _ _ __

From _ _ _ _ _ _ To, _ _ _ _ __ Surveyor _ _ _ _ _ __

Compall No. _ _ __ Tape No. _ _ Error _ __

MOlInetic Taping
Slope Detail on Left and Detail on RiQht
Bearing stations

1~· tv @
A :1.15/10 ~ ol(/'
~f
'?o )fros~i"
~ pit
+;;1.." ~~~ ~~~
.2.00

~olc/. ~t
m.j~5 b/soU L5 .. ~
~l.l.
piiC
('
\..J
~ 1\-'3t1'1

J%/{,D r--
».,." 33qo j
old. pit
1·S '"
d.Bf
io '" d.e.e.p
wJotDl
~Ja.5 ir",~ r"'~,

'I {~
'---1 110/10 ~
/ Af't4 . 3\1
t3"
(.S~'b.i~~
tW.cf'O(' "fprD'L.
\00 5/50 ~S
~~1Il, ~ ~ Ij-rn
5~lj... str. ~I SO 6J\ So"'" q~ ~ :( I<lik
"ei>lJ~~t, 5tr.~~
d,i'~ 35°£
~~ ~ tN.JJ. oP ~ 1
old b:c,,""~ .... ."
~'" Nt{' - SIJ!
tG "rVl q'b.11...bbl£
olc/. ("l :J..1'" /(,,15'
4f
pit /
.....
5", 4«(' - wutller.,[ •
n\ lC" ~Jt. st!'". oltlO
.L:p
:1.5%° to
6
+:J.:
Lfo·£
®
FIG . 8.8.. Method of booking a compass and tape survey.

curately as they can be read with a compass. If the survey is a closed

traverse, as it normally should be, it will be found that there is an
error of closure when the traverse is plotted and it is necessary to
correct for this. Let us consider the following example of a simple
compass traverse:
388 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Line Length (m) Forward bearing Back bearing

AB 82 56° 238°
BC 74 331° 151°
CD 91 282° 106°
DE 100 172° 356°
EA 45 130° 310°
392

It will be seen from this that there is a discrepancy in forward and

back bearings for lines AB, CD, and DE. For line AB this discrepancy
is 2° and we can take the mean bearing of 57° for plotting this line.
The discrepancy for lines CD and DE is 4° in both cases and it
suggests that there is probably a disturbance with the magnetic
reading at D since the forward and back bearings of both BC and EA
agree. Instead of taking the mean in this case we will discard the
readings taken at D and only use the forward bearing for line CD and the
back bearing for line DE. Figure 8.9 shows the resulting plot and it
can be seen that there is an error of closure A' A of 13 m. This is
rather an extreme error for such a short traverse, but it serves to
illustrate a method of correction. For the traverse to close At has to
move 13 m to A along a bearing of 76°. It is assumed that the error is
cumulative and therefore each station has to be corrected in turn. All
the corrected points will be moved in the same direction (i.e. 76°) with
a gradually increasing correction, smallest at B and greatest at At (i.e.
13 m). The best method of apportioning the error of a compass
traverse is known as Bowditch's rule which states that the amount of
correction for each side is equal to the total correction times the
length of that side divided by the total traverse length. In the
example given the required corrections become:

82
392 x 13 = 2·72 for B

;9~ x 13 = 2·45 5·17 for C

9t
392 x 13 = 3·02 8·19 for D

~~X13=3.32 It·5tforE

3~2 x 13 = 1·49 13·00 for A'

The corrected traverse is shown in Fig. 8.9.

 SURVEYING 389

\t \
\

10
!
20
!
30
,
40
,
50m
!

~A closure error
- - '- - corrected traverse
- - - - - uncorrected traverse
FIG. 8.9. Plot of the compass traverse given in the text.

8.3 DETERMINATION OF ELEVATION

The elevation of a point is defined as its vertical distance above or

below a datum surface. For international comparison of elevations
the datum surface adopted is mean sea level. For small restricted
areas an arbitrary datum plane may be used.
There are three main methods for determining heights or elevations:
(1) levelling, (2) measurement of vertical angles and (3) barometric
heighting.

Levelling
This method is based on determining a horizontal reference line or
series of lines and comparing vertical departures of points of un-
390 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

known elevation from them. The instrument for doing this is known as a
level and consists essentially of a sensitive bubble tube attached to a
telescope. The level is mounted on a tripod and has three levelling
screws for adjusting the telescope to a precise horizontal position. Once
adjusted, the telescope can be rotated on a horizontal circle so that
readings can be taken in any azimuth. In addition the more accurate
levels have a fine setting screw near the eyepiece for tilting the
telescope. With this arrangement the bubble can be centred precisely for
each reading. Instruments for very precise work contain optical
micrometers which enable readings to be estimated to hundredths of a
millimetre. For less precise work self-levelling or automatic levels are
available. These usually have a bull's-eye level for quick and ap-
proximate levelling on the tripod head and a pendulum compensator in
the instrument automatically ensures that the line of sight is horizontal
without further adjustment. These instruments are particularly suited to
engineering surveys and generally contain stadia hairs for tacheometric
measurement of distance in addition to a horizontal circle which can be
read to a tenth of a degree.
To carry out a levelling survey the level is set up near a point of
known elevation, for example an Ordnance Survey bench mark, a
levelling staff is held absolutely vertical by an assistant on the known
point and the observer reads the point on the staff intersected by the
horizontal cross hair in the telescope. Levelling staffs are usually
made of mahogany or aluminium alloy and are telescopic to facilitate
transport. With the telescopic extensions fully extended they are
4-5 m long. Figures and 10 mm graduations are clearly marked in red
and black for alternate metres on a white background. Some staffs
have bulls-eye levels mounted on them to ensure that they are held
vertically for accurate readings. In addition staffs for very precise
work have figures and 5 mm graduations marked on an invar strip.
Once the first reading, known as the backsight, has been taken and
booked, the telescope can be swung around on its horizontal circle
and readings taken to points of unknown elevations (intermediate
sights). It will be appreciated that these intermediate sights are
restricted to an upper elevation range equal to the height of the
instrument above the ground and a lower elevation range equal to the
total staff length less the instrument height above the ground. To
accommodate other points outside this range the instrument must be
moved to a more advantageous site. This is done by taking a last
reading known as a foresight near the extreme of the elevation or
sighting range and moving the instrument to a new site where the
foresight point is re-read as a new backsight and the whole process is
repeated. The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 8.10. If there is a big rise
or fall in elevation between points being levelled, it may be necessary
 Intermediate SiOht
2nd Foresioht

1st Foresioht
2nd Backsioht
1·25

Vl
1st Backsioht
c::
~
Intermediate SiOht <:
~
Z
11•55 ~ 1.8111 0'18 1 o

O.S. bench mark

252·37

FIG. 8.10. Method of using a level to determine elevations (see Table 8.1).

.....
10
-
392 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

to make a number of backsight and foresight observations before the

required points can be levelled.
There are two methods of booking a levelling survey, the rise and
fall method and the height of collimation method. These are shown in
Table 8.1 for the example in Fig. 8.10. In the height of collimation
method the first backsight reading is added to the reduced level to
give the height of collimation or line of sight. All reduced levels for
intermediate sights are obtained by subtracting the staff readings from
the height of collimation. This is also done for the foresight. When the
new backsight is taken, a new height of collimation is obtained and the

TABLE 8.1
TWO METHODS OF BOOKING A LEVELLING SURVEY. THE EXAMPLE IS
ILLUSTRATED IN FIG. 8.10

Constant Height of Collimation

Height of Intermediate Reduced
Station collimation Backsight sight Foresight level

OS
bench 253·92 1.55 252·37
mark
No.1 1·81 252·11
No.2 0.18 253·74
256·20 2·46
No.3 0·97 255·23
1·25 254·95

Rise and Fall

Intermediate Reduced
Station Backsight sight Foresight Rise Fall level

OS
bench 1·55 252·37
mark
No.1 1-81 0·26 252·11
No.2 0·18 1·37 253·74
2·46
No.3 0·97 1·49 255.23
1·25 1·21 254·95
 SURVEYING 393

procedure is repeated. In the rise and fall method differences between

the backsight and intermediate and foresight readings are determined.
If the backsight reading is greater, the difference is booked as a rise
and, if the backsight reading is smaller, the difference is booked as a fall.
The reduced levels of the intermediate sights and foresight are then
obtained by adding a rise and subtracting a fall from the reduced level of
the backsight. In both methods booking errors can be checked since the
difference between the sum ofthe backsights and sum of the foresights
should be equal to the difference between the reduced levels of the first
backsight and last foresight.
For accurate work a levelling traverse should be closed, either to
the starting point or to another precisely levelled point such as an
Ordnance Survey bench mark. There are a number of sources of
error in levelling and these include: inaccurate staff readings, instru-
ment out of adjustment, instrument not precisely level and staff not
vertical. Most errors can be minimized by ensuring a high standard of
field work. Errors in reading the staff can be eliminated by practice
and by keeping sight lengths short. The clarity with which the staff can
be seen depends upon the telescope, but with most instruments
readings can be estimated reliably to 2 mm at a distance of 60 m. The
accuracy with which the instrument is levelled depends upon the
instrument being correctly aligned and on the sensitivity of the bubble
and accuracy with which it can be centred. This is largely governed
by the quality of the instrument, but it should be possible to keep the
error within ± 5 mm/km fot most instruments.
Other errors in levelling are caused by the curvature of the earth
and by refraction of light rays in the atmosphere. Consider two points
A and B in Fig. 8.11 at the same elevation on the earth. A level with

"
\(adiUS of the ea~
:::0

FIG.8.11. Diagram to show how levelling errors are caused by the curvature
of the earth.
394 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

instrument height h at A should give a staff reading of h at B, but

owing to the curvature of the earth, the line of sight, which is
tangential, will give a reading of h + Y (an error) at B. Thus the
reduced level of B will be calculated lower than its true elevation. If
R is the radius of the earth and the distance AB is c (the arc distance
on the ground can be taken as equal to the sighting distance), then
c 2+R2= (R + y)2
2Ry = c 2+ y2
Since y is very small, y2 will be even smaller and compared to c 2 can
be considered negligible. Therefore, the error due to the curvature of
the earth is given by:
c2
y=- (S.l)
2R
Owing to refraction in the atmosphere light rays tend to curve
downwards towards the earth and this has the effect of reducing the
curvature error. The refraction error is given by:
kc 2 (S.2)
R
where k is a coefficient of refraction and varies from 0·055 to O·OS1. A
value of 0·068 can be adopted for general use, but values of k can be
computed for any area by taking reciprocal readings from known
stations. The combined curvature and refraction error is:
c 2 (1-2k)
y=R 2 (S.3)

For most general purposes this may be expressed as:

y = O·06Sd 2 metres (8.5)
where d is the line of sight in kilometres. From this it can be seen that
a line of sight of 120 m results in an error of 1 mm. These formulae
can be used to make corrections for curvature of the earth and
refraction, but in levelling it is normal practice to keep lines of sight
shorter than 100 m to avoid any errors. In any case precise staff
readings can not be made at sight lengths over 100 m.
Recently electronic levels have been developed to determine
automatically accurate elevations over a small area. The instrumen-
tation works on the principle of measuring pressure differences in a
long, narrow, flexible, liquid-filled plastic tube. Electronic signals
from sensitive transducers at either end of the tube indicate the
degree of pressure difference which is related to the height difference
between the ends of the tube. A sensor head is attached to one end of
 SURVEYING 395

the tube and the meter with the measuring circuitry and digital display
is attached to the other end. To operate the equipment the sensor and
instrument are placed at a point of known elevation and the reading is
set to the correct value. With the sensor left at the known point the
instrument can be carried about automatically displaying the ele-
vations of unknown points on which it is placed. The density of the
liquid and hence pressure differences vary with temperature, but the
instrument is designed to correct automatically for this variation. The
instrumentation can detect elevation differences as small as 3 mm, but
its overall accuracy is somewhat less than this. The equipment is
unlikely to replace conventional levels for really precise work and its
principal use at present is probably in detailed gravity surveys where
there is a distinct advantage in being able to determine elevations
accurately at the same time as the gravity readings are being taken.

Measurement of vertical angles

If the horizontal distance between two points is known, the elevation
of one of them relative to the other can be determined by measuring
the vertical angle between the horizontal and a line of sight between
the two points. The instrument required for this is known as a
theodolite (see Section 8.6). Figure 8.12 shows a theodolite with
instrument height h set up at a point A to measure a vertical angle to
a fiag on a hill at point C. If AB is the horizontal distance between A
and C, a the vertical angle, h' the height of the fiag and H the
elevation of A, then the elevation of C is given by:
H+AB tan a+h-h' (8.6)

!,
c
1
I
1
1
1 y
1
1
1
1
1
__________11
I
1
1

--~~============~c~-~-~-~--~-~-~-~-~-~-~-=--~1
A B

FIG. 8.12. Theodolite set up at A to measure the elevation of C knowing the

horizontal distance AB between A and C.
396 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

If the theodolite is on the hill at C with elevation H and the vertical

angle negative, the elevation of A is given by:
H - AB tan a - h + h' (8.7)
Since determination of elevation by measuring vertical angles
generally involves much greater distances than normal level sights,
corrections for refraction and curvature of the earth (formula 8.5)
should be made for accurate work. Let us consider an example with
the following data:
a = + 10° 35' 20"
AB = 10359m
h = 1·54 m
h' = 6·20m
H = 152·31 m
then,
152·31 + 10359 x tan(10° 35' 20") + 1·54 - 6·20 = 2084·2 m
U sing formula 8.5 the correction for refraction and curvature of the
earth becomes:
y = 0·068(10·359)2 = 7·30 m
Thus, the corrected elevation of C is 2091·5 m.
In the examples given above the horizontal distance is known as
would be the case between points fixed by triangulation. Often, as in
theodolite travefse work, it is the slope distance that is measured. In
this case the elevation of a higher point (Fig. 8.13) is given by:

,8
I y
I
I
I
I
--- ------- --I

I
I
I
I
____________________ J
-l..1...-'C--"""'=
I
A
FIG. 8.13. Theodolite set up at A to measure the elevation of B knowing the
slope distance AB.
 SURVEYING 397

H + AB sin a + h - h' (8.8)

and the elevation of a lower point is given by:
H - AB sin a - h + h' (8.9)
Note that in the formulae given the slope distance is assumed to be
the same as the sighting distance. This is only true if the instrument
and target heights are the same. If they are not equal, a small
correction should be applied. However, this is so small in all but
extreme cases that it can be ignored.

Barometric heighting
Elevations can be measured with a barometer or altimeter by virtue
of the fact that atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Assum-
ing an isothermal atmosphere it can be shown from Boyle's and
Charles's laws and a consideration of the equilibrium of a column of
air under the action of gravity that:
h 2 - hI = K loge PI
P2
where P2 is the atmospheric pressure at elevation h2' PI the atmos-
pheric pressure at elevation hI and K a constant depending on the
Gas Constant, the absolute temperature and the value of the ac-
celeration due to gravity. At O°C (273 K) the following general formula
can be used:
PI
h2 - hI = 42 221 I oge-
P2
or
(8.10)

As the constant in formula 8.10 is dependent on the value of the

acceleration due to gravity, it will vary with latitude and altitude. At
sea level and O°C it varies from 18385 at the equator to 18292 at the
poles. A correction for temperature needs to be applied and, if 8m is
the mean absolute temperature between stations at hI and h2' the
temperature correction is given by multiplying formula 8.10 by 8m/273
or:
( l+tl+t2) (8.1l)
546

where tl and t2 are the temperatures at hI and h2 in degrees Centigrade.

The above formulae are based on the assumption of an isothermal
atmosphere which is not strictly correct since temperature decreases
with altitude in the troposphere (the first 10 km of the atmosphere)
398 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

until it stabilizes in the stratosphere (above 10 km) at about - 40°C.

This fall in temperature, known as the lapse-rate, is about
6·5°C/1000 m. An analysis of this has been made by various workers
and a series of formulae derived which relate to a 'standard atmos-
phere'. Figure 8.14 shows the relationship between pressure and
temperature as applied to a 'standard atmosphere' at a latitude of 45°
and with a temperature of '\5°C and a pressure of 760 mm of mercury
at sea level. The pressure values vary slightly with the value of the
acceleration due to gravity and hence latitude. Atmospheric pressure
is measured in Newtons per square metre (N/m 2) or millibars (mb) or
millimetres of mercury (mm Hg).
1·333 mb = 1 mm Hg
100 N/m2 = 1 mb
The classical mercury barometer is not used in survey work as it is
too awkward and delicate to transport in the field. Rather aneroid
barometers are used which are calibrated directly in feet or metres
derived from a formula similar to 8.10, so that direct pressure
measurements are not made. The better instruments can be read to
1 m or slightly less. When taking readings humidity corrections are
necessary in addition to temperature corrections, as the theoretical

15 750

10 700

!;
.
~
co
co

•5
E 650 ~.

'" "
~ ~
~ 0 Temperature lap.e-rate 600 ~
!.,. ..
il

~-5 550 !l.

.: ~
!! g

·•
Pressure curve
~"10 500 ~
a.
E
.... -15 450

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Altitude in metres

FIG. 8.14. Relationship between pressure and temperature of a 'standard

atmosphere' at a latitude of 45° with a temperature of 15°C and a pressure of
760 mm Hg at sea level.
 SURVEYING 399

considerations are based on dry air. Correction tables or charts for

both temperature and humidity are usually supplied with the various
available instruments by the makers. Although the altimeters used for
survey work give direct readings of elevation, it is not feasible to take
isolated spot readings as this does not take into account pressure
variations due to weather changes in the troposphere (tropos is Greek
for 'to turn'). Although weather changes may be highly irregular, they
often follow a diurnal pattern with a steady decrease in atmospheric
pressure during the morning followed by an increase towards night-
fall. The mornings are generally the best time for surveys. The errors
caused by weather changes may put readings out by 30 m or more!
There are three basic methods used to overcome this: (i) one-base
method, (ii) two-base method and (iii) 'leap-frogging'.

One-base method
With this method two instruments are required, a base instrument and a
field instrument. A base station is selected in the survey area at a point of
known elevation roughly in the middle of the elevation range being
surveyed. Both instruments are read at the base at the start of the survey
and the readings compared. It is generally found that the readings are
slightly different. This difference is noted as a plus or minus amount
necessary to make the field instrument's reading the same as the base
instrument's. This is known as indexing. Then an observer at the base
reads his instrument every 15 min or so, noting the time and making the
necessary temperature and humidity corrections (makers generally
supply a hygrometer for this). The second observer moves around the
area taking readings, noting the time of each reading and making
temperature and humidity corrections. At the completion of the circuit,
the field observer returns to the base and readings are compared again.
Since weather changes can be very localized, reading the field instru-
ment outside a 5-10 km radius of the base is not recommended for
accurate work. The variations in the base instrument readings with time
are then used to make corrections to the various field readings. An
example of some typical survey readings is given below assuming
corrections have been made for temperature and humidity.

Indexing at base with elevation 270 m:

Base instrument: 273 m

Field instrument: 275 m

The base instrument correction is 270 - 273 = - 3 m

The field instrument correction is 270 - 275 = - 5 m
400 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Base Instrument Field Instrument

Time Reading Time variation Time Reading Station
7:45 273 8:00 257 1
8:00 274 +1 8:20 263 2
8:15 276 +3 8:35 242 3
8:30 275 +2 8:50 286 4
8:45 273 9:10 292 5
9:00 272 -1
9:15 271 -2
Then the correct elevation at each station is given by:
·
fi eld read109 field instrument correction for time
+.10dex correctIon
. + variatIon
.. at b ase

Station 1: 257 - 5 - 1 = 251 m

Station 2: 263 - 5 - 3 = 255 m
Station 3: 242 - 5 - 2 = 235 m
Station 4: 286 - 5 + 0 = 281 m
Station 5: 292 - 5 + 2 = 289 m

Two-base method
This method was designed to obviate the need to make humidity and
temperature corrections. While this is not strictly valid, the errors are
very small provided that the elevation range is not more than 500 or
600 m. With this method two bases are established, one near the top end
of the elevation range being surveyed and the other at the bottom end.
Before commencing the survey all three instruments are indexed at one
of the bases and any discrepancies noted. Readings at both bases are
then plotted against time and the times of the various field readings
noted as in the case of the one-base method. An example of some typical
survey readings is given below:
High base elevation: 563 m
Low base elevation: 186 m
Indexing at low base:
Low base instrument: 185 m
High base instrument: 185 m
Field instrument: 184 m
Thus, low base correction: + 1
high base correction: + 1
field correction: + 2
 SURVEYING 401

Low Base High Base Field

Readings Readings Readings
7:30 185 7:30 564 7:45 231 No.1
7:45 186 7:45 564 8:05 342 No.2
8:00 186 8:00 565 8:35 407 No.3
8:15 187 8:15 565 8:55 482 No.4
8:30 188 8:30 566 9:10 501 No.5
8:45 189 8:45 566 9:31 3% No.6
9:00 189 9:00 566
9:15 188 9:15 567
9:30 188 9:30 567
Then the correct elevation at each station is given by:
h = hL + dH rF - rL (8.12)
rH- rL
where hL is the true elevation of the lower base, dH the height
difference between the low and high bases, rF the field reading, rL the
low base reading and rH the high base reading, all made at, or adjusted
to, the same time.
· 233 -187
StatIon 1: 186 + 377 x 565 -187 = 231 m
· 344-187
Station 2: 186 + 377 x 566 _ 187 = 342 m
· 409-189
Station 3: 186 + 377 x 567 _ 189 = 405 m
· 484-190
Station 4: 186 + 377 x 567 _ 190 = 480 m
· 503 -189
Station 5: 186 + 377 x 568 _ 189 = 498 m
· 398-189
StatIOn 6: 186 + 377 x 568 _ 189 = 394 m

'Leap-jrogging'method
Since both the one- and two-base methods require the use of more than
one instrument and observer (unless self-recording base instruments are
used), this method can be used for less precise work if only one
instrument is available. A reading is taken at a point of known elevation
(station 1) and then the observer moves quickly to station 2, takes a
reading and returns quickly to station 1 to note if there is any change in
reading. If so, a correction is applied to the reading at station 2. Then the
observer moves to station 3, takes a reading and quickly returns to
402 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

station 2 to note if there has been any change. The observer then moves
to station 4 and the operation is repeated by always checking against the
previously occupied station. At the end of the traverse it is good practice
to tie in to another point of known elevation. An example of some
readings corrected for humidity and temperature is given below:
Station 1 (known elevation): 278 m
Readings Stations
277 1
256 2
277 1
311 3
257 2
228 4
313 3
269 5
227 4
Thus, the corrected readings are:
Station 1 278m
Station 2 257m
Station 3 311 m
Station 4 227m
Station 5 271 m

8.4 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Plane tabling is probably the method of surveying most widely used

by geologists. It is unique among surveying techniques in that a map
is prepared directly in the field as the survey progresses without
measuring angles and without calculations (unless determining ele-
vations and making tacheometric measurements of distance). It can
be used for both large and small scale surveys, though its importance
has greatly diminished with the general availability of aerial photo-
graphs. It is still a useful technique, however, for detailed surveys
of small areas. The basic equipment is very simple and consists of a
drawing board which can be fitted to a robust tripod, a spirit level for
levelling the board, a plumbing fork, which permits a plumb bob to
hang below the table directly under any point on the drawing, a
compass for orientating the table magnetically if so desired and a
sight rule known as an alidade.
To carry out a survey a sheet of high quality drawing or cartridge
 SURVEYING 403

paper is placed on the board and fastened around the edges by special
clips or drawing pins to the under surface of the board. The paper
should be stretched smoothly and tightly over the board without any
wrinkles. Then, equipped with a number of well sharpened 4H and 2H
pencils and the necessary ancillary equipment mentioned earlier, one
is ready to undertake a survey. The plane table can be used for
making a complete survey with control points and detail or it can be
used from existing control points to fill in detail. The technique for
plotting detail will be described first.
For the purposes of describing the technique let us suppose that we
are required to survey features of detail to one side of a line between
two pegged stations, A and B. First point A is plotted at a convenient
point on the board with a suitable scale selected so that the distance
AB can be scaled off on the drawing. Then the plane table is set up
over peg A, levelled and with the alidade rule touching point A, the
peg B is sighted through the alidade vanes. A line is ruled along the
a1idade edge and the distance AB scaled off and point B plotted. Then
the alidade is rotated still with the edge of the rule on point A and a
series of sights is taken to points of interest and the rays to each
lightly ruled on the paper. It is a good idea to write some identifying
remark very lightly alongside each ray for easy identification. Then
the plane table is moved to peg B and set up over this point in such a
manner that the ruled line BA is lined up exactly with point A by
sighting on peg A through the alidade with the edge of the alidade rule
alongside the line BA. A series of rays is then drawn to all the points
of interest by taking sights with the alidade to each point in turn while
the alidade rule touches point B. The positions of the various points
of detail are then located at the intersections of respective rays. The
procedure is illustrated in Fig. 8.15. For accurate work it is necessary
that the points A and B on the drawing are located vertically above
the respective points on the ground. This is achieved by using the
plumbing fork.
In addition to surveying detail, the plane table can be used to locate
control points, either by a plane table traverse or by plane table
triangulation. In a plane table traverse the positions of the various
stations are plotted in turn by occupying each station, aligning the
plotted rayon the board with the previously occupied station and
drawing a new ray to the next station. It will be appreciated that the
distance between stations has to be measured on the ground to plot
them. The procedure illustrated in Fig. 8.16 is as follows: (1) With the
distance between stations A and B scaled off on the board, station B is
occupied and the ray BA aligned with station A. (2) Station e is
sighted through the alidade, a ray is drawn on the board, the distance
Be scaled off and point e plotted. (3) Station e is now occupied and
404 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

A B
FIG. 8.15. Method of locating points of detail with the plane table.

E c

E
A E C
A A B
B
FIG. 8.16. Method of carrying out a plane table traverse.
 SURVEYING 405

the process above continued to locate station D. This procedure is

continued right round the traverse until it eventually closes on station
A.
To avoid having to measure distance between stations on the
ground, a plane table triangulation can be carried out. With this
method a series of control points is build up from two initial stations
whose distance apart is known by successively occupying other
stations located by intersecting rays in the manner described for
locating points of detail.
In addition to the ordinary survey methods described above, ele-
vations can be measured by using a telescopic alidade. This is simply
an alidade rule with a telescope mounted on its centre. The telescope
has a vertical circle with a micrometer for accurate measurement of
vertical angles and it can be levelled independently of the table. The
telescope also contains stadia hairs which enable distance and levels
to be measured tacheometrically if so desired (see Section 8.7) thus
obviating the need to locate points with intersecting rays as described
for the ordinary alidade.
In addition to the techniques described above, a point can be fixed
by resection if a minimum of three other points have already been
located and plotted accurately. The board is set up at the unknown
point X and roughly oriented with respect to the three known points.
Then with the edge of the alidade rule touching each known point in
turn a series of rays is drawn backwards while sighting on each point.
If the board has been correctly oriented, the ray will intersect in a
point which is the correct position of the point X. Usually this does
not happen and the three rays form a small triangle known as the
triangle of error (Fig. 8.17). There are a number of methods which can
be used to solve this triangle of error or three point problem as it is
often known. The simplest method is by trial and error and involves
turning the board slightly and repeating the resection until the rays
meet in a point or the triangle of error becomes very small. A
resection cannot be carried out if the unknown point and three known
points lie on a circle or if two of the known points are diametrically
opposed.
Plane tabling is a very good method for geologically mapping small
areas in detail (scales 1/500 to 1/2500). This is most efficiently carried
out by having a field assistant to plot the rays on the board. This
allows the geologist to move around and select the most useful points
of detail to be fixed. The geologist carries a surveying rod and holds it
at each point selected while the field assistant sights on them in turn
and plots the respective rays. Each point is numbered consecutively
and the geologist can make detailed notes on the geological features
at the same time that the rays are plotted. It is often useful to use
406 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIG. 8.17. Triangle of error in a plane table resection.

pegs, paint or flagging ribbon to identify each point on the ground for
accurate relocation when the second set of rays is plotted from the
second control point. A survey can be carried out by the geologist
alone, but is is very much slower, particularly if there is a lot of detail
to be surveyed accurately.
In summary, the main advantages of plane tabling are that it is
quick, the technique is easy to acquire and the map is produced
directly in the field with the rapid sketching in of as much detail as
required. The main disadvantages are that the scale of the map must
be known before the survey commences and field work is not possible
in wet or windy weather.

8.5 SURVEYING CALCULATIONS

Most surveying calculations are based on elementary co-ordinate

geometry and trigonometry, though the actual computations are
tedious and laborious. To ensure a sufficient degree of accuracy log
tables to at least seven places used to be used. Since the advent of the
small scientific electronic calculator, however, calculations using log
tables are now obsolete. For large numbers of surveying obser-
vations, which used to take days and even weeks of tedious com-
putation, small progammable electronic calculators are available to do
the work in a matter of minutes. Before considering some actual
examples, a review of some elementary relationships and formulae in
co-ordinate geometry and trigonometry is given below.
 SURVEYING 407

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ P(XI yd

t ! '
YI I

~ 4 XI • i X
o
FIG. 8.18. Rectilinear grid for defining grid co-ordinates.

(1) Grid co-ordinates. In a reference grid defined by two rectilinear

axes x and y (Fig. 8.18), a point P is fixed by two co-ordinates XI and
YI. In conventional co-ordinate geometry the point P can be located
anywhere with respect to the origin 0, but in surveying it is normal
practice to select the origin outside the survey area so that the
co-ordinates of any point will be positive, i.e. the survey grid is
restricted to the first quadrant. In surveying the co-ordinates of a
point are known as the eastings and 'northings, an easting cor-
responding to a positive X co-ordinate and a northing to a positive y
co-ordinate. Thus, a point A on a survey grid may be defined by its
easting, E A, and northing, N A, i.e. its co-ordinates are (E A, N~.
(2) Length of a line. The length of a line between two points A and B
can be determined from the co-ordinates by the following formula:
AB = V(N B - N~2+ (E B - E~2 (8.13)
(3) The bearing of a line. The grid azimuth of a line between two
points A and B can be calculated from the co-ordinates by the
following formula:
(NB-N~
8 = arctan (EB - E~ (8.14)

where 8 equals the acute angle AB makes with an E-W line. Then
If N B- N A and EB - EA are both positive,
An = 90 0 - 8
If NB - NA is negative and EB - EA positive,
AB = 90 + 8
0
408 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

If NB - NA and EB - EA are both negative,

AB = 270°- (1
If NB - NA is positive and EB - EA negative,
AB = 270°+ (1
(4) Determination of co-ordinates from a length and bearing. Given
the co-ordinates of a point A, the bearing to a point B and the length
AB, the co-ordinates of B can be calculated.
EB = EA + AB sin AD (8.15)
N B = N A + AB cos AD (8.16)
(5) Computation of a triangle. In surveying we are generally concern-
ed with the computation of a triangle knowing one of its sides and
the three angles. This computation is based on the well known sine
rule.
AB BC CA
(8.17)
sin C = sin A = sin B
(6) Intersected point. A point C can be located from two known points
A and B by measuring the angles to C at A and B (Fig. 8.19). Such a
point C is known as an intersected point. This is really a form of
triangulation, except for a true triangulation fix, the angle at C should
also be measured. Let us consider an actual example. We are given
the following data and are required to calculate the co-ordinates of C:
eastings northings
A 114126·32 79361·18
B 110735·40 68864·62

C (unknown point)

A(known point) B (known point!

FIG. 8.19. Point C fixed by intersection from A and B knowing the distance
AB.
 SURVEYING 409

cAB = 46 0 37' 20"

CRA = 62 0 08' 40"
Then,
AB = V(N B- N.J2+ (E B- E.J2 = 11030·69
AS = 270 0 - arctan NB - NA 1970 54' 11"
EB-E A
ACB = 180 0 - 460 37' 20" - 620 08' 40" = 71 14' 00"
0

AC = AB. sin B 10300.14

SIOC

XC = AS - cAB = 151 16' 51"

0

Ec = EA + AC sin (151 0 16' 51") = 119075·71

Nc = NA + AC cos (151 0 16' 51") = 70 328·11
(7) Resected point. A point P can be located by measuring the angles
to three known points, A, Band C (Fig. 8.20) Such a point P is known
as a resected point. For a good resection none of the rays should

FIG. 8.20. Fixing unknown point P by resection to known points A, Band

c.
intersect at less than 30° at P. The computation of the co-ordinates at
P is quite involved and one of the methods, known as a Collins
resection, is given below. There are two possible cases: (i) point P
inside the triangle formed by A, Band C, and (ii) point P outside the
triangle formed by A, Band C.
(i) P inside triangle ABC (Fig. 8.21 (a». Join the points A, Band C
to form the triangle ABC. Plot rays from P to A, Band C. Draw a ray
from C making an angle 180°- a with CB. Draw a ray from B making
410 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

A A

B B

(0) (b)
FIG. 8.21. Construction for calculating a Collins resection.

an angle 180° - f3 with BC. These rays meet in a point I. Draw the ray
from A through P which will be found to intersect BI and CI at I. The
points I, B, P and C now lie on a circle.
(ii) P outside triangle ABC (Fig. 8.21 (b)). Proceed with con-
struction as before, but draw a ray from C making an angle a with CB
and a ray from B making an angle f3 with BC. These rays intersect at
I which is on the ray drawn from A to P. Once again the points P, B, I
and C lie on a circle.
The geometric constructions above make the solution of the point P
possible and the procedure is illustrated by an example below:
a = 119" IS' ()()" 180 - a = 60° 45' ()()"
f3 = 137° 30' ()()" 180 - f3 = 42° 30' ()()"
eastings northings
A 11920·20 12370·30
B 10730·10 11051·00
C 12069·90 10434·80
(i) Compute length and bearing of BC:
BC = V(Ec - EB)2+ (Nc - NB)2 = 1474·71
 SURVEYING 411

Ne-N
= 90° + arctan E e- E BB 114° 41' 55"
--+
BC

(ii) Solve triangle BCI:

BIC = 180 - (180 - a + 180 - (3) = 76° 45' 00"
CI = BC sin (180 - (3) = 1023.55
sin BIC
a = CB - (180 - a) = 294° 41' 55" - 60° 45' 00" = 233° 56' 55"
--+
E, = CI sin CI + Ee = 11 242·07
N, = CI cos a + Ne = 9832·43
(iii) Compute bearings IA (IP) and IB:
NA-N,
IP = IA = 90° - arctan = 14° 57' 37"
---+ ---+
.....
EA - C,

ill = 270° + arctan NB - N, = 337° 12' 39"

EB-E,
(iv) Solve triangle BIP:
BIP = 1P - ill = 37° 44' 58"
BI = (E, - EB)2 + (N, - NB)2 = 1321·75
PBI = 180 - (180 - a) - BIP = 81° 30' 02"
IP = ~I sin PBI = 1498.27
s1O(180- a)
Ep = IP sin1P + E, = 11628·85
N p = IP cos IF + NI = 11279·92

8.6 MEASUREMENTS WITH A THEODOLITE

A theodolite is an instrument designed for the precise measurement

of vertical and horizontal angles. It consists of a telescope which can
be rotated both on vertical and horizontal axes. Measurements of the
degree of rotation are made on two graduated circles, one horizontal
and the other vertical. Fractions of a degree may be measured with a
vernier on the less precise instruments, but an optical micrometer is
generally used. Theodolites vary from small instruments capable of
measuring angles to 5' to extreme precision instruments capable of a
0·1" accuracy. The less precise instruments are often referred to as
transits. Some instruments incorporate a compass and can be used
412 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

for observing magnetic bearings in addition to being used as a normal

theodolite. A good theodolite with an accuracy of 10"-20" is adequate
for most jobs in exploration, and the more precise ones with a 1" or
better accuracy are only necessary for primary triangulation surveys
and extremely precise astronomical observations.
FigureS.22 shows the main parts of an ordinary theodolite. Both the
vertical and horizontal circles have clamping screws which can be
released to permit full rotation of the instrument about its two axes.
When the clamping screws are locked, fine adjustment tangent screws
can be used for slow and precise movement of either circle. The
theodolite can be moved around two horizontal plates. With the lower
one clamped, the upper one can be rotated with respect to the
graduated horizontal circle on the lower plate giving the degree of
rotation. When the upper plate is clamped, the theodolite can be

vertical circle

eyepIece
.........

" objectIve
. .

vertIcal circle
micrometer

o
adjustment knob

upper plate upper plate

clamping screw ........ tongent screw

lower plate
tangent screw

levelling
screw ............
}""'"'"
FIG. 8.22. Diagram showing the basic parts of a theodolite.
 SURVEYING 413

rotated around its horizontal axis by means of the lower plate so that
the reading of the graduated horizontal circle remains fixed. To take a
reading the theodolite is set up firmly on its tripod and levelled
precisely with its levelling screws. With the lower plate clamped and
upper plate and vertical circles unclamped the telescope is swung
round and aimed at the target using the sights on top of the telescope.
The horizontal and vertical circles are clamped and accurate sighting
on the target is accomplished with the fine adjustment screws so that
the cross hairs in the telescope are centred precisely on the target. If
the instrument has a separate vertical bubble this should be centred
exactly before the final lining up of the cross hairs on the target is
carried out.
The readings of both vertical and horizontal circles are made by
looking down the reading microscope which is usually placed close to
the telescope eyepiece. Illumination of the graduated circles is made
by a small hinged mirror which should be adjusted to allow as much
light into the instrument as possible. Various systems of reading are
used. Some of the larger theodolites have separate viewing for the
horizontal and vertical circles, but most theodolites display the two
circles together with the micrometer scale within the same viewing
window. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 8.23 which shows the

[8: ~o \1
79
I
7~1 80
! 78 Vj

[ 153
I

t 1~1J
FIG. 8.23. Reading system used in the Wild TIA theodolite. The left-hand
figure shows the micrometer adjusted to read the horizontal circle (152 21' 30'~
0

and the right-hand figure shows the micrometer adjusted to read the vertical
circle (79 59' 00").
0

system used on the Wild TIA theodolite. The vertical circle is

graduated from 0 to 360° with 90° being horizontal with the telescope
in its normal position and 270° being horizontal with the telescope
turned through 180° (transitted as it is known). Positive elevations are
less than 90° or 270° and negative angles are greater than 90° or 270°. In
the figure the vertical angle shown is + 10° 01' ()()" (90° -79° 59'). The
horizontal angle shown in the example in Fig. 8.23 is 152° 21' 30". In both
414 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

cases the correct reading is obtained in turn by turning the micrometer

adjustment knob until the lower figure is centred (152° and 79° in the
example)*.
If it is required to line up a target with a particular horizontal reading,
the lower plate is clamped and the upper plate turned until the
required angle is seen in the reading microscope. Then the upper plate
is clamped and the final centring to the required angle made with the
fine adjustment screw. Now with the upper plate left firmly clamped,
the lower plate can be unclamped and the theodolite turned and
sighted on the target. When roughly lined up on the target, the lower
plate can be clamped and the telescope brought precisely in line with
the target by using the fine tangent screw on the lower plate. Different
sightings made from this station by rotating the upper plate while the
lower one remains firmly clamped will all be made with reference to
the reading set on the first target. For exact centring over a station the
theodolite has an attachment for fastening a plumb bob underneath.
Various accessories are available for most theodolites. These in-
clude small battery-powered plug-in lamps to replace the illuminating
mirror for night work, eyepiece prisms for sights up to + 65°, diagonal
eyepieces for sights up to +90°, solar prisms for fitting over the
telescope objective so that sun observations can be made, and laser
eyepieces which project a laser beam out of the telescope coinciding
exactly with the line of sight for use in alignment work.

Theodolite traversing
Extremely accurate traversing surveys can be carried out by measur-
ing the angles with a theodolite. Figure 8.24 shows a closed traverse
with six stations, A to F. To carry out a traverse in a clockwise
direction as shown in the figure, the theodolite is set up at each
station in turn and readings taken to forward stations followed by the
back stations. This results in measurement of the internal angles as
shown in the diagram. At each station the theodolite is read both with the
telescope in its normal position and transitted (turned through 180° on
its vertical circle). This is known as 'face left' and' face right'. For
sighting, a surveying staff can be held at each forward and back
station, but for really precise work special tripod-mounted targets
should be used. These targets consist of black metal plates on
which three or four white or yellow triangles are painted with their
apices pointing towards the centre point of the target. The target
plates are mounted on special carriers which can be locked into the

*It should be noted that some theodolites are graduated in grads and not degrees
(40()8 == 36()O).
 SURVEYING 415

FIG. 8.24. Example of a closed theodolite traverse.

tribrach secured to the tripod head. (The theodolite base with its three
levelling screws is known as a tribrach (Fig. 8.22) and the theodolite
can be detached from its tribrach by loosening a securing screw.) This
enables very precise work to be undertaken by allowing targets and
theodolite to be interchanged between stations by detaching from the
tribrachs which are left undisturbed and precisely centred and levelled
on the tripods.
Figure 8.25 shows the booking of a closed theodolite traverse. The
column for staff reading is for the determination of elevation using
the vertical angles and, if targets were being used, the target height
would be entered instead. To plot a theodolite traverse, co-ordinates
should be calculated instead of using a protractor since there is no
point in measuring angles in the field at far greater precision than they
can be plotted. The following steps are undertaken in computing a
theodolite traverse for final plotting:
1. Correct lengths for elevation.
2. Abstract internal (or external) angles, correct and compute bear-
ings.
3. Compute co-ordinates.
4. Correct co-ordinates for closure error.
The lengths are corrected by using the vertical angles or height
differences if there is more than a very small difference between
instrument and target heights. Using the vertical angles in the exam-
ple given in Fig. 8.25 the corrected lengths are as follows:
416 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

AB 268·45 cos(2° 13' 30") = 268·25 m

BC 320·52 cos(7° 21' 10") = 317·88 m
CD 329·91 cos(Oo 00' 45") = 329·91 m
DE 299·23 cos(9° 35' 15") = 295·05 m
EF 295·89 cos(3° 18' 05") = 295·40 m
FA 267·04 cos(4° 32' 00") = 266·20 m
The internal angles are abstracted as follows using the mean
horizontal angles in Fig. 8.25.
160° 15' 05"
A -35° 14' 55"
125°00' 10" 125°00' 10"
239° 56' 15"
B -121° 11' 10"
118° 45' 05" 118° 45' 05"
166° 58' 25"
C -42° 13' 20"
124° 45' 05" 124°45' 05"
131° 58' 50"
D -75° 29' 15"
56° 29' 35" 56° 29' 35"
22° 36' 40"
E -162° 37' 15"
219° 59' 25" 219° 59' 25"
90° 11' 30"
F -15°11'25"
75°00' 05" 75°00' 05"
-719° 59' 25"
+ 720° 00' 00" (six-sided figure)
+35"
.
C orrecttons: 35 = + 6
(;

Thus, the corrected internal angles are:

A 125° 00' 16"
B 118° 45' 11"
C 124° 45' 11"
D 56°29' 41"
E 21~ 59' 31"
F 75° 00' 11"
720° 00' 01"
The corrections above are derived from the rule that in any closed
figure of n sides the sum of internal angles equals n x 180° - 360°, i.e.
6 x 180 - 360 = 720 for the above example.
 SURVEYING 417

The co-ordinates are calculated from formulae 8_15 and 8_16,

knowing the co-ordinates of the starting point and the bearing of A to
B. If the bearing and co-ordinates are not known, arbitrary co-
ordinates and a bearing can be assigned for the purposes of the
calculation_ In the example being considered the bearing of A to B is
given as 20° 30' 00"_ Then the bearings of the other lines are calculated
from the internal angles as follows:

A to B 20° 30' 00"

+ 180° 00' 00"
200°30'00"
-118°45' 11" (B)
B to C 81° 44' 49"
+ 180° 00' 00"
261° 44' 49"
-124° 45' 11" (C)
C to D 136° 59' 38"
+ 180° 00' 00"
316° 59' 38"
-56° 29' 41" (D)
Dto E 260° 29' 57"
+ 180° 00' 00"
440° 29' 57"
-21~ 59' 31" (E)
EtoF 220°30'26"
+ 180° 00' 00"
400°30'26"
-75°00' 10" (F)
F to A 325° 30' 16"
+ 180° 00' 00"
505° 30' 16"
-125° 00' 16" (A)
A to B 380° 30' 00" = 20° 30' 00"

If the co-ordinates of A are given as 1202-35 E and 8572-10 N, the

co-ordinates of other stations are as follows:

Eastings
B 1202-35 + 268-25 sin 20° 30' = 1296-29
C 1296-29+317-88sin 81°44'49"=1610-88
D 1610-88 + 329-91 sin 136° 59' 38" = 1835-90
E 1835-90 + 295-05 sin 260° 29' 57" = 1544-90
F 1544-90 + 295-40 sin 220° 30' 26" = 1353-02
A 1353-02 + 266-20 sin 325° 30' 16" = 1202-26
418 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

-.
StatLons

AIDB
AtoF
FL
Horizontal A
FA.
.35'IS'00" Z,5'14'5O"
I••
M~an

.l5'WS5'
F. L.
+-2"'3'1t(j
~tical Angles
FR.
+l·/~'4()·

IbI:>' 'S'IO" 3<,(J'15'OO' 160'15'05' -'t'.3i la' -'t3i 10' -"'32'10'

Moan
-2',Hd
Stoff Instn.menl:
Roading
1·'1{)
1,105
Hoigll
'·~1
Longth

2.&·".5
Zbl06
-.
StAtion A i!o tr~, pt.
".he ~o<l<.."

BIDe 121'11' Id' 301'11' 10" 121'11' 10" +Tlf~" +1'21'~' +i2l'!>O' 1·~5 ,.".5 ~20'50

BtoA 231"S6' 10' Sr'S6'2d' 8f56',S' -r'~lo' -2"3'.30' -2'1~'l.O· 1·'tO 2.&·105
CtoD itt'3'20" 222"3'20" 102'13'20' +0·01'00" +0'00'1{)' +lfod5O" 1·'tO 1,3it 32H.6
C toB 166"58'30" W,"5lJ'ZIf 16O'SS'2S' -T2d'tO' -1'zI'00' -TlO'5O' 1,3& ~2.0S"

Dto£ 15"21'30' 255'21'00' 15"21'/5" -'1'35"0' -r35'50" -nno' {lH 1,3' 2",20

D loe 13,'58'40' 31["5"00" 13I'58'SO" -O·OO'4Q" -o'OO'4(f -O"od4(f 1·50 3UI"

£toF 1.2:31'ZO' 3'>2"31'10' 161:31' IS" -3"1'50" -3"18'30" -YI~IO' 1·3' I,M 215'88
£ I<>D Zl" 3,1; !::J)" In'jb'SO" Lr3'" Iter +r3'iItO" .'1'35'20' ''/'35'00' I'~I I1'-1'
F to A /S"II'jO" 115'1/'1.0' 15'1/' 25" +..... 3I'1t(). +..... 31'50... +!t"31'50· 1·36 !-It3 InDO

FIDE 'ril/'3D' 1.10·"'3d' 10"/1'30" +3"l"f-'l-O" +3·16' 2.0· +:;",6'00' 1·100 "HO

FIG, 8,25, Typical booking of a theodolite traverse,

Northings
B 8572,10 + 268,25 cos 20° 30' 00" = 8823,36
C 8823,36+ 317,88 cos 81°44'49"=8868,99
D 8868,99 + 329,91 cos 136° 59' 38" = 8627,73
E 8627,73 + 295,05 cos 260° 29' 57" = 8579,03
F 8579,03 + 295,40 cos 220° 30' 26" = 8354,43
A 8354,43 + 266,20 cos 325° 30' 16" = 8573,82
Thus, the difference in the A co-ordinates from the starting and cal-
culated values is:
E = 1202,35 - 1202,26 = +0,09 m
N = 8572,10 - 8573,82 = -1,72 m
The overall closure error is given by:

1/V(EtN 2)

where L is the total length of the traverse, In the example given the
closure error is 1/1029, which is poor for a theodolite traverse and
indicates that there are probably errors or inaccuracies in the length
measurements, There are a number of ways of adjusting the closure
error, but the simplest method is probably Bowditch's rule, which is
adequate for most work, Using the rule, corrections are made
separately for the eastings and northings,
 SURVEYING 419

Triangulation surveys
Triangulation is the basis of all major surveying work and is the
method used for surveying entire countries. It is based on the fact
that a triangle of given dimensions has a unique shape and any
triangle can be determined by knowing the lengths of its three sides or
by knowing two angles and the length of one of the sides. In
surveying a large area a network of triangles is built up from a single
precisely measured base line by taking angular observations with a
theodolite. Figure 8.26 shows how this is done. XX' is an accurately
measured base line and from it points A and B are accurately fixed.
Then the other triangles are built by measuring the angles at A, Band
C and calculating the distance AB. Triangle ACD is fixed by measur-
ing the three angles and calculating the distance AC from the earlier
determined triangle. This process can be continued as far as desired.
Primary triangles have sides of approximately 50 km, secondary tri-
angles have sides of 15-25 km and tertiary triangles have sides less
than 10 km. Ideally, the triangles should be selected so that they are
as near to equilateral triangles as possible. This is often hard to
achieve, but no angle should be less than 30° for best results.

o E

H
FIG. 8.26. Triangulation network built up from the base line XX'.
420 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Readings are taken from all three apices of the triangle and sights are
made to survey targets or specially constructed beacons at the other
stations being observed. Weather conditions have to be ideal for long
shots and surveyors often have to wait many days or even weeks to
obtain satisfactory readings. Very often readings are made at night. In
addition to horizontal angles, vertical angles are also observed, but, as
they are of lesser importance, they are often made at a different time
from horizontal angles if conditions are not right. To be reliable
vertical angles should only be observed when refraction is at a
minimum and varying least, which is generally from late morning to
early afternoon. The normal procedure of observing angles is to select
one beacon as the RO (referring object) and then move around in a
clockwise direction (known as face left) to all the other stations in
turn, eventually closing on the RO. Then the telescope is transitted
and starting from the RO all stations are observed again going around
in the opposite sense for the face right readings. In approaching the
targets it is important to do so from the same side and bring the cross
hairs into line very slowly with the tangent screw. If the target is
overshot, it is normal procedure to repeat all readings again and not
accept a reading for which the telescope had to be brought back on
target. Having completed a series of face left and face right obser-
vations, the upper and lower plates are moved with respect to each
other to set new readings on the horizontal circle and the entire
process is repeated several times. The angles are corrected for any
differences, which should be very slight, and then the included angles
are determined.
In calculating a triangulation survey the three angles determined for
each triangle are added and corrections made so that they total
exactly 180°. If the triangles being observed are large, it will be found
that the sum of the three angles is greater than 180°. This is because
the angles have been measured in three different planes owing to the
curvature of the earth. This difference is known as the spherical
excess and corrections have to be made for it in primary trian-
gulation. The spherical excess varies with the size of the triangle and
slightly with latitude since the earth is not a perfect sphere. Some
average values for the spherical excess are given below:

Area of triangle (km2) Spherical excess

94 0·5"
188 1·0"
937 5·0"
1877 10·0"
 SURVEYING 421

8.7 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

Tapes
The earliest measurements of distance were made with bars or rods
of known length and even in early 1800's the base lines for trian-
gulation surveys were still being measured with special steel or
bimetallic bars. Very accurate measurements are possible with bars,
but, as it is a cumbersome and time consuming method, metal tapes
replaced bars and have been used widely since the late 1800's. For the
most accurate work invar tapes are hung in catenary between special
straining trestles. Wires attached to rings at either end of the tape
pass over pulleys on the straining trestles and standard weights
attached to the wires keep the tape in constant tension. Readings are
obtained from special index heads mounted on tripods just below the
stretched tape. Points are transferred to the ground by an optical
plummet, which may also be mounted on the tripods, and alignment
between several measuring points is achieved by using a theodolite.
Corrections need to be applied if conditions differ from those at
which the tapes were standardized. These include a tension correction
and temperature correction. A correction also needs to be applied for
sag if the tension is different from that at which the tape was
standardized or if the tape was standardized on the flat and not in
catenary. Corrections may also have to be applied for slope and lack of
precise alignment. In addition, for triangulation surveys all measure-
ments are reduced to mean sea level, so the following altitude correction
has to be applied:
-LxH
6 367 000 metres,

where L is the measured length in metres and H the elevation in metres.

For less precise work, such as theodolite traverses or small local
triangulation surveys, measurements can be made with metal tapes, or
surveying bands as they are often known, laid flat on the ground and
pulled tight between measuring marks. As in the case of supported
tapes, alignment between measuring points is maintained with a
theodolite. Corrections for slope should also be applied if the ground
slope is more than a few degrees. An approximate slope correction,
which is sufficiently accurate for all but the steepest slopes, is
-h 2/2L, where h is the height difference between the measured points
and L the taped distance. When measuring distance with tapes on the
ground, it is good practice to measure the distance between stations in
two directions. For example, in measuring the distance between two
stations, A and B, one would start taping at A and finish at Band
then repeat the process at B and finish at A. This is a convenient
422 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

check in theodolite traverse work as the two distances should agree

within a few centimetres over distances of several hundreds of
metres. The mean of the two distances obtained is adopted as the
correct measurement. Metal tapes should be treated carefully. Good
ones are expensive and they are not designed for rough work like the
much more robust surveying chains. After use in wet or damp
conditions, steel tapes should be dried and lightly oiled to prevent
rusting.
The accuracies that can be obtained with the various linear
measuring methods are compared below:

Invar tapes in catenary 1/500 000-1/1000 000

Steel tapes on ground 1/10000-1/20000
Chaining 1/500-1/1000

Tellurometer
This is an instrument developed in South Africa which uses radio
waves to measure distance. Since long radio waves cannot be direct-
ed, high frequency waves of about 3-cm wavelength, which can be
concentrated in a narrow beam, are used. The equipment consists of a
master instrument and slave instrument, both being equipped with
parabolic reflector aerials. A signal is transmitted from the master to
the slave instrument which receives it and then re-transmits it back to
the master instrument. The time delay between reception and re-
transmission is so small that it can be ignored. Instead of measuring
the time delay between sending and receiving a signal to determine
the distance, as is done in radar measurements, the instrument
measures the phase difference in nanoseconds between sending and
receiving. Since the carrier wave has too short a wavelength to make
effective use of the phase shift for measurement of distance, it is
pattern modulated at 10 MHz. This gives the same effect as using a
carrier wave of 30-m wavelength. By varying the pattern modulation
and observing the different phase shifts, it is possible to calculate the
distance between master and slave. The instrument has a range of
about 200 m-80 km, but its optimum range is 25-50 km. Temperature,
pressure and humidity corrections need to be applied and spurious
readings may be caused by reflection of the signals from the ground;
this is particularly bad over water. The instrument has an accuracy of
1/500000 over the longer range, but at distances of less than 2 km its
accuracy is only of the order of 1/10000.

Geodimeter
This is an instrument developed in Sweden which operates on the
same basic principle as the tellurometer, but uses visible light instead
 SURVEYING 423

of radio waves. The light carrier wave is pattern modulated by

varying the intensity electronically at a frequency of 10 MHz giving
an effective wavelength of 30 m. As in the case of the tellurometer
different pattern modulation frequencies are used to observe the
different phase shifts which enable the distance between the instru-
ment and its reflector to be calculated. Observations need to be taken
at night or twilight and the stations have to be intervisible which is
not necessary in the case of the tellurometer. Distances up to 30 km
can be measured with an accuracy of 1/200000-1/300 000.

Tacheometry
Any theodolite fitted with stadia hairs, which are two short horizontal
lines equidistant above and below the main cross hairs, can be used
for tacheometric measurement of distance. The principle is illustrated
in Fig. 8.27 which shows a theodolite set up at point A to read a staff

5
fi
1 1.
l----1 f - 1

-1.. F ~ ~k-:
1

I" 0
·1
FIG. 8.27. Principle of tacheometric measurement of distance.

at point B. The difference between the upper and lower stadia

readings is sand i is the distance between stadia hairs. Now, from
similar triangles the following relationship holds:

IIi == Fls
so that,
F == ({/i)s

The distance to be measured, D, is the distance between the staff and

424 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

the vertical axis of the theodolite and it is given by

D=P+k
so that,
D = (f/i)s +k
The term Iii is a constant for a particular instrument designated by
c so that the final formula is:
D=cs +k
The theodolite is usually designed so that the instrument or multi-
plying constant c is equal to 100. In addition many tacheometers are
fitted with an anallatic lens which eliminates the other instrument or
additive constant k, so that the distance D is simply given by
D = 1000u-1)
where u is the upper stadia reading and I the lower stadia reading.
Figure 8.27 shows the simplest case where the theodolite and staff
are on the same level. The situation is complicated when they are not
on the same level as shown in Fig. 8.28. If the staff were inclined
towards the theodolite at an angle a, the horizontal and vertical
distances Hand V would be given by:
H = l00s' cos a
V = l00s' sin a

s= u-l
Sl~ scosOl

----H ------~ I
FIG. 8.28. Tacheometric determination of distance for inclined shots.
 SURVEYING 425

The normal surveying practice is to keep the staff vertical as this is

easily done on a routine basis and it would not be possible for the
staff man to judge the correct angle of tilt. Thus, the corrected
formulae for the horizontal and vertical distances H and V become
H = l00(u -I) cos 2 a
V = 100(u -I) sin a cos a
Ordinary tacheometric measurements involve many calculations, but
tables such as Redmond (1961) are published and enable the user to
read the horizontal and vertical distances directly from them. The
tables are published for every 20' of vertical angle, so the normal
practice is to line up on the staff and adjust the vertical circle fine
adjustment to read at one of the exact intervals and then read the
staff rather than the other way round which would probably result in
an odd angle reading not given in the tables. Figure 8.29 shows an

Instrument HOrizontal Vertical Bottom Top

Station Height Angle Angle Mid-point Reading Reading oIf!. H V Remarks

Ato CD ~'3 .35' 25'/0" +5'20' /0 ItO 12. eo 800 480 4151 +1t44-2

rY 61' 3'1' ZO' +6'40' 905 lin , 20 572 561t- 3 +6596

@ 14-3'21' 30' -2'00' 8ll /I 52 Ins 6" 616l -2~61

@ 2~2~ /6 00' "rlto' H8 685 b/O 15 III +/2 It/

e, 30I'Q't'50' +f'lO' 1113 /0 77 550 5n 521,7- +/226 ostnjpt

® 454 82'53'36' -3"40' 156 1051 ~jQ 561 5517 -357'>

~ 16 ... ',2' /0" +1'40' 515 b 76 510 166 /651 .4 B3

GJ I-WO/' 40" '4'20' S 20 6H 315 2~j 1.47 6 ,1816

FIG. 8.29. Example of booking a tacheometric survey (units in feet).

example of the booking of a tacheometric survey with values for

H and V taken from Redmond's tables (an instrument constant of 100
is assumed).
Some tacheometers, known as self-reducing tacheometers, have
curved stadia lines which approach or recede from the zero curves as
the line of sight is inclined, giving continuous solutions to the stan-
dard tacheometric formulae so that horizontal and vertical distances
can be read directly without tables or calculations. Another type of
tacheometer, known as a reduction tacheometer, achieves the same
result as a self-reducing tacheometer by means of prismatic wedges in
front of the objective lens which adjust the line of sight as the
426 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

telescope is inclined so that the horizontal and vertical distances can

be read directly.
To obviate the need for tedious calculations some instruments are
fitted with special graduated scales on the vertical circle which allow
quick and simple calculation of the horizontal and vertical distances
to be made. This does not give a direct reading as in the case of
self-reducing or reduction tacheometers, but the instruments are
considerably cheaper. The most widely used of these systems is known
as Beaman's arc which is generally fitted to most telescopic alidades.
There are two graduated scales, one giving a value for V and the other
for H. As an example of the Beaman arc let us suppose that with the
telescope sighted on the staff at a station the arc readings are V = 22,
H = 5 with a mid-staff reading of 2·45 and top and bottom stadia
difference of 1·35, then
vertical = sV - h = 1·35 (22) - 2·45 = 27·25
horizontal = l00s - sH = 135 - 1·35 (5) = 128·25
In addition to the tach eo meters described, there is also a class of
tacheometers known as movable-hair or tangential tacheometers, in
which the separation of the stadia hairs can be adjusted to give a
constant staff difference reading. The distance is then determined by
the amount of separation of the stadia lines. These tacheometers are
rarely used now, however, and will not be described.
Tacheometry is extremely useful for surveying small areas where
great detail and height control are required as many measurements
can be taken from one instrument position. The accuracy is only of
the order of 1/500 so it is not a method to use where great precision is
required, but this is not a problem for most exploration work or
evaluation studies in geology. It is also a useful method for traverse
work in areas where terrain might make taping very difficult. Its
usefulness, however, is limited by sight lengths which are generally
restricted to 300 m and less with most instruments.

Infra-red tacheometers (distomats)

A number of manufacturers in different parts of the world now
produce automatic instruments using an invisible beam of infra-red
light to measure distance on the same principle as the geodimeter.
They are either built as integral units incorporating a theodolite or are
available as accessories to convert ordinary theodolites to distomats.
A GaAs diode is used to provide the carrier wave and a special
prismatic target is used to reflect the beam back to the instrument.
Distances up to 1000 m can be measured under normal circumstances,
but the range can be extended by using a larger number of prism
 SURVEYING 427

reflectors. Operation is extremely simple. The target is sighted in the

telescope and a start switch triggers the computer controlled measur-
ing cycle. After a time lapse of about 10 s the slope distance is
displayed to the millimetre with an accuracy of ± 5 mm. By entering
the vertical angle into the built-in calculator, the vertical and horizon-
tal distances are automatically displayed. In addition station co-
ordinates can also be computed and displayed by entering the
horizontal angle into the computer. For setting out work the instru-
ments can also be used in an automatic measuring mode which
displays the slope distance every few seconds for tracking a moving
prismatic target.
Distomats have revolutionized engineering site surveying and have
made the older methods virtually obsolete. The instruments are
expensive, however, and for undertaking small infrequent surveys,
such as in mineral exploration work, conventional tacheometers are
still important survey instruments.

8.8 ASTRONOMICAL SURVEYING

The use of astronomy in surveying forms the basis of classical

navigation and enables the observer to fix his position accurately
anywhere on the earth. A full understanding of astronomical survey-
ing requires a thorough grounding in basic astronomy and a knowledge
of spherical trigonometry, but it is easy to learn the main principles so
as to be able to carry out some of the simpler determinations which
are described below.
Figure 8.30 shows the earth with centre 0 at the centre of a very
much larger imaginary sphere known as the celestial sphere, which is
a sphere on which all the heavenly bodies can be considered to lie. N
and S are the celestial north and south poles respectively and they are
located directly above the earth's true north and south poles. EE' is
the celestial equator which may be considered as an extension of the
earth's equator. If an observer is on the earth's surface at 0, point Z
on the celestial sphere vertically above him is known as the obser-
ver's zenith, hh' is his horizon and cP his latitude. Since the celestial
sphere can be considered to have an infinite radius (the nearest star is
some 58 x 108 earth radii from the earth's surface), the observer's
horizon hh' can be considered to pass through the centre of the
celestial sphere along HH'.
Keeping the concept of the celestial sphere in mind some further
definitions are necessary:
Observer's meridian. This is a great circle on the celestial sphere
which passes through the observer's zenith and celestial pole.
428 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

FIG. 8.30. Earth at the centre of the celestial sphere.

Hour circle. A great circle through the celestial poles.

The hour angle of a heavenly body is the angular distance from the
observer's meridian westwards to the hour circle through the
heavenly body.
Ecliptic. This is the path of the sun described as a great circle on the
celestial sphere. It is inclined at an angle of 23 0 27' to the celestial
equator.
Altitude of a star (a). This is the vertical angle from the observer's
horizon to the star along the arc of a great circle on the celestial
sphere which passes through the observer's zenith and position of the
star.
Declination of a star (8). This is the vertical angle from the
celestial equator to the star along the arc of an hour circle passing
through the position of the star
Transit of a star. Owing to the rotation of the earth, the stars
appear to move along arcs on the celestial sphere. If a star is
observed for a period of several hours, its altitude will increase until
it reaches a maximum on the observer's meridian. Then it will
decrease until it reaches a minimum once again on the observer's
meridian. These two points where it crosses the meridian are known
as the upper and lower transits. It should be noted that the lower
transit of many stars cannot be observed as it takes place below the
 SURVEYING 429

observer's horizon. Stars whose upper and lower transits can be

observed are known as circumpolar stars.
Elongation of a circumpolar star is when it is at the extreme east
(east elongation) or west (west elongation) of the pole.
Obliquity. This is the inclination of the earth's axis (23°27') to the
normal to the plane of the earth's path around the sun.
First point of Aries. This is the point on the celestial equator which
is crossed by the ecliptic at the vernal equinox when the sun passes
from south to north of the celestial equator. The point of Aries moves
approximately 50" of arc a year along the celestial equator. This is
known as the 'precession of the equinoxes'.
The right ascension (RA) of a heavenly body is the angular distance
eastwards along the equator from the point of Aries to the hour circle
through the heavenly body.
To make use of the methods of field astronomy surveyors have to
refer to the Star Almanac which is published annually. This lists all
the pertinent data about the sun and the stars which are·· commonly
observed so that the various calculations can be made.

Time and longitude

Owing to the rotation of the earth the sun appears to revolve around
it making 365~ such 'revolutions' per annum. The stars on the other
hand appear to make 366~ 'revolutions' per annum. Thus, there is a
difference between a solar day and a sidereal day with a sidereal day
being about 3 min 55 s shorter. This difference (R) between solar and
sidereal time is listed in the Star Almanac and the two times are the
same once a year on about the 22nd September. Longitude can be
determined if the time is known accurately. The zero meridian of
longitude passes through Greenwich, England, and normal time
measurement, which is based on a mean solar day of 24 h, is made
with reference to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Universal Time
(UT) as it is often known. To determine longitude at any locality the
precise moment in terms of GMT when the sun reaches its highest
point (upper transit) is measured giving mid-day in terms of Local
Apparent Time (LA T). This can be converted to Greenwich Apparent
Time (GAT) by the following relationship:
GAT=GMT-E
where E is known as the equation of time and can be found in the
Star Almanac. Longitude may be defined by:
Longitude = LAT - GAT
As an example, let us suppose that the upper transit of the sun was
430 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

observed on 15th April 1977 to take place at 15 h 15 min 20 s GMT then,

15 h 15 min 20·0 s (GMT)
-12 h 00 min 00·2 s (E from Star Almanac)
3 h 15 min 19·8 s (GAT)
12 h 00 min 00·0 s (LAT)
-3 h 15 min 19·8 s (GAT)
8 h 44 min 40· 2 s (longitude)
Now, in terms of time 1 h is equivalent to 15°, 1 min to 15' and 1 s to
15" so that the above longitude converts to 131°10'3" west. (If the
longitude is less than 12 h, it is west and, if it is more than 12 h, it
must be subtracted from 24 h to give longitude east.) The accurate
determination of GMT is quite easy since a number of special radio
stations in various parts of the world broadcast time signals for use
by land surveyors.
It is often difficult to determine the precise moment of the upper
transit of the sun and it is easier to sight the theodolite on the sun just
before upper transit and note the time when the upper or lower limb
crosses the horizontal cross hair on its ascent and when the same limb
touches the cross hair on its descent with the vertical angle of the
theodolite firmly fixed. The mean time will be the moment of upper
transit. In fact, a correction needs to be applied, but this can be
ignored if the sun is observed very close to its upper transit and the
time interval is small.

Determination of azimuth and latitude

The simplest method of determining azimuth would be to observe a star
at its upper transit when the vertical circle of the theodolite will lie in
a true north-south direction. However it is not possible to obtain an
accurate horizontal fix on the upper transit since the vertical com-
ponent of a star's motion becomes very slow near its transit and the
star appears to be moving horizontally. To avoid this problem the star
has to be observed on the ascent side of its transit when it can be
accurately fixed by the cross hairs. Then it is observed on its descent
with the vertical angle set at the same reading and followed by the
horizontal circle until it is bisected by the vertical cross hair as it
crosses the horizontal cross hair. The mean of the two horizontal
angles obtained on either side of the transit will give the correct
horizontal reading of the true north-south line. If the latitude is
known, the azimuth can be determined by observing a circumpolar
star at eastern or western elongation. This is ideal for very accurate
work since there is so little change in azimuth near elongation that the
star will appear to ascend or descend the vertical cross hair depending
 SURVEYING 431

on which elongation is being observed. This gives adequate time for

precise face left and face right readings. The azimuth of the reference
line is then given by
. -\ -
sm cos-l) + (J
cos cf>
where l) is the declination of the star, cf> is the observer's latitude and
(J is the horizontal angle between the reference line and the point of
elongation.
Latitude can be determined by measuring the altitude of a star at its
upper transit. Then, latitude is given by
90° - altitude (a) - declination (5)
When observing the altitude of a star it is necessary to apply a
correction for refraction in the atmosphere. The correction varies
with altitude, but for altitudes greater than 20°, an approximate value
for the correction is -58" cot a. For really precise work adjust-
ments have to be made for air temperature and pressure and
reference needs to be made to refraction tables in the Star Almanac.
As an example, the upper transit of 'Y Ursae Majoris (each star is
designated by a Greek letter and the name of the constellation on the
star charts) was observed at an altitude of 20° 49' 50" (average of face
left and face right) on the 25th April 1977 in Lusaka, Zambia.
Correcting for refraction the altitude becomes:
20° 49' 50" - 58" cot(20° 49' 50'') = 20° 47' 18"
In the Star Almanac the declination for 'Y Ursae Majoris is 53° 49' 19" on
the 25th April 1977. Thus, the latitude is:
90° 00' 00" - 53° 49' 19" - 20° 47' 18" = 15° 23' 23" South
Latitude can also be determined by observing the sun, but cor-
rections need to be applied for parallax since the sun is much closer
to the earth than any of the stars and a measurable angle is subtended
at the sun by the earth's radius, so that the observer's horizon cannot
be assumed to pass through the centre of the celestial sphere as in the
case of the stars. This correction is +8·80" cos a where a is the
altitude corrected for refraction. In addition it is not easy to observe
the sun's centre. Unless a special solar prism is fitted to the telescope
objective, which permits direct aiming at the sun's centre, it is normal
practice to sight on the edge of the sun with the cross hairs. In this
case a correction for the semi-diameter needs to be applied. This is
approximately 16', but it varies slightly and the exact correction can
be determined from the Star Almanac. To illustrate the procedure
suppose that the altitude of the sun's lower limb was observed as
432 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

42° 26' 55" at upper transit on the 22nd June 1977 at 6 h 30 min GMT
and it is required to find the latitude. Firstly, the altitude is corrected
for refraction which results in a corrected angle of 42° 25' 52".
Secondly, the correction for parallax is applied which gives an angle
of 42° 25' 58·5". Thirdly, the correction for the semi-diameter is looked
up in the Star Almanac for June 1977 and added to the altitude giving
a final corrected altitude of 42° 41' 46·5". Fourthly, the declination is
looked up in the Star Almanac for 6 h 30 min GMT on the 22nd June
1977. This gives a value of 23° 26' 18" so that the latitude becomes:
90° - 23° 26' 18" - 42° 41' 46·5" = 23° 51' 55·5"
For most astronomical observations it will be necessary to use
eyepiece prisms or, better still, diagonal eyepieces. In addition, for
work at night, illumination will be necessary both for reading angles
and for seeing the cross hairs. For solar observations it is absolutely
necessary to use a sun filter over the telescope objective.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bannister, A. and Raymond, S. (1973). Surveying, Pitman Publishing, London,

548pp.
Bouchard, H. and Moffit, F. H. (1965). Surveying, International Textbook Co.,
Scranton, Pennsylvania, USA, 754 pp.
Clendinning, J. and Olliver, J. G. (1966). The Principles of Surveying, Blackie and
Son Ltd., Glasgow, 463 pp.
Dugdale, R. H. (1960). Surveying, MacDonald and Evans Ltd., London, 120 pp.
Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office, (1976). The Star Almanac for Land
Surveyors for the Year 1977, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 80 pp.
Ministry of Defence (1965). Textbook of Topographical Surveying, Her
Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 388 pp.
Redmond, F. A. (1961). Tacheometric Tables, The Technical Press, London,
256pp.
 CHAPTER 9

Ore Reserve Calculations

9.1 ORE AND ORE RESERVES

Ore is defined as a mineral or mineral aggregate more or less mixed

with a gangue, from which a metal or metals can be won at a profit or
in the hopes of a profit. * From this definition it follows that local
production and transportation costs are a prime factor and what may
constitute an ore body in one region may not do so in a more remote
part of the world. The term 'ore', therefore, should not be applied
indiscriminately to any mineral deposit and the term 'ore zone' should
be avoided when referring to mineralized intersections in boreholes
and trenches unless they are clearly part of a deposit which has
distinct possibilities of being economic. On the other hand, one
should not be too pedantic about the term 'ore', otherwise mining
ellgineers would forever be adding to and subtracting from ore reser-
ves on the basis of metal price fluctuations. In extreme cases, of
course, this does happen when sharp price rises may bring material
that was considered as waste into the ore reserves and, vice versa,
when rising costs and depressed prices may result in ore being
reclassified as waste. As regards deposits not undergoing exploitation,
it is acceptable to refer to the mineralization as 'ore' when a reason-
able tonnage has been shown to exist and when there is a distinct
hope that it might be worked at a profit.
Before it can be decided whether or not a mineral deposit might
be economically viable, it is necessary to determine the tonnage
available together with the overall grade. It is obvious that the degree
of confidence with which this can be done depends upon the amount
of data available. There are three standard categories for quoting ore
reserves:

*Strictly ore refers only to metallic minerals, but non-metallic minerals such
as fluorite are often included.
433
434 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

1. Proven or measured
2. Indicated or probable
3. Inferred or possible

The proven or measured category is only applied when there is a

high degree of certainty, usually only in mines where the ore is
blocked out and thoroughly sampled. This is often referred to as
ore-in-s;ght. This category should not normally be used in exploration
work where the sample information is all from drill-holes. An excep-
tion to this might be material which is very uniform and predictable
such as a bed of limestone or phosphate rock.
A fairly high degree of confidence is implied by the indicated or
probable category and it should only be used for ore that has been
clearly outlined in three dimensions by drilling, pitting, trenching, etc.
This category is often referred to as 'drill indicated ore'.
The inferred or possible category implies a degree of uncertainty
and is used in cases where there is good geological evidence for
continuity, but only a limited amount of sample data such as a few
widely spaced boreholes.
In quoting ore reserves it is generally accepted that the first two
categories may be added together, but many people object to the
inclusion of possible ore in the total reserves. Although there are no
hard and fast rules for classifying ore reserves and the division
between the three classes is arbitrary, it is extremely important not to
be too liberal in applying the term 'ore reserves'. For instance, the
geologist who finds a mineralized outcrop and then quotes reserve
figures by extrapolating along strike and down dip is not only fool-
hardy but dishonest. In cases where mineralized rock has only been
defined in two dimensions or to shallow depths and there are good
indications that it extends to depths below that seen, it is common
practice to quote probable or possible reserves in the form: 'there are
x tonnes for every n metres of depth'. For mineralization in outcrop
the depth given might be 3 or 5 m. For mineralization located in pits
or shallow drill-holes, the depth given might be 30 m or more.
In ore reserve calculations we are concerned with calculating a
volume and an average grade. The tonnage is derived from the
volume by multiplying by the tonnage factor. If the volume is deter-
mined in cubic metres, the tonnage factor is simply the specific
gravity of the ore. The volume is commonly determined by calculat-
ing an area in two of the dimensions and then multiplying by the third
dimension to determine the final volume. To determine total area it is
usually possible to divide the area under consideration into a number
of regular geometric figures such as squares, rectangles, triangles,
trapezia, etc. (Fig 9.1).
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 435

parallelogram trapezium

C
a

~h b
\
b
A = bh A= thea +b)

triangle

A~---L~b------~C

A"t bh
=tbcsinA

= Js(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
where s= a+~+c

FIG. 9.1. Formulae for the areas of some simple figures.

The average grade is determined by making use of weighted

averages. Let us consider an example in two dimensions. Figure 9.2
shows a vertical section through two drill-holes and we are required
to determine the area of copper ore between the drill-holes and assign
an average grade to it. In this case, the area is readily determined

XI X2

45m
4".
10m
1'Yo

+----------80m----------_

FIG. 9.2. Section through two adjacent boreholes intersecting copper ore.
436 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

from the trapezium formula:

(10 + 45)80/2 = 2200 m2
The grade could be determined by taking the mean of the two
intersections which gives a value of 2·5%. However, this does not
take into account the much longer and richer intersection in X2 which
would contribute more to the grade of the block than the shorter
intersection. One way of weighting the grades is known as the
metre-% method where the average grade g is given by:
_ IPT
g = IT
where P is the grade of an intersection and T its true thickness. For
the example above the mean grade is 3·45%. Another method is
known as the percentage method and the mean grade is determined by
the formula:

which gives 2·82% for the example above.

In the example in Fig. 9.2 there is a positive correlation between
grade and thickness, i.e. the longer intersection has a higher grade. If
we swap the grades between Xl and X2, we will have an example of a
negative correlation, i.e. the longer intersection has a lower grade.
The straight mean value is 2·5%, the same as in the case for a positive
correlation, but the metre-% method gives 1·55% and the percentage
method 2·18%. The ordinary mean should never be used because it gives
the same answer whether there is positive or negative correlation.
Although the metre-% method is widely used, it can be shown that it
over-evaluates for positive correlation and under-evaluates for negative
correlation. For this reason the percentage method is preferred. In cases
where there is poor correlation, i.e. grade and thickness are variable,
both methods give similar results.
In exploration geology we are normally required to calculate ore
reserves from a number of drill-hole intersections. For tabular bodies
with a low dip (up to 20°) a number of different methods can be used.
These can be divided into two types: (i) plan methods and (ii)
cross-sectional methods.

9.2 PLAN METHODS

Some of the plan methods are based upon assigning an 'area of

influence' around each drill-hole. Three of these are shown in Fig. 9.3.
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 437

0
0
0

0 0

0
0
0

0) reQula. blocks b) polYQonal method

c) polYQanal method d) tnanl/ula. method

FIG. 9.3. Some different methods for calculating ore reserves of low dipping
ore bodies in plan.

The first method (a) is based on dividing the ore body into rectangular
blocks. If the holes are regularly spaced, the lines separating the
blocks are drawn halfway between the holes. If the holes are irre-
gularly spaced, the size of the blocks will be arbitrary. The other two
methods (b) and (c) are two variations of the polygonal method. In the
first (b) the sides of the polygons around each hole are located by
joining the points at the intersections of the bisectors of the angles
between the lines joining the holes. In the second (c) the sides of the
polygons are the perpendicular bisectors of the lines between holes.
In the 'area of influence' methods each block or polygon is assigned
the grade and thickness of the hole at its centre. The area of each
block or polygon is determined and then multiplied by its thickness to
438 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

determine the volume. The sum of the individual volumes gives the
total volume of the ore body. The average grade is determined by
summing the products of each block volume and its grade and
dividing this sum by the total volume.
These 'area of influence' methods over-evaluate when there is a
positive correlation between thickness and grade and under-evaluate
when there is a negative correlation. This problem is overcome by the
triangular method (Fig. 9.3 (d». With this method, the area is divided
into triangles by drawing lines between the holes. The thickness and
grade for each triangle is determined as a weighted average of the
values in the holes at the corners of the triangle. The grade can be
determined by either the metre-% or percentage method. In the case
of the percentage method the formula for the three dimensional case
becomes:

The average thickness can be determined as a simple mean of the

three thicknesses at each corner. Let us consider the example of the
triangular method for the three drill-hole intersections given in
Fig. 9.4. By the metre-% method the grade assigned to the block is:
8 x 2·9+25 x 5·2+ 15 x 3·8 = 4.38%
(8+ 25 + 15) 0

and the thickness is:

8+25+ 15 = 16m
3
By the percentage method the grade is:

( 8 x 2·9 + 15 x 3·8 + 25 x 5·2 + 2.9 + 5.2 + 3'8)/4 = 4.07%

8+25 + 15 '0

and the thickness is 16 m as before.

FIG. 9.4. Plan view of three adjacent boreholes intersecting copper ore
joined for ore reserve calculation by the triangular method.
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 439

We can refine this further by weighting the values at each corner

according to the size of the included angle. The weighting factor is
determined by dividing the angle in degrees at each corner by 60. If
we do this the thickness becomes:

(8 x !~ + 15 x :~ + 25 x ~~) /3 = 17·72 m
and the grade becomes 4· 50% by the metre-% method and 4· 27% by
the percentage method.
The triangular method is better than the 'area of influence' methods
and, if there is either positive or negative correlation between grade
and thickness, it is better to use the percentage method in calculating
the mean grade. If there is no correlation, the metre-% method is
adequate and less laborious to calculate. Whether the metre-% or
percentage method is used it is best to weight the values according to
the size of the included angles as shown above.
Another plan method, known as the contour method (Gilmour,
1964), is very simple to use and gives good results. In this method two
contour maps of the ore body are drawn, one showing variation in
thickness (isopachs) and the other metre-% values. To calculate ore
reserves the areas between contours on the isopachyte plan are
determined with a planimeter and each area obtained is mUltiplied by
the respective mean value of the two bounding contours. The sum of
all the values so obtained gives the total volume of the ore body and
this multiplied by the correct tonnage factor gives the total ore
reserves. To determine the average grade the metre-% map is treated
in the same manner as the isopachyte map to give a total cubic
metre-%. This value divided by the total volume determined from the
isopachyte map gives the average grade. If one has the use of a
planimeter, this is probably the best of the plan methods to calculate
ore reserves as it avoids the problems of over- and under-evaluation
that sometimes occur with some of the other plan methods.
In any of the plan methods it is extremely important to use the true
positions of the ore intersections and not the collar positions of the
drill-holes as these will only be the same for perfectly vertical holes.

9.3 CROSS-SECTIONAL METHODS

These are based on drawing sections across the ore body, determining
the areas of ore in each section and computing the final volume by
using the distance between sections. In addition to being an alter-
native method to plan methods, cross-sectional methods are useful
for determining reserves of irregular bodies or bodies of variable dip
440 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

XI X2 X3 X4 X5

0510 50m
~,~'-L' __L--L__~~I

FIG. 9.5. Example of a drill section through a copper ore body to illustrate
ore reserve calculations by the cross-sectional method.

which cannot be calculated by ordinary plan methods. Figure 9.5

shows an example of a drill section and we are required to determine
its area and average grade. In this example the calculations are quite
easy as the section through the ore body has been drawn as a regular
figure. First the ore body section is divided into compartments at the
mid-points between holes and the grade in each hole is assigned to its
respective compartment. Next the area of each compartment is cal-
culated and mUltiplied by its grade. These are summed and divided by
the total area to give the average grade for the section. In the example
given the average grade becomes:
425 x 5 + 418 x 3·5 + 216 x 3·2 = 4.04%
425+418+216 0

over a total area of 1059 m2 •

This area was readily determined by dividing the figure into trian-
gles and trapezia, but it is not always possible to draw the sections as
regular figures and we need to consider methods of determining areas
of irregular figures. One method is to measure it directly with a
planimeter. This is a mechanical integrating instrument which consists
of a pole block, a pole arm, a tracing arm and a measuring unit. To
use the instrument the pole block is placed on the plan outside the
area being measured and the tracing point on the end of the tracing
arm is moved round the outline of the figure being measured. The
area is determined by reading the measuring unit before tracing the
outline of the figure and after returning to the commencing point. The
difference between the two readings multiplied by a scale factor gives
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 441

the area. The measuring unit consists of a graduated drum with a

vernier scale and another indicator to show the number of complete
revolutions of the drum. Planimeters with an adjustable pole arm can
be adjusted for the scale of plan being used, whereas fixed pole arm
planimeters give the area in square millimetres. Areas can be deter-
mined by resting the pole block inside the figure, but this is more
complicated and requires a correction.
Another method is known as 'give and take' and consists of fitting
regular figures (triangles, rectangles, trapezia, etc.) into the figure
making sure that all small areas of the irregular figure left out along
boundary lines ('give') are made up by approximately equal areas
outside the figure ('take'). An example of this is shown in Fig. 9.6(a)
which gives a total area of 1708·5 m2 •
A third method, known as 'counting squares', consists of placing a
squared overlay on the figure and counting whole and part squares
contained within the boundaries of the irregular figure (Fig. 9.6(b)).

give

a) 'give and take'

o, 10
,
20
, , m
30

b) counting squares

~. ~'2

C) trapezoidal rule and Simpson's rule

FIG. 9.6. Different methods of determining areas of irregular figures.

442 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

The total area is then obtained by summing the fractions of the

squares and whole squares.
Another method is knQwn as the trapezoidal rule. This is done by
drawing a longitudinal line within the figure and dividing it into a
number of equal compartments with cross lines drawn at right angles
to the longitudinal line (Fig. 9.6(c». The total area is given by:

A = d(a l ~ an + a2+ a3+'" + an-I)

where d is the width of the compartments and ah a2, ... an the
lengths of the cross lines. In the example shown in Fig. 9.6(c) the area
becomes:

A = lOe +;-5 + 13·5 + 16+ 18+ 18·5 +20+21 + 19+ 14+ 10)
= 1722.5 m 2
Another method which gives greater accuracy than the other
methods is known as Simpson's rule. The figure is divided up in the
same manner as for the trapezoidal rule, but it is essential that there is
an uneven number of equal strips. According to the rule, the area is
given by:

A = 3"d [al + an + 2(a3 + as + ... + an-I) + 4( a 2 + a4 + ... + an-2)]

In the example above the area becomes:

A= 13°[5+2'5+2(16+18'5+20+19+10)
+ 4(13·5 + 18 + 18·5 + 21 + 14)]
= 1713.3 m2
Once the areas of the individual cross-sections have been cal-
culated, there are three ways of determining the total volume. One
method is to mUltiply the area of each cross-section by the distances
midway between the adjacent cross-sections. An arbitrary distance
can be extended beyond the end cross-sections. This is usually a
quarter to a half of the distance to the adjacent barren or 'non-ore'
section. The sum of the individual volumes so obtained gives the total
volume. A second method is known as the trapezium method for
volumes. If the sections are equidistant, the formula becomes:

V = D(AI ~ An + A 2 + A 3+···+ An-I)

where AI. A 2, ... An are the corresponding areas and D the distance
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 443

between them. If Al and An are the end 'ore' cross-sections, an

arbitrary volume of .ore needs to be added to each end. This can be
calculated in the same manner as described in the first method. If the
sections are not equidistant, the formula becomes:
V =! [dl(A I + A 2) + d 2(A 2+ A 3) + d 3(A 3 + A4) + ... dn-I(A n- 1 + An)]
where Ah A 2 , ••• An are the cross-sectional areas and d l is the
distance between Al and A 2, d 2 the distance between A2 and A 3 , and
so on. The third method is known as Simpson's rule for volumes and
can only be applied if all the cross-sections are equal distances apart
and if there is an odd number of sections. The formula is:
D
V = 3" [AI +4(A2+ A4 + ... + An-I) + 2(A 3 + As + ... + A n- 2) + An]
As in the cases before, volumes need to be added to the last
cross-sections to take into account ore extending beyond the end
sections.
Let us consider an actual example to compare the various methods.
Figure 9.7 shows a small stratiform copper deposit outlined by a
number of vertical diamond drill-holes and we are required to cal-
culate drill-indicated ore reserves. The simplest method is to use
regular blocks. In Fig. 9.8, the deposit has been marked out in
rectangular blocks by drawing lines midway between the holes.
Calculations carried out as described for this method give 1 867780
tonnes at 3·30% Cu using an average s.g. of 2·70. Figure 9.9 shows the
deposit marked out in polygons in the manner shown in Fig. 9.3(b).
Calculations carried out in the manner described give 2 137 900 tonnes
at 3·48% Cu using an average s.g. of 2·70. Figure 9.10 shows the
deposit marked out for the triangular method. Note that narrow
rectangular blocks have been added around the edge to take in fringe
ore. In this case the boundaries chosen are one-third the distance to
the adjacent barren holes. The grades and thicknesses of these
rectangular blocks are simply the respective values from the holes
near the centres of the blocks. The percentage method was used to
determine grades of the triangular areas and values were weighted
according to the angles in the manner described previously. The total
reserves come to 1832340 tonnes at 3·23% Cu using an average s.g.
of 2·70. Figures 9.11 and 9.12 show the isopachyte map and metre-%
map respectively. The various areas enclosed by each contour and the
calculations are shown in the figures. Total ore reserves determined
by the contour method are 1919210 tonnes at 3·58% Cu. Figure 9.13
shows a series of cross-sections through the ore body. The areas
determined for each cross-section together with average grades are
shown in the figure. As mentioned earlier there are several different
 444 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

A B C 0 E

I I I I I
0 0
0
0
0

134 152
0 .,3.2 .,5., 0
3·7 3·9
62 107.7
.4.1 .~\ ·,5.8
6·2 36 5·1

110 131
0 .,4·3 .,3·9
4·1 4·2

.,8633·0
."
49 88
.76
5·8 32

45
o .108
2·2
o o

875
29 44·2 52 75 •
."·8
6~
.37 .,6·, .8·1 31
23 '·8 2·3 2·'

0 0

40
.6·8
26
22
.10·2 0 0
37

0 0

o Barren cr ~ub-economic o 30 60
mlt'lerailZ'ltion Iw-s;;;oi b d
• Economic intE"rsectiot'l metres

• 112 deFt;-. to han::::pngwJ{l (m)

J. 1 thlckne~s (rr,)
6·2 gnde (t/cl

FIG. 9.7. SmaIl stratiform copper deposit defined by diamond drilling.

 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 445

o o
o
o
o

•
132
•
15·1
o o
3·7 3·9

•
4·1 39600 39260
• •
7·5 158
6·2 36 51
10250 20700 49296

•
14 3
•
139
o
4·1 4.2

•
38610
•
18 11 44813
•
" 6
58 3 0 32
26600 75600 46200

• •
60 108 7·8 5·0
o
29
21000
•
22
45360
21
32760
•
23
13800
0 o

•
68

• • •
37
•
16·1 8·1 11·8
23 3 1
18 23 2·1 15912
11100 57960 24300 35400
o o
68
.26
12648

•
10 2
0
37
30600
0 0

•
13 2 thickness (m) 03060
~ Iwo; to;;J
3·7 grade (%1 metres
39600 volurne(cu·mJ

FIG. 9.8. Copper deposit in Fig. 9.7 marked out for ore reserve calculations
by the method of regular blocks.

ways these can be used to determine the final tonnage and grade. One
method is to multiply the cross-sectional areas by the distances
midway between adjacent cross-sections. The calculations for the
example in Fig. 9.13 are given on p. 446 using one-third of the distance to
the adjacent non-ore section at each end.
446 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

o o
o

o o

o o

o
o

1it2 thicknElss (m)

30 60
3·7 grade (%J
=Iaw!W
51080 volume leu m) metres

FIG. 9.9. Copper deposit in Fig. 9.7 marked out for ore reserve calculations
by the polygonal method.

Section Volume Volume x grade

A 1292 x 50 1292 x 50 x 4·34
B 3907 x 60 3907 x 60 x 3·21
C 2939 x 60 2939 x 60 x 3·48
D 2059 x 60 2059 x 60 x 3·27
E 1751 x 50 1751 x 50 x 3·92
Totals 686450 2393687
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 447

o o
o
o
o

o o

o o

o o

10.93 overage thickness

2·15 overage grade

o
I
30
I
60
I

metres

FIG. 9.10. Copper deposit in Fig. 9.7 marked out for ore reserve calculations
by the triangular method.

2393687
Average grade = 686450 = 3·49%
Tonnage = 686 450 x 2·7 = 1 853415 tonnes
U sing a variation of the trapezium method for volumes the cal-
culations are as follows:
448 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

o o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o 30 60
Ia---oL;;;J--I '"--"""'d
metres

FIo.9.11. Isopachyte map showing the ore thickness of the copper deposit
in Fig. 9.7.

Section Volume Grade Volume x Grade

Outside A 1292 x 20 4·34 112146
1292+3907 60 (1292 x 4·34) + (3907 x 3·21)
A+B 2 x 544463
1292+3907
3907 + 2939 60 (3907 x 3·21) + (2')39 x 3-48)
B+C 2 x 683076
3907+2939
2939 + 2059 60 (2939 x 3-48) + (2059 x 3·27)
C+D 2 x 508820
2939+2059
2059+ 1751 60 (2059 x 3·27) + (1751 x 3·92)
D+E 2 x 407906
2059+ 1751
Outside E 1751 x 20 3·92 137278
Totals 686450 2393689
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 449

o o
o 15--------...
o
30

o o

• •
24 16
o o o

• • •
29 19 25

0
(J ,,,
0 0
0

o 30 60
H H - I
metres

FIG. 9.12. Metre-% map of the copper deposit in Fig. 9.7.

2393689
Average grade = 686450 = 3·49%
Tonnage = 686450 x 2·7 = 1853415
This gives the same answer as the first method, though it is rather
more cumbersome.
U sing Simpson's rule for volumes we can calculate the tonnage as
follows:
V = 6~ [1292 + 4(3907 + 2059) + 2(2939) + 1751] = 655 700
450 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

SECTION A

30 60
! to;J
TOTAL 1292m2 at 1.-3!.% metres

SECTION B

7· 5m at3· 6%

TOTAL 3907m 2 ct 3·21%

SECTION C

TOTAL 2939m 2 at 3·45%

FIG. 9.13. Cross-sections through the copper deposit in Fig. 9.7 for ore
reserve calculations by the cross-sectional method. (All sections drawn to
same scale.)
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 451

SECTION 0

TOTAL 2059m 2 at 3 27%

SECTION E

TOTAL 1751m 2 at3 92%

FIG. 9. 13.-contd.
452 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Then, adding volumes for ore outside the end cross-sections, the total
volume becomes:
1292 x 20 + 655700 + 1751 x 20 = 716 560
Tonnage = 716 500 x 2·7 = 1934712 tonnes
To calculate the average grade:

(1292 x 20 x 4·34) + 630 [1292 x 4·34 + 4(3907 x 3·21 + 2059 x 3·27)

+ 2(2939 x 3·48)] + (1751 x 3·92) = 2449909
2449909
Average grade = 716560 = 3·42%

The results for the various methods are given in Table 9.1 where it can
be seen that they compare very favourably with tonnages varying from
1·83 million to 2·14 million and average grades from 3·23% to 3·58%.
TABLE 9.1
COMPARISON OF ORE RESERVES OBTAINED FOR THE
COPPER DEPOSIT IN FIG. 9.7 USING DIFFERENT
METHODS

Method Tonnage Grade

Regular blocks 1867780 3·30%
Polygonal 2137900 3·48%
Triangular 1832340 3·23%
Contour 1919210 3·58%
Cross-sectional (1) 1853415 3·49%
Cross-sectional (2) 1853415 3·49%
Cross-sectional (3) 1934712 3·42%

9.4 STEEPLY DIPPING ORE BODIES

When dealing with ore bodies dipping at more than 20°, it is no longer
satisfactory to use ordinary plan methods as they underestimate the
total reserves. At a dip of 20° this underestimation is 6%, at 25° it is
9%, at 30° it is 13% and at 40° it is 23%. To avoid this it is best to use
cross-sectional methods to make accurate reserve estimations of
steeply dipping ore bodies. Plan methods can be used, however, if
they are modified and vertical thicknesses used in place of true
thicknesses. This relationship is illustrated for two dimensions in Fig.
9.14. Vertical boreholes Xl and X2 have intersected an ore body R
dipping at 8°. The vertical thicknesses in Xl and X2 are XI and X2
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 453

X2
- - - - - ~---------- -r----.. -
I I
I I
I

.
I
I
I

:
I
I
+-----d----~~I
I I
I
I
\9-
I
I

R \
\~'j.,- )(1 2
\ e
\

FIG. 9.14. Diagram to compare the effects of using true and vertical
thicknesses of an ore body in reserve calculations by plan methods.

respectively with corresponding true thicknesses t 1 and t 2 • The

representation in plan of the ore in Xl and X2 will be represented by
the figure A with the heavy outline.
Now:

CI; t2)y
e
Area of R =

Area of A = l ; X2)d
tl = XI cos 8, t2 = X2 cos 8
d ~ y cos 8
R= (XI; X2)y cos 8
A = e l ; X2)y cos 8
:. R=A
454 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

9.S ORE BODIES OF VARIABLE DIP

If the dip of an ore body shows considerable variation, the reserves

cannot be determined accurately by ordinary plan methods. Cross-
sectional methods could be used quite effectively, but it is possible to
use plan methods either by using vertical thicknesses as just des-
cribed or, better still, by making use of unrolled sections. In effect
this is a process of flattening or 'unrolling' the ore body so that it lies
in one plane. Figure 9.15 (a) shows a cross-section of an ore body
with a variable dip and the curved distance d has been measured and
redrawn as a straight line to produce the unrolled cross-section of the
ore body in Fig. 9.15 (b). A plan of the ore body is then drawn using
the 'unrolled' measurements; this is the final unrolled section.
Ordinary plan methods can then be used as if it were a flat, tabular
ore body. It will be appreciated that unrolled sections can only be
produced if the strikes of the ore body are parallel or very nearly
parallel. If the strikes and dips are very variable, the ore body cannot
be flattened or 'unrolled' without distortion.

·1
1••- - - - - - d - - - - - -....

<:::7.' ... :.... :::: '..... '. '. '..J:..... '. J

or. body unroned7 .. (b)

FIG. 9.15. Diagram to illustrate the method of producing an unrolled section.

9.6 USE OF ORE BLOCKS

In addition to the methods described above, ore reserve calculations

can be made by dividing the ore body into a large number of cubes or
rectangular prisms. This is a useful method for very irregular or
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 455

pipe-like bodies. There are no set rules for doing this and the division
may be quite arbitrary. It is generally useful to break the ore body
into a series of horizontal slices and sub-divide these into the ore
blocks. Grade and tonnage factors can be assigned to each block by
interpolating between data points. Ore reserve calculations are made
by computers using this method and programs have been written for
generating the blocks from drill-hole data for specific ore deposits.

9.7 CUT·OFF GRADES

Before determining ore intersections for reserve calculations, it is

important to define the minimum grade which should be included.
This is known as the cut-off grade. The value chosen is usually
somewhat below the actual minimum economic grade as it is
generally found that the higher grades in the deposit will raise the
overall average to the economic grade required. For example, if the
economic grade in a particular copper deposit is 3%, the cut-off grade
used in the ore reserve calculations might be 1%. Small changes in the
cut-off grade used might make big differences in the overall tonnage
and this could affect the economic viability of the deposit. For
example, the ore reserves of a nickel deposit might be 3 million
tonnes at 2·4% using a 1% cut-off and 10 million tonnes at 1·3% using
a 0·5% cut-off. The larger tonnage of lower grade ore might be a more
attractive economic proposition than the smaller higher grade ton-
nage. For this reason, it is normal practice to carry out calculations
using various cut-off grades for comparative purposes. Table 9.2
compares the total ore reserves and tonnes of contained copper metal
for a large low-grade copper deposit obtained for various cut-off
grades.
Let us consider some examples. Figure 9.16 shows two drill-hole
intersections sampled in 50 cm lengths. In case A using a 0·5% cut-off
gives an intersection of 4·5 m at 1·78% Cu, whereas a 1% cut-off gives

TABLE 9.2
ORE RESERVES FOR A LARGE LOW-GRADE COPPER DEPOSIT
AT DIFFERENT CUT-OFF GRADES

Ore reseroes Cut-off Tonnes of

(millions of tonnes) Grade(%) grade(%) copper

957 0·70 0·1 6699000

749 0·84 0·3 6291600
435 1-14 0·6 4959000
456 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

A B
0·2%
0.3%
0-8%
0·8%
3-3%
1-2%
2.3%
2-5% o
1-9%
3.4%
3-2%
2-0% 2 metres
25-0%
1-9%
6-2%
2-7% 4
2-8%
0-9%
0-9%
0.6%
0-6%

0-3%

0-5% cut-off 1·0%cut-off

1·78% x4-5m 6·39% x3-5m
(includes high grade)
,- 0% cut-off 1-0%cut-off
2·28% x 3-0m 3·28%x 3-5m
(excludes high grade)

FIG. 9.16. Examples of two drill-hole intersections of copper mineralization

with overall grades determined for different cut-offs.

an intersection of 3·0 mat 2·28%. In case B there is one sample with a

very high value, several times greater than any of the others. In a case
like this it is normal practice to discard the unusually high value as it
is unrepresentative of the intersection. Using a 1% cut-off and includ-
ing the high value gives an intersection of 3·5 m at 6·39%, whereas
using the same cut-off and discarding the high value gives an intersection
of 3·5 mat 3·28%. The sample is not actually totally discarded, but rather
replaced by the average value obtained over the remainder of the
intersection (in this case 3·28% over 3·0 m).
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 457

In addition to specifying a cut-off grade it is also necessary to use a

minimum grade x thickness to determine what can be considered as
ore. This is done to take into account minimum mining widths. In the
past when mining was labour intensive, widths as narrow as 1 m or
less could be mined economically. This is still done in some parts of
the world in small mines, but, as mining has become more
mechanized and productivity per man-shift has had to be increased to
cover high labour costs, economic mining widths are usually of the
order of 3 m or more. In some cases it is still possible to mine widths
less than this, but it is rare for them to be less than 1·5 m. Thus, in
calculating the ore reserves of a copper deposit we might use cut-offs
of 1% Cu and 3 metre-%, i.e. a grade of 1% is required over a
minimum width of 3 m. Table 9.3 gives some intersections of copper
mineralization which have been defined as 'ore' and 'non-ore' accord-
ing to cut-offs of 1% and 3 metre-%.

TABLE 9.3
COPPER ORE INTERSECTIONS CLASSIFIED AS ORE AND NON-ORE
ACCORDING TO MINIMUM CUT-OFFS OF 1% eu AND 3 METRE-%

True thickness (m) Grade (%) Metre-% Ore Non-ore

2·31 1·51 3·49 X

4·53 3·20 14·50 X
1·20 2·73 3·28 X
8·27 0·81 6·70 X
5·20 1·73 9·00 X
1·34 2·20 2·95 X

In determining ore intersections or ore zones it is importallt to

remember not to include significant widths of barren or very low
grade material to make up wide intersections of 'ore', even if the
overall grade so obtained is greater than the minimum required. Two
examples of drill-hole intersections in copper ore are shown in Fig.
9.17. In case A there is a very narrow barren section which it would
be permissible to include in the ore intersection, but in case B we are
dealing with two distinct and separate upper and lower ore zones. As
they are quite rich, there is a temptation to include the middle section
which gives an overall intersection of 2·68%, doubles the reserves and
still gives an 'ore' intersection greater than 1% Cu and 3 metre-%. It is
not permissible to do this, however, because it includes 5 m of
virtually barren rock at 0·04% Cu. This could cause serious difficulties
during mining operations by resulting in the delivery of considerable
amounts of barren material to the mill during extraction of the
458 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

A B
0.21%
0·05%
4·35%
3.20%
3·26%
2·75%
0.12"/0
4·31% o
0·04%
0.03%
0.01%
2·15% 2 metres
0·02%
3·81%
0·03%
4.26% 4
5·28%
2.82%
6·45%
3·92%
7·21%
0·15%
0·09%

3 ·03% over 9·0m UPPER ZONE: 3·81% over 2·0m

LOWER ZONE: 6·31%over3·0m
OVERALL: 2·68%over10·0m

FIo.9.17. Examples of two drill-hole intersections of copper mineralization

with barren materials in the middle of each intersection.

so-called ore zone. It should be remembered that extraction of ore

does not necessarily take place over the full width of the ore body as
a single operation.

9.S TONNAGE FACTOR

In converting volumes to tonnages it is necessary to mUltiply by a

tonnage factor. In Imperial measure this is usually quoted in cubic
feet per ton (either short or long, though in North America the short
ton of 2000 lb is generally used). In metric units the tonnage factor is
simply the specific gravity or density which converts cubic metres to
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 459

metric tons or tonnes (1000 kg). Tonnage factors need to be deter-

mined experimentally from density measurements in the field or lab.
Density measurements on drill core or rock samples are easily carried
out using the standard procedure of weighing the specimen in air and
then weighing it immersed in water where the density is given by:
Weight in air
Weight in air - Weight in water
Rock densities are often quoted as dry or saturated densities. In the
case of hard, compact rocks there will be little or no difference
between dry and saturated densities, but in the case of porous rocks
there may be a significant difference. Since the major portions of
most ore bodies lie below the water table, saturated densities should
be used, though for most mineralized rocks there is little difference
between dry and saturated densities.
There can be big differences in tonnage factors for different types
of ore and it is important to use the correct tonnage factor or
evaluation of total reserves may be inaccurate. A number of typical
tonnage factors are given in Table 9.4, but it must be remembered that

TABLE 9.4
SOME TYPICAL TONNAGE FACTORS FOR VARIOUS TYPES
OF BASE METAL ORES

Typical tonnage factor

Ore type tonnes/m 3 ft 3 /short ton

Porphyry copper
(chalcopyrite + 5% pyrite)
0·5% Cu in granite 2·78 11·52
1% Cu in granite 2·82 11·36
Copper in argillite (bornite)
4%Cu 2·90 11·05
8% Cu 3·05 10·50
Pb-Zn in limestone
5% Pb, 5% Zn 3·10 10·33
10% Zn, 10% Pb 3·50 9·15
Massive sulphide (pyrite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, 15%
silicate gangue)
6% Zn, 1% Cu 4·55 7·04
Massive sulphide (pyrite,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite)
12% Zn, 2% Cu 4·75 6·74
6% Zn, 1% Cu 4·90 6·54
460 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

there can be a big variation due to variable amounts of heavy gangue

minerals such as barite, pyrite or magnetite, in addition to the ore
minerals.
Since the tonnage factor generally varies with grade, it is important
to be able to select the correct tonnage factor for the average grade of
the deposit. Therefore, during the course of normal assay work it is
advisable to have specific gravity determinations carried out on a
comprehensive selection of core samples. Table 9.5 lists a series of
s.g. measurements on some copper ore samples together with cor-
responding assays. These values are shown plotted as a scatter
diagram in Fig. 9.18 and it can be seen that they fall roughly along a
straight line showing a good degree of correlation. The regression line
can be drawn through them by eye or, better still, it can be calculated
by the method of least squares which gives the coefficients of the
regression line, y = bx + a, as follows:
nLxiYi- LXiLYi
b= 2
nLxl- [LXi]
a = y - b,i
Using the data in Table 9.5 the regression line is
Y = 0·0406x + 2·729
Thus, if the average grade of the deposit was calculated at 3·22%
the correct tonnage factor to use would be
Y = 0·0406(3·22) + 2·729 = 2·860
With complex ores of very mixed mineralogy, there may not be a
particularly good correlation between grade and tonnage factor. In
cases like this it is often best to determine separate tonnage factors
for the various parts of the deposit, but this becomes very cum-
bersome. The problem is illustrated by Fig. 9.19 which relates the s.g.
of a lead-zinc deposit (galena and sphalerite in limestone) to com-
bined grade. If there is a big variability in the deposit between
sphalerite and galena content a plot of grade against s.g. might show a
wide scatter of points between the two 100% lines.
For eluvial or alluvial deposits tonnage factors are rather difficult to
determine owing to the great variability of, such deposits as regards
degree of compaction, grain size and water content. For this reason
reserve figures for eluvial or alluvial deposits are often expressed
simply in terms of volume. For example, the grades and reserves of
an alluvial tin deposit may be quoted in kilograms of cassiterite per
cubic metre with total reserves of X m3• The volumetric measurement
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 461

TABLE 9.5
.G. MEASUREMENTS AND A A Y
VALUES OF CORE SAMP ES
FROM A OPPER DEPOSIT

s.g. % Copper
2·75 1·02
2·79 0·61
2·78 \·93
2·81 2·51
2·85 2·36
2·83 3·20
2·87 3·11
2·87 3·64
2·95 4·03
2·87 4·22
2·87 4·84
2·97 4·80
2·94 5·33
2·93 5·72
3·02 5·85
2·95 6·43
3·04 7·16
3·08 8.61
3·14 9,73

3·0

2·6

4 6 8 10
Qrode (%Cu)

FIG. 9.18. Plot of copper assays against s.g. from a copper deposit.
462 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

4·0

~
.~ 3·5
'"
(J
;;:
'0
~
(/)

5 10 15 20 25
Combined grade (% Pb+ Zn)

FIG. 9.19. Diagram to illustrate how there can be poor correlation between
grade and tonnage factor in complex ores.

is satisfactory for most eluvial or alluvial deposits as the grades are

generally determined by a mineralogical separation rather than a
chemical assay (kilograms of cassiterite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon, etc.
per cubic metre). If assays are used, a tonnage factor is necessary,
since assays are expressed in terms of weight percent. To determine a
tonnage factor, measurements have to be made in the field. The
simplest way to do this is to dig a circular pit, weigh all the excavated
material and compute the volume of the pit accurately by careful
measurement of its dimensions. Another method which is employed
to determine the volume of the pit is to pour a quantity of dry
measure such as maize or any other grain into the pit until it is full.
Then the volume of the pit is simply the volume of dry measure used.
It has been found that the volumetric measure with grain is quite
accurate. If the moisture content is likely to show a seasonal variation
or even variation within the deposit, it is best to determine a dry
tonnage factor by drying the excavated material before weighing.
Tonnage factors for eluvial and alluvial deposits generally vary from
1·5-3·0 m3/tonne (13-26 fe/short ton), depending on the type of deposit.
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 463

9.9 SAMPLING FOR GRADE DETERMINATION

Sampling a deposit would appear to be a relatively simple matter, but,

in fact, it is a highly complex business which has absorbed the
attention of a great number of workers and experts and has resulted
in the development of new statistical theories and methods. Before
considering some of the problems, the various types of samples will
be described below.
Bulk sample. This is a large sample taken for the purposes of mineral
dressing or metallurgical tests. Bulk samples generally weigh anything
from a few tonnes to several hundred tonnes. The actual weight
necessary to constitute a bulk sample is arbitrary, but a sample should
not really be referred to as a bulk sample unless it weighs at least a
tonne, although samples of several hundred kilograms are sometimes
referred to as bulk samples by geologists.
Channel sample. This is the type of sample familiar to all mining
geologists. As its name implies, it consists of cutting a channel across
the strike of a vein, a mineralized bed, down the wall of a pit or along
the bottom or side of a trench. The size of the sample depends upon
the nature of the material being sampled, but to be taken correctly it
should be of constant width and depth so that it is truly represen-
tative. The geologist should make a sketch in his field notebook of
each channel sample taken.
Chip sample. This type of sample consists of taking a series of rock
chips along a line or over a given area. It is useful in initial assess-
ment work. For example, in evaluating limestones in a certain area as
possible raw material for cement manufacture, chip sampling is a
good method for locating the potentially interesting limestones for
more detailed sampling later. Small chips are taken from all outcrops
within 1 or 2 m on either side of a series of lines run across the strike.
Instead of lines, areas can be marked out and chips taken from
outcrops within the defined areas. A problem with chip sampling is to
avoid biased sampling. There is always a tendency to take chips from
the more 'eye-catching' or interesting outcrops which results in an
unrepresentative sample.
Composite sample. This is simply a sample made up by combining
two or more individual samples.
Drill-core sample. This is the sample of most importance to explora-
tion geologists. The procedures of sampling are described in Chapter 7.
Grab sample. As the name implies, this is a sample taken more or less
indiscriminately at any place. At best it may give a rough indication
and at worst it is meaningless. It is the type of sample often taken at
an operating mine where, for example, a sample may be 'grabbed'
from an ore car or conveyor to obtain an idea of millhead grade. The
464 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

grab sample is best avoided in exploration work and any evaluations

based on grab samples should be regarded with the greatest degree of
caution.
Groove sample. This is really a mini-channel sample and, as the name
implies, consists of cutting a narrow groove across the strike of a
vein, mineralized bed, etc.
Panel sample. This is the type of sample taken when there are no
defined limits to the mineralization as, for example, in a winze or drift
which is entirely in ore. Panel samples are also frequently taken from
the sides of trenches. To take panel samples a series of rectangular or
square 'panels' is marked out on the face to be sampled and each
sample is cut to a uniform depth within each panel.
Sludge and other drill samples. Sludge, chip and dust from percussion,
rotary and, in some instances, diamond drills are important types of
samples. They are all described in Chapter 7.
The errors and problems involved in sampling a deposit may be
discussed under the following headings:
(i) Insufficient sample data points
(ii) Biased and unrepresentative sampling
(iii) Incorrect assumptions regarding distribution of sample values
(iv) Inherent sample variability
(v) Inherent variability of the deposit
(vi) Inaccurate assays

Insufficient sample data points

The exploration geologist often has to determine grade and tonnage
from a few widely spaced drill holes. For example, if we assume that
mineralization intersected in a hole truly represents ore within a
radius of 3 m of the hole, then on a 30-m grid the drill core samples
represent 3·1% of the ore. On a 60-m grid the core samples represent
0·79% of the ore and on a 120-m grid they only represent 0·20% of the
ore. In actual fact BX diamond drill holes on a 30-m grid only sample
0·0002% of the ore. If we consider the size of the sample that is
actually assayed, there is an even bigger disparity. Assume that a
drill hole with 46 mm core intersects 10 m of ore with an average s.g.
of 2·72. If the hole is assumed to represent ore within a 30-m radius,
then 45·2 kg of core samples 76906 tonnes of ore. The core is split for
assay so that the sample weight is only 22·6 kg or 0·000029% of the
ore. Now, if the core is assayed in I-m lengths and 5 g used for each
assay, which is carried out in duplicate, a total of 100 g is assayed.
Thus, the grade of the block of ore in the example is based on an
assay determined on 0·000 000 13% of the total material.
It is very difficult to determine when there is sufficient data to make
a reasonably accurate estimate of grade and tonnage. It depends upon
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 465

the inherent variability of the deposit, which itself has to be estimated

from the available data. If the mineralization is uniformly distributed,
a good estimate of reserves can be made from a few drill holes, but if
there is great variability in the deposit, even a high density of
drill holes may result in a poor estimate. Mistakes due to insufficient
data can be extremely costly. There is a case on record of a lead-zinc
deposit which was estimated to contain some 20 million tonnes of ore
on the basis of just over 20 diamond drill holes. The mineralization
occurs within a definite stratigraphic unit and it was thought to be
stratiform and fairly uniform. On the basis of these assumptions and
calculations shaft sinking and underground exploration were under-
taken. This work revealed that the mineralization was not stratiform,
but rather was controlled by a series of minor faults and the actual
tonnage was only about a tenth of that estimated from the drilling.
The high cost of underground exploration could have been saved if
more drilling had been done to enable a better initial assessment of
the economic viability to have been made. In addition to over-
optimistic estimates, deposits are sometimes under-estimated and
grades during mining are found to be better than those indicated by
the exploration drilling.
In the determination of grades at the exploration drilling stage it is
important to be able to make a reasonable estimate of the margin of
error involved and thus decide whether there is sufficient data or if
more drilling is required. In addition to various statistical methods for
doing this, sound geological judgment is very important. This is often
neglected in favour of a purely statistical approach, but a good
geological interpretation based on the style of mineralization and its
setting is invaluable.

Biased and unrepresentative sampling

There are set procedures in sampling to avoid, or at least miriimize,
biased sampling. Nevertheless, it is very hard to achieve unbiased
sampling and, indeed, a bias may be introduced inadvertently simply
by the choice of a certain drill grid pattern. The exploration geologist
should always be aware of the dangers of biased sampling and try to
ensure as far as possible that the sampling programme undertaken
will be representative of the type of deposit being evaluated. Some
simple examples of the type of thing to avoid, or at least be aware of,
in sampling are shown in Fig. 9.20.

Incorrect assumptions regarding distribution of sample values

In the examples of ore reserve calculations given earlier in this
chapter, arithmetic means were used to calculate the average grade.
This is only strictly valid for deposits in which the distribution of
 ~

low quortz contont. 'o"'y

10ft. well nun.rOllzed >oj

~
:r:
o
z
\
Zc:
ttl
CIJ

Z
==
Z
~
t"'
~
'tI

a) ChIp samples loken along lIne AB sample Ihe harder oulcropplng b) Poorly cut and uneven chonnel sample due to
~
"meslone ,n preference 10 lhe softer poorly exposed sho Ie vonoble hardness of vein ~
FIG. 9.20. Examples of biased or unrepresentative sampling.
 Olamond dnll ·hole churn drill-hole
----:----~ L____-::
o • a 0 .. 0 oil 0 <:> a <> U 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 ()
Q
o 0 _
-I .-J ~ 0 4 CII;; 0 c:) 0 overburden
o
--- 0 0d" /ro o 0 Q
&' 0,
OQ~ QO t::)oC O()oC 0 °QO
._. a
~

hard ... . . .. ~
....... o
:c
ttl
~J I ~. I ~ .. . 1 quartzite ,
.... . :": .... :..~.:"
. , '" • • , " It.. mmeral sands
:c
. ttl
til
t:~~. .~.: ~.:......::..
.. ........
' ttl
~V £ I if /t ..
ond 'OroY,'s
~
ttl
("l
"
min.rallzed Vlln ~c:::
I .
c) Poor core recovery In Ihe sol! friable shole results In ,"adequate d) Lock of ces'"g In hole results In conlem,nol,on ~
Z
samphrIQ and Ihe orlenlollon of the drill-hole means thai there of deeper semples by neor-surfece grovels til

IS a poor probab,llly of Inlersecllng Ihe veins

FIG. 9.20.-contd.

~
468 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

assay values is normal. In deposits where this is not so, the use of the
arithmetic mean will give an incorrect grade. It has been found that
frequency distributions of most deposits approximate either to normal
or log-normal patterns. For deposits in which the element of interest
occurs as a major constituent, such as in iron deposits, the dis-
tributions of assays are almost always very nearly normal and even
in other high-grade base metal deposits, there is still a tendency for
distributions to be approximately normal. In deposits in which the
element of interest occurs as a minor constituent, such as in gold or
molybdenum deposits, the distributions of assay values show a strong
tendency to be log-normal. In these cases the geometric mean or log
mean should be used to give a true evaluation of the mean grade as
the arithmetic mean will always over-evaluate a deposit in which the
distribution of values is log-normal. This effect was minimized in the
past by the practice of discarding unusually high values, but this is
not necessary if the log mean is used.
Before calculating reserves and overall grade, it is good practice to
plot a frequency distribution graph of assay values to determine
whether the deposit approximates to a normal or log-normal pattern.
Figure 9.21 shows a histogram of P 20s values from an eluvial phos-
phate deposit over a carbonatite. As the distribution is very nearly

20

15

o
§
"0 10

o~

8 12

FIG. 9.21. Histogram of phosphate values in 414 1·5 m-channel samples

taken from the West Valley, Sukulu carbonatite, southeast Uganda.

normal, arithmetic means can be used in determining the average

grade. Figure 9.22 shows an example of a cumulative frequency plot
on log-probability paper of Sn02 values from a pegmatite tin deposit
and it is clear that it approximates to a log-normal distribution. In this
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 469

>0 K)

0
.. 0-5 ~

~
11-
!;

-8D
0 ·1 <>1
<s
o O~ <>O~

... 90 ~
CumulatIve "I.
10

FIG. 9.22. Cumulative frequency plot of cassiterite content in 32 samples from

a deposit in southwest Uganda.

case the log means should be used to determine average grade. The
reserve calculations are made in the normal manner with the excep-
tion that the logarithms of the assay values are used. The average
grade is then simply the antilog of the final value.
One problem is plotting frequency distributions is that the samples
are often not the same size. It is common practice, for instance, to
sample drill core in lengths related to variations in the mineralization.
This is useful from a geological point of view, but, as it usually results
in samples of unequal length, it is not satisfactory from a statistical
point of view. Unfortunately, one has to make do with the data
available and single assays have to be taken as single sample points
even though they may represent different lengths.

Inherent sample variability

The nature of mineralization varies considerably with the type of
deposit and from deposit to deposit. At one extreme there are the rich
fine-grained ores uniformly distributed throughout the gangue or host
rock and at the other extreme are the lean coarse-grained ores
sparsely and very unevenly distributed throughout the gangue or host
rock. All gradations exist between the two extremes and it is obvious
that sample reliability is very much dependent on the style of
mineralization. A small sample from an ore block with uniformly
distributed mineralization may be a very good guide to the grade of
the block, whereas a small sample from an ore block with very
470 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

irregularly distributed mineralization is likely to be a very poor guide

to the grade of the block. Gold and tin deposits are notorious in this
latter respect and geologists familiar with a particular deposit often
put more store by the style of mineralization in a drill-hole inter-
section than by the actual grade indicated. A number of workers have
given considerable thought to the problems and have devised various
formulae for determining adequate sample sizes. The best known is
probably that of Gy (1965), who has devised a special slide rule for
performing the calculations. Gy's formula, which relates the sample
variance to a number of factors is stated as follows:

S2= (1- ';)fclg d3 / m

where S2 is the variance; m the sample weight in grams; M the
weight of the bulk; f a shape factor, usually 0·5(0·2 for gold); c a
mineralogical composition factor; I a liberation factor; g a grain size
factor, usually 0·25; and d the size of the largest ore fragment in centi-
metres (equivalent to the screen opening which holds 5% of the ore).
For bimineralic ores

c = (1- a)[(1 ~ a) 0"( + 0"2]

where a is the average amount of the ore mineral (100%==1), 0"( is the
density of the ore mineral and 0"2 the density of the gangue.
The liberation factor I is related to d/ L where d is the top particle
size and L is the liberation size of the mineral of interest. Some
values of I for various d/ L are given below:
d/L I
1 0·8
4 0·4
10 0·2
40 0·1
100 0·05
Usually m/M is very small and may be dropped so that the formula
becomes:

where C = fclg. For gold ores C = 19/a.

The slide rule has three scales, one for common ore, a second for
alluvial gold and a third for coal.
Let us consider a couple of examples using Gy's formula. A 10 kg
drill core sample of 1% copper ore consisting of chalcopyrite in
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 471

granite is crushed to 0·25 cm top size. The chalcopyrite grains average

about 0·05 cm across and we are required to determine what range of
copper values to expect at the 95% confidence level in a 1/8 split.
1% Cu == 2·9% chalcopyrite
0·25
dlL = 0.05 = 5, 1 = 0·38

c = (1- 0.029)[(1- 0·029)4·2 + 2.65] = 139

0·029
C = fclg = (0·5)(139)(0·38)(0·25) = 6·60
S2 = 6·60(0·25)3 = 0.0001
1250
S = 0·0091
At the 95% confidence level the required value lies within two
standard deviations of the mean. Thus, the values should lie between
0·98 and 1·02%.
A tin ore consisting of cassiterite and quartz grading 0·5% Sn02
with coarse cassiterite grains approximately 0·5 cm across is crushed
to 2 cm top size. How large a sample has to be taken for further
reduction to ensure that analyses are within ± 10% of the true grade at
the 95% confidence level?
2
dIL=0.5=4, 1=0·4

c = (1 - 0.005{ C~.~~~05)6.9 + 2·65 ] = 1369

C = fclg = (0·5)(1369)(0·4)(0·25) = 68
Now 2S = 0·05
S = 0·025
S2 = 0.0006
0.0006 = 68(2)3
m
m = 907 kg
Alternatively, if a 50 kg sample of the tin ore is taken what will be
the expected range of values at the 95% confidence level?
S2 = 68(2)3 = 0.01
50000
S = 0·10
2S = 0·20
472 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

The expected range of 95 samples out of 100 will be from 0·3-0·7%

Sn02.

Inherent variability of the deposit

Classical statistical methods are based on the concept of random
sampling and there are a number of reasons why they are often not
applicable in determining average grades of mineral deposits. Mineral
deposits are rarely sampled on a random basis. They are sampled in a
systematic manner for obvious reasons. This does not matter,
however, provided that the mineral particles are randomly distributed.
In other words any method of sampling will result in random data if
the various items of interest are themselves randomized. In the
majority of mineral deposits this is not the case as the mineralization
often displays definite trends and variations, known as the inherent
variability of the deposit. For the sampling to be random the follow-
ing conditions must be met:

(i) Equal sample lengths or, if sample lengths are unequal, there
must be no correlation between assays and lengths
(ii) Negligible density contrast or variation between ore and gan-
gue or between ore minerals
(iii) No trend or pattern to mineralization

Effects of unequal sample lengths

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, individual samples should have
the same volume for a correct statistical evaluation to be carried out.
This is not so important if it can be shown that there is no' correlation
between assay values and sample sizes. If there is a correlation
between sample sizes and assay values, the effects can be minimized
by using the percentage method in preference to the metre-% method
when weighting the grades.

Effects of variations in density

In making reserve calculations grades are generally determined by
using linear-%, area-% and volume-% relationships. Assays are
expressed in terms of weight and unless the weight/volume ratio is
constant or varies within a narrow range, average grades calculated
by volume-% will be in error. The problem is illustrated by the
example below which gives some drill-hole intersections for a hypo-
theticallead-zinc deposit (galena and sphalerite in limestone).
 ORE RES) RVE CALCULATIONS 473

Length Pb+Zn Length x Length x Length x

(m) Grade (%) s.g. Grade Grade x s.g. s.g.
2 5·0 2·90 10·00 29·00 5·80
1 5·1 2·91 5·10 14·84 2·91
1·5 8·2 3·01 12·30 37·02 4·52
1 7·6 2·99 7·60 22·72 2·99
2 15·3 3·27 30·60 100·06 6·54
2 14·9 3·26 29·80 97·15 6·52
1·5 18·1 3-37 27·15 91·50 5·06
2 16·3 3·29 32·60 107·25 6·58
1 12·3 3·16 12-30 38·87 3·16
1 11·7 3·15 11·70 36·86 3·15
J2 179·15 575·27 47·23

179·15
Average grade by volume-%* = -1-5 - = 11·94%
. 575·27
Average grade by welght-% = 47.23 = 12·18%

In the example above, a proportional increase of s.g. with grade has

been assumed, but, if the deposit shows more variation, the disparity
between the two methods will be greater. Let us consider the same
example but with a wider range in s.g. making the assumption that the
higher grades have a higher proportion of galena.
Length Pb+Zn Length x Length x Length x
(m) Grade (%) s.g. Grade Grade x s.g. s.g.
2 5·0 2·81 10-00 28·10 5·62
1 5·1 2·83 5·10 14·43 2·83
1·5 8·2 2·93 12-30 36·04 4·40
1 7·6 2·89 7·60 21-96 2·89
2 15·3 3·46 30·60 105·88 6·92
2 14·9 3·37 29·80 100·43 6·74
1·5 18·1 3·55 27·15 96·38 5·33
2 16·3 3·38 32·60 110·19 6·76
1 12·3 3·02 12·30 37·15 3-02
1 11·7 2·94 11·70 34·40 2-94
15 179·15 584·96 47·45

179·15
Average grade by volume-% = -1-5 - = 11·94%
. 584·96
Average grade by welght-% = 47.45 = 12·33%
These examples illustrate how s.g. can be as important as the assay
values in calculating the average grade. Many deposits exhibit only a

*V olume is proportional to the sample lengths.

474 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

fairly narrow range in s.g. and the volume-% methods for calculating
average grades as shown earlier in this chapter are quite satisfactory.
In deposits which exhibit a wide range in assay values and s.g.'s,
there may be significant differences in average grade calculated by the
two methods and the weight-% method should be used. Since s.g.
increases with grade in almost all types of deposit, the use of the
volume-% method will result in an under-evaluation of the average
grade. As s.g. determinations are rarely carried out on each sample
assayed, a graph such as that shown in Fig. 9.18 can be plotted from a
selected number of samples chosen over a wide range of assay
values. If there is a good linear trend, a regression line can be drawn
and then used to determine the s.g. for any assay value.

Effects of trend
Mineral deposits, in which the minerals of interest are randomly
distributed, are rare. Most deposits display definite trends and there-
fore cannot be evaluated properly by classical statistics. The problems
have been studied by many workers in different parts of the world.
Some of the better known studies include those by Krige (1951)
and Sichel (1952) in South Africa, de Wijs (1952& 1953) in Holland,
Hazen (1958) and Becker and Hazen (1961) in the United States and
Matheron (1962, 1963a & b) and Serra (1967) in France. To take
account of trend in mineral deposits Matheron introduced the concept
of the regionalized variable in the early 1960's and developed from it
his theory of geostatistics. In classical statistics individual samples
are selected at random from a population in which space has no
meaning, whereas in geostatistics the location of a sample in space is
important. In other words a regionalized variable is an actual function
taking a definite value for each point in space and is quite distinct
from an aleatory (based on chance) variable on which traditional
statistics is based. The mathematical expression of the regionalized
variable for most deposits would be incredibly complex if it could be
determined, but, as it is always unknown, the problem is to estimate
the properties of the regionalized variable from a sample as is done in
traditional statistics when the unknown properties of a large popu-
lation N are estimated from a small sample n drawn randomly from
it. To do this Matheron makes use of the variogram which is a
mathematical function derived from the sample data giving the degree
of natural dispersion of assay values. The variogram can be defined
for one, two or three dimensional cases, but only the unidimensional
variogram will be described here. If we have a series of samples along
a drift or from a series of drill holes across a deposit, the variogram
function is given by:
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 475

(h) = !(X2 - Xl)2 + (X3 - X2)2 + ... + (Xn - Xn_I)2

l' 'J 2(L-h)
where n is the number of samples, h is the distance between samples,
L is the total sampled length and Xl the first sample, X2 the second
sample and so on. The various types of variograms are shown in Fig.
9.23, but only those with good continuity (conforming to the de
Wijsian model) will be considered here. The absolute coefficient of
dispersion (a) can be obtained directly from the slope of the vario-

O(h)

h h

a) continuous type - fE·w deposits b) linear type - many base 'TIetal

hove such regu larity deposits are of this type

random
+

c) nugget type-many gold deposits dl transitive type -often shown

show this discontinuity at the by uranium deposits
origin

'O(h) 1--------

e) random type - rare in ore deposits

FIG. 9.23. Diagram to illustrate the various types of variograms (after

Matheron, 1963b).
476 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

gram or from de Wijs's formula

(T2 = a 10& (~)
where (T2 is the log variance of assay values, V is the volume of the
deposit and v the volume of the samples. This is only valid when the
deposit and samples are geometrically similar. If this is not so, for
example a tabular ore body sampled by diamond drill holes, the
Matheron-Wijs formula
(T2 = 3a loge (~)

has to be used where D and d are the linear equivalents of the ore
deposit and samples respectively.
D = A+B+O·7C
d = a + b +O·7c
where A, Band C are the dimensions of the ore block and a, band c
the dimensions of the sample with A > B > C, and a > b > c.
It should also be appreciated that the variogram may not be the
same along different directions of the ore body. Thus, it is normal
practice to determine variograms along at least two directions, one
along strike and one across dip. Isotropic ore bodies will have similar
variograms across the two directions, but some ore bodies may show
a marked anisotropy with very different variograms for the two major
directions.

Kriging
Kriging is a method of weighted moving averages proposed by
Matheron (1963a) and named in honour of D. G. Krige who first
applied the technique to the gold deposits of the Witwatersrand. It is
a useful technique for determining average grades of deposits with a
strong nugget effect characterized by erratic values. The effect of
kriging is to upgrade low values and downgrade high values using
smoothing factors or kriging coefficients obtained from semi-vario-
grams. If z is the unknown grade of a block of ore, then an estimator
z* is determined by kriging in the form:
z* = Iajxj
where aj are the sample weights or kriging coefficients and Xj the
sample assays, with the proviso that:
Iaj = 1
and the kriging variance (i.e. the variance of z by z*) should take the
smallest possible value.
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 477

B2

~ B3 C3
FIG. 9.24. Diagram to illustrate the principle of discontinuous kriging ap-
plied to a square grid.

In mineral exploration the problem is generally to estimate grades

of blocks of ore from drill holes. In Fig. 9.24 the shaded block in the
centre could be assigned a grade equal to the grade indicated by
drill hole A, but this does not take into account the grades in sur-
rounding drill holes which can be used to make a better estimate of
the block. Matheron gives methods for determining kriging
coefficients for a large number of different drilling patterns, but only
the determination of kriging coefficients for a square grid will be
shown here. In Fig. 9.24 the grades in drill holes Bh B2, B3, B4 and C h
C 2 , C3 , C 4 have an influence on the grade of the shaded block centred
on drill hole A. Further rings of drill holes could be considered, but
their effects are negligible compared with the first two rings of holes.
For the example in Fig. 9.24 the estimated grade of the block is given
by:
z* = (1- A - JL)u + Av + JLW
where A and JL are kriging coefficients and u is the grade of A, v the
weighted average grade of the B's and W the weighted average grade
of the C's. The kriging coefficients are determined from the graph in
Fig. 9.25 where the values along the abscissa are given by h/a, where
h is the average thickness of the ore and a is the drill-grid size. The
kriging variance is given by multiplying the value determined on the
2u/3aK curve by three times the absolute dispersion (a).
Kriging applied to widely separated sample data points such as a
series of diamond drill holes is known as discontinuous kriging. When
detailed sampling is undertaken by a series of closely spaced samples
such as in underground workings, the method is known as continuous
kriging. The principle is illustrated by Fig. 9.26 which shows a block
of ore sampled around all four sides. In traditional methods of
estimating the grade of the block each sample is given equal weight,
but in kriging the samples are weighted according to their position.
478 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

0·7

0·6

0·5
A
:::~----J~'~--~-:-<-'
cr-,f"-,l--------

0·2 ,..

0·1

I
h/o
FIG. 9.25. Graph for determining kriging coefficients for a square drill grid
(from Matheron, 1963).

13 21 32 21 13

13 13

21 21

32 32

21 21

13 13

13 21 32 21 13

FIG. 9.26. Diagram to illustrate the principle of continuous kriging.

The corner samples have less influence on the block than the ones at
the mid-points of the sides and are therefore assigned lower kriging
coefficients than the mid-point samples. The example shows possible
kriging coefficients determined for a particular deposit.

Inaccurate assays
It is obvious that good estimates of the grade of a deposit are
dependent on reliable sample assays. A wide range of assay methods
 ORE RESERVE CALCULATIONS 479

can be used depending upon the type of material, concentrations and

degree of accuracy required. In assay work there are two main
sources of error: (i) the sampling error in taking the aliquot required
for the actual assay and (ii) the accuracy of the assay itself. The
sampling error has already been described under inherent sample
variability and it is important to minimize it as an error introduced at
the sample splitting stage can never be removed no matter how
precisely and accurately the assay is carried out. The accuracy of the
assay is dependent upon the method and the skill and experience of
the assayer so it is important that samples only be sent to reputable
laboratories with competent analysts. Even so, it is advisable in any
sampling programme to send some duplicate samples to at least one
other laboratory as a check on the accuracy of the assays. A number
of studies of the reliability of assays have been made by sending
standard samples to numerous laboratories all over the world. Lister
(1977) gives the results of such a survey which shows that there may
be surprising aberrations. Nevertheless, standards of analysis have
improved in recent years and variations between laboratories are
generally within an acceptable margin of error.

Summary
The various problems encountered in sampling ore deposits have
been described to illustrate the pitfalls in calculating ore reserves and
average grades from exploration data. A brief outline of the latest
geostatistical methods has been given to introduce the reader to the
methods being used to overcome many of these problems. In most
exploration work, however, advanced geostatistical methods are not
necessary and the ordinary procedures described in this chapter can
be used. At the feasibility study stage where a detailed evaluation is
required, geostatistical methods may become important and the
reader is referred to the literature for details which are beyond the
scope of this book.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Becker, R. M. and Hazen, S. W. Jr. (1961). Particle statistics on infinite

populations as applied to mine sampling, U.S. Bureau of Mines Rept. of
Investigations No. 5669.
Berning, J., Krisic, S. M. and Saunders, J. H. (1966). Assessment of Palabora
ore reserves by computer techniques, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 75,
A 189-202.
Blais, R. A. and Carlier, P. A. (1968). Application of geostatistics in ore
evaluation, Ore reserve estimation and grade control, C.I.M. Spec. vol. 9,
41-68.
480 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Gilmour, P. (1964). A method of calculating reserves in tabular orebodies,

Econ. Geol., 59, 1386--1389.
Gy, P. (1965). Calculateur d'Echantillonnage (Gy's sampling slide rule),
Societe de l'Industrie Minerale, Saint Etienne, France, 16 pp.
Gy, P. (1966). Sampling of Materials in Bulk-Theory and Practice, vol. 1,
Societe de l'Industrie Minerale, Saint Etienne, France.
Gy, P. (1971). Op. cit. vol. 2.
Hazen, S. W. Jr. (1958). A comparative study of statistical analysis and other
methods of computing ore reserves utilizing analytical data from Maggie
Canyon manganese deposit, Artillery Mountain region, Mohave County,
Arizona. u.S. Bureau of Mines Rept. of Investigations No. 5375.
Jones, M. J. (ed.) (1974). Geological, Mining and Metallurgical Sampling,
Instn. Min. Metall., Lond. 268 pp.
Krige, D. G. (1951). A statistical approach to some mine valuation and allied
problems on the Witwatersrand, M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Witwatersrand,
South Africa.
Lister, B. (1977). Second inter-laboratory survey of the accuracy of ore
analysis. Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 86, B133-148.
Matheron, G. (1962). Traite de Geostatistique Appliquee, Tome 1: Theorie
Generale, Editions Technip, Paris, 333 pp.
Matheron, G. (1963a). Op. cit., Tome II: Le Krigeage, Editions Technip, Paris,
171 pp.
Matheron, G. (1963b). Principles of geostatistics, Econ. Geol., 58, 1246-1266.
Serra, J. (1967). Echantillonnage et estimation locale des phenomenes de
transition miniers, D.Sc. Thesis, Univ. de Nancy, France, 671 pp.
Sichel, H. S. (1952). New methods in the statistical evaluation of mine
sampling data, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond. 61, 261-288.
de Wijs, H. J. (1951). Statistics of ore distribution, part 1,1. Roy. Netherlands
Geol. Min. Soc., Nov., 365-375.
de Wijs, H. J. (1953). Op. cit., part 2, 1. Roy. Netherlands Geol. Min. Soc., Jan.
12-24.
 CHAPTER 10

Evaluation of Prospects

When exploratory work results in delineation of interesting grades

and tonnage, it is necessary to evaluate the economics of the pros-
pect. The principal factors to consider are:
(1) Treatment of the ore.
(2) Mining methods.
(3) Disposal of product.

10.1 MINERAL DRESSING

Ores are rarely mined in a saleable form and some degree of concen-
tration is necessary, i.e. the minerals of interest have to be separated
from the gangue, a process known as mineral dressing. There is a
wide choice of methods depending on the nature of the mineralization
and tests have to be carried out to determine the amenability of the ore
to treatment. Grades and tonnage of a deposit may be very good, but,
if the ore is difficult to treat, the deposit may prove to be uneconomic.
Thus, it is normal practice to carry out metallurgical or mineral
dressing tests on bulk samples from the prospect being evaluated. In
many cases such samples will consist of composite samples of split
drill core. The main stages in the mineral dressing process and the
principal methods in use are given in Table 10.1.

Crushing and grinding

The first step in the mineral dressing of most ores is to break them up into
small enough particles so that the individual ore grains are separated
from the gangue. This is usually done in stages and the breaking up of the
largest fragments is known as primary crushing. Jaw breakers and
gyratory crushers are usually used for this; both work on the principle of
squeezing the ore fragments in a wedge-shaped space between a fixed
plate and movable one (Fig. 10.1). The next stage in crushing, known as
481
482 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

TABLE 10.1
OUTLINE OF THE MAIN STAGES AND PRINCIPAL METHODS USED IN
MINERAL DRESSING

I Comminution
A. Crushing
jaw crusher or breaker, gyratory crusher, hammer mill, rolls, cone crusher
B. Grinding
ball mill, rod mill, stamp mill (now obsolete)

II Classifying
A. Screening
grizzly, fixed screens, shaking screens, trommels
B. Hydrocyclones

III Sorting and Separating

A. Hand sorting
B. Gravity separation
sluice boxes, jigs, shaking tables, Humphrey's spiral, heavy media
C. Flotation
D. Magnetic separation
E. Electrostatic separation
F. HydrometaIlurgy

IV Filtering and drying

secondary crushing, is generally carried out by cone crushers and rolls,

principles of which are shown in Fig. 10.1. To liberate the ore minerals
from the gangue it is often necessary to break the ore down into very fine
fragments. This process is known as grinding and the two principal types
of equipment for doing this are the ball and the rod mill (Fig. 10.1).

Classifying
The process of separating the crushed ore into various size fractions is
known as classifying. For the sizing of the largest fragments a grizzly
may be used. In its simplest form this consists of a series of heavy
steel bars fixed at equal distances apart and set at an angle of 25-50°
foxed
plol.

o
00
o
a) Jaw breaker ~
c) cone crusher ~
o"f1
b) gyratory crusher
'tI
~
CIJ
'tI

Q
CIJ

d) rolls
e) ball or rod mill

FIG. 10.1. Principal types of crushing and grinding equipment.

~
w
484 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

so that the oversize fragments can slide freely off it. Screens are used
for handling intermediate-sized particles and there is a wide variety of
types in use. They may be made from steel sheet with holes or slots
punched in it (punched screens) or from steel or other metal wires
woven into an open mesh (woven screens). The screens may be
stationary (fixed screens), but they are usually provided with a
mechanism for shaking or vibrating them (shaking screens) to prevent
clogging. In addition, screens may be used with dry feed (dry screen-
ing) or wet feed (wet screening). In the case of wet screening jets of
water are often sprayed onto the screen. Revolving screens in the
form of a drum are often used and are known as trommels.
Screening is not practical below a particle size of 50 ILm and other
methods of classifying have to be used. The most widely used piece
of equipment for handling these fine particles is the hydrocyclone or
simply cyclone as it is often called (Fig. 10.2). A suspension of
particles in water is pumped through a tangential feed tube at the side
and a vortex is set up in the conical vessel. Through the action of
centrifugal force the larger and heavier particles move out to the wall
of the cone where they meet a zone of reduced pressure and settle
towards the apex of the cone where they are discharged through an

overflow
(undersin)

underflow
(oversize)

FIG. 10.2. Schematic diagram of a hydrocyclone.

 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 485

opening. The finer and lighter particles remain near the centre of the
vortex and are discharged through a central overflow orifice.

Sorting and separating

The simplest method of sorting is hand sorting, which is carried out
on many small mines in parts of the world where labour is cheap.
Even in other parts of the world the method can be economic in
certain specialized cases when dealing with valuable ores though the
method sounds very primitive.
The modern replacement of hand sorting is known as photometric
sorting, which can be used to separate minerals with differences in
reflectance levels down to a minimum particle size of about 10 mm.
The equipment available has been developed to a high degree of
sophistication and numerous types of ores can be treated. Ore frag-
ments passing along a conveyor are scanned by a laser/rotating
mirror/photomultiplier assembly and the reflectance level of each
rock is signalled to an electronic processor which determines its
position on the conveyor and decides whether to accept or reject it.
Rejected rocks are blasted onto a separate conveyor as the scanned
material passes over a blast manifold connected to a high-pressure air
supply.
Many ore minerals have a higher density than the gangue and a
number of gravity techniques can be used to effect a separation.
These methods are very simple and work extremely well with ore
minerals such as gold, cassiterite, wolfram and ilmenite. One of the
simplest techniques that has been used since ancient times is the
sluice box (Fig. 10.3). This consists of a long open box with battens,
known as riflles, set across the bottom. The pulp to be treated flows
in at one end and the larger and denser particles settle between the
riffles. The method is crude, but it is very cheap and is still used in
some parts of the world as a first step in upgrading low grade ores of
heavy minerals such as cassiterite for later treatment by more efficient
methods.
A widely used gravity technique for separating sand size particles is
jigging. The basic principle of the jig is the pulsating of the particles
on a screen. This is accomplished either by having a moving screen,
or more commonly, by using a plunger mechanism to provide the
pulsations (Fig. 10.3). The lighter particles are brought to the top and
are carried out of the jig by the overflow, while the heavier
particles collect on the screen and are drawn off into a launder under
a gate which excludes the lighter particles resting on top of the
heavies. Undersize particles which pass through the screen are known
as the hutch product and collect in a compartment from which they
are periodically drawn by a spigot. The hutch product consists of both
dense and light fines and requires further treatment.
 ~
C/"o

lib oed ..,

'--- - '\
or-o"f ~
JJ' C \= n·' n n C n Q ' 0 ~ n, 'Q If !l19h1 pa,''''') :I:
Z
plllnao,
...... heavy portier .. """
bet. . ,n "ftl..
'0111"9' launder
~ttl
en
0) s)ulce box
Z
~
lef,," Z
conclnttOle ttl
'etd wat., / _wal_
""IOh
~
t""
ttl
MCtKW' of trOUQt'I
=-- ><
"C
t""
o
..,~
oz
IQ lhnos mKldll~.. Conctf1tralt
d) Humphrey's spllol
c) )10
b) shokinO loble

FIG. 10.3. Principal types of equipment for effecting gravity separations.

 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 487

For separating particles too fine to be treated by jigs shaking tables

may be used. These consist of a large flat surface or table inclined
slightly forwards and sideways which is vibrated with a horizontal
motion. Each cycle consists of relatively slow forward motion and
rapid backward motion. The surface of the table is divided up by
numerous, small, longitudinal riffles. Heavy particles move along the
riffles and are washed off at and near the end of the table. Light
particles move down with little horizontal movement and are washed
off near the back of the table (Fig. 10.3).
Another method of gravity separation that is widely employed in
treating mineral sands is the Humphrey's spiral. The appliance con-
sists of five turns of troughing in the form of a spiral. The separating
action is complex, but essentially it results in the lighter particles being
washed and carried out towards the outer edge of the trough, while the
heavier particles remain near the centre (Fig. 10.3).
In mineral separations carried out in the laboratory heavy liquids
are frequently used, but all are too expensive to be used industrially.
However, dense pseudo-liquids can be prepared by using a suspen-
sion of a finely divided solid in water. The use of such a process is
known as heavy media or dense media separation (DMS). Solids that
are used include galena, ferro-silicon and magnetite. The technique
has been used for a number of different minerals, but it is most
commonly employed in coal washing plants. High-grade coal floats in
a liquid of specific gravity 1·12-1· 35 and medium-grade coal in a liquid of
specific gravity 1· 35-1·6. A laboratory test to separate coal from car-
bonaceous shale is to use carbon tetrachloride (specific gravity 1·5) as
the heavy liquid. On an industrial scale a magnetite-water suspension
with a carefully controlled s.g. is used as the heavy 'liquid'. Magnetite
has the advantage that it can be readily recovered by a magnetic
separator and recycled.
It will be appreciated that the gravity methods with the exception
of the DMS technique do not separate simply according to s.g. The
separation of heavier particles from lighter ones is a function of both
size and s.g. Thus, gravity methods act as classifiers in addition to
separators. For this reason it is normal to limit the feed to jigs and
tables to a narrow size range so that the gravity separation effected is
mainly due to differences in s.g.

Flotation
This technique depends essentially on the property of surface tension
which can be expressed as the 'wettability' of mineral particles. If air is
bubbled through an aqueous suspension of mineral particles, bubbles
will adhere to those particles which have a low wettability and thus cause
them to float. Air bubbles will not adhere to easily wettable particles and
488 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

they will sink. Since the surface properties of ore and gangue minerals
vary within narrow limits, it is necessary to treat them selectively so that
the desired minerals can be made to float. Organic reagents known as
collectors are used for this and include oils (e.g. kerosene, fuel oils,
creosotes), organic acids (e.g. oleic acid), salts of organic acids (e.g.
xanthates-the most successful collectors) and organic bases (e.g.
amines). Reagents known as conditioners are usually added to the pulp
to control pH within narrow limits. Common conditioners are inorganic
acids and bases. Two other classes of reagents are known as activators
and depressors. As the names imply one is to render a mineral amenable
to the action of a collector and the other is to render it inactive towards a
collector. An example of an activator is the use of copper SUlphate in the
flotation of sphalerite. The cupric ions, which replace the zinc on the
surface of the sphalerite grains, adsorb the xanthate collector so that the
sphalerite becomes floatable. An example of a depressor is cyanide
which is a powerful depressant for pyrite and sphalerite. The other
important reagent for flotation is the frother or frothing agent. A
common frothing agent is pine oil, but a number of new synthetic
frothing agents are available and their use is increasing. The principle of
the flotation cell is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.4.

r. 0lf sI<.mfNnQ paddl.

'll~O:O
0_/°
o·
.0.
. .. .
• ••

• 0 •
0° ~-===,o=!he=:===ne=l' cell

o •
o •

FIG. 10.4. Schematic diagram of a flotation cell.

Flotation cells are usually set up in series for repeated treatment to

ensure recovery of all the floatable product. Before being fed into a
cell, the pulp is mixed with the various reagents in conditioning tanks.
Banks of rougher cells are used to provide a rough concentrate from
the earliest treated material and banks of scavenger cells are used to
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 489

recover the last traces of floatable product before discarding the final
tailings. Flotation is a cheap and versatile process which is used for
the various sulphide minerals in addition to a wide range of other
minerals such as apatite, kyanite, barite, graphite, mica, pyrochlore
and zircon. The process has many variables and there are numerous
complicating factors, and skilled and experienced operators are
required to ensure correct and efficient flotation. For flotation to be
carried out efficiently the mineral particles need to be less than 250 ILm
with a lower limiting size of approximately 10 IL m. These extremely
fine particles, known as slimes, are difficult to treat by any method
and generally have to be discarded with the tailings even if they
contain ore minerals.

Magnetic separators
A wide variety of equipment has been designed and built to exploit the
magnetic properties of certain minerals in effecting separations. Both
permanent magnets and electromagnets are used and both wet and dry
material can be subjected to magnetic separations. In their simplest
applications magnetic separators are used to remove ferromagnetics
such as magnetite and tramp iron, but they can be used for separating a
number of minerals with much smaller differences in magnetic suscep-
tibility. In this latter regard, magnetic separators are commonly
employed in treating zircon and monazite sands and in separating
tantalite or columbite from cassiterite concentrates.

Electrostatic separators
Electrostatic separators, or high tension separators (HTS) as they are
often known, are used in the separation of small dry particles by
exploiting the differences in conductivity of mineral grains using an
electrostatic charge. If mineral particles are charged by static electricity
and then allowed to come into contact with a conductor at earth
potential, weakly conducting grains will remain in contact with the
earthed conductor by electrostatic attraction longer than good conduc-
tors which readily lose their electrostatic charges. Quite a wide range of
minerals are treated by HTS, but probably their widest application is in
the treatment of beach sands containing zircon, rutile, ilmenite and
monazite. Figure 10.5 shows the principle of an electrostatic separator
and Fig. 10.6 gives a rough outline of how magnetic and electrostatic
separators are used in treating beach sands.

Hydrometallurgy
Instead of using physical properties ~n effecting mineral separations,
chemical methods can be used and are conveniently classed as
hydrometallurgical methods. Some minerals are not amenable to
490 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

_ - - - - - HT

conduC""9 partIcles

FIG. 10.5. Principle of an electrostatic separator.

beach sand

!
r---GRAVITY SEPARATION (SpIRALS)

(quartz.~es,etc.) OR~ER
!'---- ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATOR ---"'l
non-conduclors conduc',,"
(mcon, monoZl'e, (rut,Ie, ,Imen,te)
oonoue}

*
rGRAVITY SEPARATION (TABLES)j rMAGNETIC SEPARATORl

!2!b non.m09nelICs tn09net ,es

(~) (~)

rMAGNETIC SEPARATORl

non-m09nellcs tn09ne"cs
(~) (C!l!l!!K1l§)

FIG. 10.6. Outline of a ftowsheet for treating beach sands.

physical separations, either because the grain size is too small, or

because the properties of the minerals do not lend themselves to easy
separation by physical methods. One of the oldest hydrometallurgical
techniques is cyaniding of gold ores. A weak solution of potassium,
sodium or calcium cyanide when aerated will readily dissolve gold by
forming the complex anion Au(CN)2". The gold is recovered from the
solution by adding powdered zinc which replaces and precipitates the
gold.
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 491

Acids can be used to dissolve certain minerals to separate them from

the gangue and such techniques are widely used in the leaching of
copper and uranium minerals. Sulphuric acid is generally used and is an
important method for treating copper oxide ores which are difficult to
treat by other methods. In many cases leaching is carried out in situ so
that the method can be classified as a mining technique as well as a
mineral dressing method. In addition to using sulphuric acid, bacterial
action can be used to accelerate the leaching of copper ores. Certain
bacteria such as Ferrobacillus ferro-oxidans feed on ore minerals in an
acid environment and convert ferrous sulphate, produced by the
oxidation of pyrite, to ferric sUlphate which reacts with any copper
sulphides present to form copper sUlphate. The bacteria also promote
the formation of sulphuric acid which becomes available for leaching
copper oxide minerals. For successful bacterial leaching, pyrite has to
be present in minerals being treated. In addition to the use of acids for
leaching, carbonate leaches in alkaline solution are used in treating some
uranium ores.
The metals may be recovered from solution by precipitation. For
example, copper is precipitated from copper sUlphate solution by
adding scrap iron, often in the form of old tin cans from which the tin
and lacquer coatings have been removed, to the solution. To concen-
trate the metals in the leach liquors, ion-exchange resins or solvent
extraction techniques may be used. This is particularly common for
recovering uranium, but may also be used for other metals. In the
solvent extraction technique a suitable immiscible organic solvent is
added to the leach liquor and transfer of the metal ions to the organic
solvent results in a marked concentration of the metal in question.
Hydrometallurgical techniques have become highly refined and there
are a wide range of methods that can be applied depending on the ore
being treated.

Amalgamation
This is a technique which is used to recover gold and silver from ores. If
a finely ground ore containing native silver and gold is passed over
copper plates coated with mercury, the mercury absorbs the gold or
silver by forming an alloy known as amalgam. The precious metals can
then be recovered by driving off the mercury in retorts. This technique is
cheap and simple, but is is only effective in treating simple ores with
fairly coarse-grained native gold or silver. Complex ores containing
sulphides are not amenable to amalgamation techniques.

Filtering and drying

After a concentrate is produced, it is usually necessary to dry it since
most concentrating processes are undertaken on wet material. In the
492 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

case of sand-sized particles drying is generally a simple process since

a large part of the water content drains away freely and the concen-
trate can be force dried over a fire directly. In the case of fine-grained
concentrates, such as those produced by flotation, it is not so simple
to reduce the water content. The concentrate slurry is usually first
passed into a thickener, which is a large tank in which the sludge
settles out under the influence of gravity. Instead of a thickener, a
cyclone can be used by setting it so that all solids pass through the
underflow. Once the excess water has been removed, the concentrate
sludge is passed through a filter and then dried.

Summary
Although the exploration geologist cannot expect to have a detailed
knowledge of mineral dressing techniques, it is important for him to
have an understanding of the basic principles so that he can under-
stand reports on metallurgical testing of samples. Let us consider
some examples to illustrate some of the methods used in treating
samples. Two samples of magnetite-rich material from different parts
of the Sukulu carbonatite in Uganda were submitted for testing as a
possible iron ore. Both samples contained large amounts of phosphate
which rendered them unsuitable in a raw state as potential iron ores
and tests were carried out to see to what extent the phosphate content
could be reduced in concentrates.
The raw samples gave the following assays:
Sample 1 Sample 2
45·5% 57·4%
3·6% 3·1%
Both samples were treated by grinding in a laboratory rod mill at
50% solids to -72 mesh. The +350 mesh fraction was removed by wet
screening and the magnetic fraction removed with a hand magnet.
The -350 mesh material was deslimed in a laboratory cyclone by
removing the -15 ILm fraction at a pressure of 1·40 kg/cm 2• The
cyclone underflow was treated in a similar manner to the +350 mesh
fraction to produce a magnetic and non-magnetic product. The results
are given in Table 10.2.
The results in the table can be summarised as follows:
1. Total magnetics give the concentrate.
Sample 1
Mags 55·77 weight%
%P 0 = (5·0 x 20·18) + (3·3 x 35·59) = 3.9"'-
o 2 5 55.77 7'0
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 493

TABLE 10.2
RESULTS OF TEST WORK ON IRON ORE SAMPLES FROM SUKULU,
UGANDA

Sample 1

Assay Distribution

Product Weight % P20 S Fe

Mags + 350 mesh 20·18 5·0 52·0 28·1 23·1

Non-mags + 350 mesh 12·19 2·0 41·7 6·8 11·2
Mags - 350 mesh 35·59 3·3 46·1 32·7 36·1
Non-mags - 350 mesh 3·52 2·2 43·4 2·2 3·3
Cyclone overflow 28·52 3·8 42·0 30·2 26·3
Head calc. 100·00 3·6 45·5 100·0 100·0

Sample 2

Assay Distribution

Product Weight % P20 S Fe

Mags + 350 mesh 72·18 0·7 63·0 16·5 79·2

Non-mags + 350 mesh 3·65 15·0 29·0 17·9 1·8
Mags - 350 mesh 10·34 0·8 63·7 2·7 11·5
Non-mags - 350 mesh 4·49 23·4 13·6 34·4 1·1
Cyclone overflow 9·34 9·3 39·5 28·4 6·4
Head calc. 100·00 3·1 57·3 100·0 100·0

MF = (52 x 20·18) + (46·1 x 35·59) = 48.2%

70 e 55.77 '0

Sample 2
Mags 82·52 weight%
%P 0 = (0·7 x 72·18) + 00·34 x 0·8) 0.7%
o 2 S 82.52 '0

~F = (63·0 x 72·18) + (10·34 x 63·7) = 63.1"'-

YO e 82.52 YO

2. Total non-magnetics plus cyclone overflow give the discards or

tailings. Phosphate and iron grades can be calculated in the same
manner as above.
494 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

3. Total Fe distribution in the magnetics gives the recoveries.

Sample 1 59· 2% recovery

Sample 2 90· 7% recovery

Thus, a concentrate grading 48·2% Fe and 3·9% P205 with an iron

recovery of 59·2% is produced from sample 1 and a concentrate grading
63·1% Fe and 0·7% P 20 5 with an iron recovery of 90·7% is produced
from sample 2. The results show that sample 1 is quite unsuitable as a
potential iron ore; less than 60% of the iron is recovered, the iron
grade is poor and no reduction in the phosphate content is achieved.
Sample 2, on the other hand, is quite encouraging; a good iron
recovery in excess of 90% is achieved, the iron grade is good and a
big reduction has been made in the phosphate content. The phosphate
content is still rather high for an iron ore, but it could be tolerated in
certain circumstances.
As a further example let us consider two samples of copper ore
from a deposit in Zambia. Sample A contains a high proportion of
sulphide minerals and sample B is a mixed oxide-sulphide ore. The
head assays were:
Sample A Sample B
3·21%Cu 2·94%Cu

The 2-kg samples were ground in a ball mill until 50% passed 200
mesh and then both were sUbjected to a single (rougher) flotation test,
but in the case of sample B it was subjected to conditioning with
sodium sulphide to render the oxide minerals amenable to flotation.
This is a process known as sulphidization. The results are given in
Table 10.3.
Sample A shows that it is very amenable to treatment with an
overall copper recovery of 97 ·6% and concentrate grade of 27·3% Cu.
Sample B, on the other hand, is obviously difficult to treat. A good
concentrate grade was obtained, but only 55·7% of the copper was
recovered. Such mixed ores can be extremely difficult to treat and,
although a number of techniques, such as leaching the oxides after a
sulphide float, can be applied, a good copper recovery may never be
achieved. Thus, good assay grades indicated at the exploration stage
can be effectively reduced to levels that may be uneconomic. In terms
of recoverable grades indicated by the tests given, sample A is
reduced from 3·33 to 3·25%Cu and sample B from 2·92 to only
1·63% Cu.
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 495

TABLE 10.3
RESULTS OF SOME TEST WORK ON COPPER ORES FROM A DEPOSIT IN
ZAMBIA

Sample A

Product Weight % Assay (%Cu) Distribution

Rougher concentrate 11·9 27·3 97·6

Final tailings 88·1 0·1 2·4
Calculated head 100·0 3·33 100·0

SampleR

Product Weight % Assay (%Cu) Distribution

Rougher concentrate 4·7 34·6 55·7

Final tailings 95·3 1·36 44·3
Calculated head 100·0 2·92 100·0

10.2 SMELTING AND REFINING OF ORES

Smelting is the process of melting and separating metals from ores

and concentrates and it thus consumes large amounts of energy.
There are many different types of smelting processes and variations
on them, depending on the type of ores and final products. In order to
recover the capital investment in building a smelter and ensure
profitability, it is necessary to be able to deliver a steady supply of
concentrates over a long period of time. For this reason only the
largest mines are able to justify the additional investment required for
constructing their own smelters, though mines located in remote areas
with high transportation costs may have smelters built, since finished
metal is able to stand up to longer transport than the lower valued
concentrates. Most small and medium-sized mines, however, sell
concentrates directly to smelters for processing and have no further
interest in their products beyond the concentrate stage. After smelt-
ing, there are a number of processes for refining the metal product.
Electrolytic methods of refining are used for a number of metals and
result in a very pure product.
If concentrates are sent to a smelter, the producer is paid for the
metal contained in the concentrate on the basis of the metal market
price, less costs incurred by the smelter together with a profit margin.
The price paid to the mine for the metal contained in the concentrate
496 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

is known as the Net Smelter Return (NSR). For example, if the

market price for copper was 75 ¢/lb, the NSR received by a mine
producing copper concentrates might be 63 ¢/lb of contained copper
metal. The actual pricing is quite variable and depends on the metal
and district, but the payment by the smelter generally varies from 60
to 90% of the value of the contained metal. In addition bonuses may
be paid for small amounts of precious metals which can be recovered
at the refining stage and, vice versa, penalties can be incurred for the
presence of elements such as As and Bi; the presence of Hg in the
concentrate may even make it unsaleable.

10.3 MINING METHODS

At the evaluation stage it is necessary to decide on the basic mining

method to determine costs. Initially this only needs to be known
approximately and details of the method to be employed can be
worked out by mining engineers if the economics of the deposit appear
favourable. Near-surface deposits will be mined by surface methods
and deeper deposits by underground methods. For obvious reasons
underground methods are much more expensive than surface
methods and economic trends today with rapidly rising costs favour
large open-pit mines in which economies of scale can be employed.
For example, it is not many years since dump trucks of lOO-tonnes
capacity were unusual, whereas today 200-tonne trucks are in use at
many mines and trucks of 400-tonne capacity are planned. By moving
large quantities of material at a time unit costs can be brought down, but
the high capital costs involved require extremely large deposits to
ensure the necessary high rate of production.

Surface methods
Alluvial or placer deposits are worked by dry or wet surface mining
methods. Wet techniques include hydraulic mining and dredging.
Hydraulic mining employs the use of powerful jets of water for
breaking up soft material and washing it down to treatment plants. The
water jets are directed by large nozzles known as monitors. Dredging
is commonly employed in offshore mining or in naturally flooded
areas, but it can also be used in dry areas by flooding and maintaining
small lagoons for floating the dredges. Such techniques are widely
used in alluvial tin mining in Malaysia, where the dredges not only
mine the tin-bearing gravels, but are fully equipped with mineral
dressing machinery for recovering the final cassiterite concentrate.
Dry mining methods for unconsolidated or soft material employ a
wide range of excavating machines which include bulldozers, front-
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 497

end loaders, bottom excavators, drag-line excavators and bucket

wheel excavators.
Hard rock deposits are worked from open pits and have to be
drilled and blasted to recover the ore and remove waste. Enormous
holes may be excavated in this manner by working from a series of
benches. The largest open-pit mines are hundreds of metres deep with
lengths and widths of several kilometres. An important consideration
in the economics of open-pit mining is the stripping ratio, which is
defined as the ratio of total waste removed to total ore mined.
A surface mining technique commonly employed for fiat-lying,
shallow, bedded deposits such as coal seams is known as strip mining.
With this method extremely large excavators (drag-lines or bucket
wheel excavators) remove the overburden to expose the seam or ore
bed for working. As the seam or ore is progressively extracted, the
overburden can be replaced to restore the landscape. In strip mining
an important consideration is the overburden ratio, which is defined
as the ratio of the vertical thickness of overburden to the vertical
thickness of ore.

Underground methods
There are a wide range of underground mining methods that can be
employed depending upon the type of deposit. Access to the ore may
be by shafts, inclined shafts, declines or adits if the topography is
favourable. For depths up to 500 m access by declines with gradients of
1 in 7, which allows truck haulage, is the most economical method, but
shafts are generally used for access to deeper deposits. Once a method
has been selected and mining engineers have planned the detailed
layout, site work can begin. Before any ore can be extracted, a
considerable amount of development will be required to gain proper
access to the ore body. This development work of sinking shafts, putting
in declines, roadways and ore draw points is costly and, since no ore is
produced, no revenue is obtained. Therefore, it is extremely important
that this initial development is carried out efficiently and without delays
to ensure smooth and steady production of ore as soon as possible.
Underground openings from which ore has been extracted are
known as stopes and the process of removing ore is known as stoping.
Ore may be worked from a lower level to a higher one (overhand
stoping) or from a higher level to a lower one (underhand stoping). There
is a wide range of stoping methods that can be used depending upon the
width of the ore body, the attitude of the ore body, the strength of the ore
body and the strength of the country rock.
Open stoping is used in steeply dipping vein deposits with good
rock strengths. As the name implies no ground support is used and
the stopes are left as permanent openings. In practice some support is
498 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

necessary, but it generally consists of leaving some ore behind as

pillars. H ground conditions are not very good, timber supports
known as stulls may be put in and the stope is known as a stulled
stope.
For mining thick ore bodies a shrinkage stope might be used if
ground conditions are good. This is a type of overhand stoping which
makes use of the fact that broken ore occupies up to 40% more space
than ore in situ. Draw points are put into the ore from a lower level
and the ore is broken from the backs and falls down to the bottom of
the stope. Sufficient ore is drawn off to leave a space under the backs
for the miners to carryon working. The remaining broken ore
supports the miners and gives temporary support to the walls. When
the stope is finished, the ore is drawn and the stope left empty.
Instead of using a temporary filling of broken ore, waste material may
be used to fill the stope permanently as the ore is worked. This is
known as cut and fill stoping.
H ground conditions are poor, it will be necessary to provide timber
supports in the stopes. The use of stulls has already been mentioned,
but if the rock is very weak, a more elaborate system of timber
frames which fit into each other and provide mutual support will have
to be used. Such timbered stopes are known as square-set stopes. For
obvious reasons this type of stoping is expensive and should be
avoided if possible.
For mining flat-lying ore bodies a method of stoping known as room
and pillar can be used. With this method the ore is extracted from a
series of 'rooms' with a regular pattern of pillars for support. When
the ore has been mined out, a certain amount of ore can be recovered
from the pillars during the retreat. Room and pillar mining usually
results in 60-80% extraction of the ore. The room and pillar method
was commonly used in coal mining, but it has been replaced in many
mines by longwall stoping which is more productive. In the longwall
method a long face is developed and worked along its full length.
Ground support is provided by a series of special hydraulic props and
as the face advances the props are moved forward allowing the roof
to settle behind. Both advance longwall stoping, in which the work-
ing face progresses away from the access shaft, and retreat longwall
stoping, where development haulages are put in to the extremities of
the ore to be worked and the working face retreated towards the
access shaft, are practised.
For working large ore bodies underground caving methods can be
used if the rock is weak enough so that it can be induced to cave and
run under gravity. In the block caving method development levels are
put in under the ore body to be mined with ore draw points at
strategic places. The ore body is then undercut and allowed to cave.
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 499

Drawing off the caved ore should induce further caving until all the
ore has been drawn in that particular section of the mine. The
advantages of block caving are that mining costs are low and a high
rate of production can be achieved. The disadvantages are that there
can be no selective mining of the ore, dilution is a problem and the
extensive development work required prior to extraction of the ore is
expensive. Another caving method that can be employed in mining
wide ore bodies in moderately good ground overlain by ground which
will cave readily, but still support itself temporarily over small open-
ings, is known as sub-level caving. Essentially it is a method of
underhand stoping in which a number of sub-levels are developed in
the ore at vertical intervals of 4-8 m and ore is blasted down suc-
cessively in descending order between the sub-level drives. The walls
and cap rock break up and follow the operation down. The ad-
vantages of sub-level caving are that it permits selective mining of the
ore body, less development is required than in the case of block
caving, the method is productive and no pillars of ore are lost. The
disadvantages are that high dilution has to be tolerated if good
recovery is to be obtained, surface subsidence is caused and ven-
tilation of stopes is difficult.

Mining costs
It is not possible to give precise costs for the various mining methods
as they vary so widely from one part of the world to another. In a
district where mining is well established accurate mining costs are
usually known, but in an area where mining is a new venture it may
be difficult to estimate mining costs accurately. This can be a big
problem in evaluating a prospect since reliable mining costs are an
important factor in determining the economic viability of a deposit.
The best that can often be achieved is an estimate determined by
mining engineers using all available data from a roughly comparable
district. Underground mining costs in 1978 varied anywhere from
$5·00 to $25 ·OO/tonne depending upon the size of operations and part
of the world. Open pit mining costs in 1978, on the other hand, varied
from $0·50 to $2·50/tonne of material. On top of the mining costs there
are other operating costs which include administrative and servicing
overheads, milling and concentrating, and transport.
H approximate mining costs are known for a particular area, it is
useful to prepare graphs relating in situ grade to total costs per tonne
of metal for various types and scales of mining operations. This is a
very useful exercise as it defines the type of exploration target on
which it is worth spending time and money in detailed evaluation.
Figure 10.7 shows an example of such a graph prepared by the writer
for small and large underground copper mines on the Zambian Cop-
500 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Cost in ,lib copper

30 40 50 60 70

6
\ \
\ ~
\
5

~ ~

--- - -----
-4

t::> ~ "~ ~ ~

i3
.5 ~ ...............
2
i'--- IOrae ,
-.~
r-- I - - f--

500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Cost in $ Itonne copper

FIG. to.7. Total copper production costs in 1976 related to in situ grade for
large (>20 million tonnes) and small (5-10 million tonnes) underground mines
on the Zambian Copperbelt. A 90% copper recovery and 10% dilution is
assumed.

perbelt. It can be readily seen from this graph that small deposits with
grades of less than 4% copper are unlikely to be economic with the
high operating costs that pertain in Zambia, but, in the case of large
deposits with lower unit costs, somewhat lower grades should be
profitable.

10.4 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDIES

To illustrate the methods used in a preliminary feasibility study an

actual example of a study of the Mwambashi stratiform copper
deposit in Zambia (Fig. 10.8) will be given. Original ore reserve
calculations showed 8 million tonnes grading 2·80% eu and
depths of the mineralization indicated that it would have to be an
underground operation. Although the grade and tonnage appeared to
make it an attractive proposition, it was obvious that the mixed
'oxide'-sulphide mineralization would be difficult to treat and weak
rock strengths might make mining difficult. Accordingly metallurgical
tests were undertak~n and a geotechnical study was made. The
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 501

TOlol Ore-grode Reserves

nuckness ot m~rohl011Of'11f'1 melres

Grode ('%.CuJ of ll'WIe1"ohZQ hon

o, 100 200 300 400 500

'
flmiiS Of OI"e-ql'Ode
mlnCrolU'oll(ltll

FIG. 10.8. The Mwambashi stratiform copper deposit on the Zambian

Copperbelt. The mineralization occurs in sandstones and conglomerates of
the Lower Roan formations of the Katangan Super-group. The principal ore
minerals are chalcocite, chalcopyrite, chrysocolla and malachite with lesser
bornite and native copper.
502 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

metallurgical tests showed that, although the sulphide ore was

amenable to treatment, copper recovery from the high 'oxide'-sul-
phide material was poor, ranging from 56 to 75%. The geotechnical
study showed that the mineralized zone is composed mainly of
competent rocks, but areas of the hanging wall are very weak. This
led to elimination of the northern mineralized zone and the necessity
of leaving ore in the backs as a support to parts of the hanging wall.
This mining hanging wall varies from 0 to 4 m below the assay
hanging wall and resulted in final mineable reserves of 5·66 million
tonnes at 2·72% Cu.
Owing to the extremely weak nature of the hanging wall forma-
tions, it was decided that caving methods should not be employed and
one of the standard stoping methods with or without postfilling would
be used. It was also considered that on average 20% non-recoverable
pillars would have to be left as ground support, though in parts of the
deposit as much as 50% pillar support might be necessary.
The main mineralized zone lies between 50 and 250 m depth and on
the basis of composite split drill core samples taken for metallurgical
testing the deposit can be divided broadly into the following zones:
reserves
copper (millionsgrade depths
zone recovery (%) of tonnes)(%) (m)
1. good sulphide 97 2·23 3·01 175-250
2. mixed 'oxide'- 75 1·43 2·06 150--175 &
sulphide 225-250
3. high 'oxide' 56 2·00 2·88 50-150
The method for determining the final mineable tonnages and millhead
grades assuming a 10% dilution with 0·5%Cu material is as follows:
zone 1 zone 2 zone 3
total reserves 2·23 at 3·01% 1·43 at 2·06% 2·00 at 2·88%
less 20% pillar loss 0·45 0·29 0·40
1·78 1·14 1·60
plus 10% dilution 0·18 at 0·5% 0·11 at 0·5% 0·16 at 0·5%
1-% at 2·78% 1-25 at 1·92% "f.76 at 2·66%
A mining rate of 1200 tpd (tonnes per day) or about 420000 tpa
(tonnes per annum) was assumed as a feasible target considering the
size of the deposit and ground conditions, which gives the mine a life
of about 12 years. A sequence of extraction given in Table 10.4 was
planned and the following costs used:
Total working costs: $22/tonne ore
NSR: 65¢/lb or $1433/tonne copper
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 503

TABLE 10.4
PROPOSED SEQUENCE OF ORE EXTRACTION AT THE MWAMBASHI
COPPER DEPOSIT

Tonnes mined
Levels
Year High oxide ore Mixed ore Sulphide ore worked

1 420000 50-150m
2 420000 50-150m
50-150m
3 210000 210000 175-250m
50-150m
4 210000 210000 175-250m
50-150 m
5 120000 300000 175-250 m
50-150m
6 120000 300000 175-250 m
7 210000 210000 150-175 m
8 210000 210000 150-175 m
9 120000 300000 200-250m
10 300000 120000 200-250m
11 320000 100000 200-250m
12 260000 90000 150-175 m
Totals 1760000 1250000 1960000

U sing these costs and other data given, the yearly copper production
and cash-flow figures shown in Table 10.5 were determined. Note that no
account has been taken of increased production costs due to inflation as
it is assumed that the metal prices will also be affected and therefore rise
accordingly. It can be seen that the mine starts operations at a loss and
then moves into a profitable position until year 12 when a small loss is
made. So far no account has been taken of capital development costs
which need to be considered for the complete evaluation. It was
estimated that $25 million would be needed to bring the mine into
production and would be spent over a 3-year period with $5 million in
year 1 and $10 million in years 2 and 3. This investment capital is finally
recovered in year 9 and the total excess over the initial capital
investment is only $3·44 million.
It is now necessary to determine the rate of return on the invest-
ment to complete the economic feasibility study. The capital required
for bringing the mine into production may come from a variety of
sources, but essentially there are two main sources: loan capital and
equity capital. The loan capital may be put up by banks, governments'
or large mining houses, whereas equity capital is obtained through
 TABLE 10.5
YEARLY COPPER PRODUCTION, WORKING COSTS AND REVENUE FOR A PROPOSED MINING OPERATION AT
MWAMBASHI. COSTS IN $MILLIONS

Tonnes Production Average Average copper Tonnes Annual Cumulative

Year mined cost grade(%) recovery(%) copper Revenue profit/(loss) profit/(loss)

1 420000 9·24 2·66 56 6256 8·96 (0,28) (0,28)

2 420000 9·24 2·66 56 6256 8·96 (0·28) (0,56)
3 420000 9·24 2·72 77 8796 12·60 3·36 2·80
4 420000 9·24 2·72 77 8796 12·60 3·36 6·16
5 420000 9·24 2·75 85 9818 14·07 4·83 10·99
6 420000 9·24 2·75 85 9818 14·07 4·83 15·82
7 420000 9·24 2·35 86 8488 12·16 2·92 18·74
8 420000 9·24 2·35 86 8488 12·16 2·92 21·66
9 420000 9·24 2·53 91 9667 13·85 4·61 26·27
10 420000 9·24 2·17 81 7382 10·58 1·34 27·61
11 420000 9·24 2·12 80 7123 10·21 0·97 28·58
12 350000 7·70 2·47 61 5273 7·56 (0,14) 28·44
Totals 4970000 109·34 96161 137·78 28·44
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 505

sUbscription of shares by private individuals or institutions or through

the stock market by sale of shares to the public. In the case of loan
capital the principal will have to be paid back in addition to an
interest charged on lending the money and in the case of equity
capital the shareholders will expect a return on their investment in the
form of dividends paid out of the future mine's profits. In both cases
the return on the investment can be measured by the Discounted
Cash Flow or DCF. Essentially this is an annual interest charged on
the unrecovered investment capital. Groundwater (1967) gives a good
account of DCF methods in assessing capital projects. Today most
investors would expect a DCF return of at least 15%. Let us return to
the example we have been considering to see how far it falls short of
producing a DCF of 15%. The cash flow is tabulated in Table 10.6

TABLE 10.6
CASH FLOW FOR THE MWAMBASHI COPPER DEPOSIT FOR A DCF
RETURN OF 15%. ALL COSTS IN $MILLIONS

Investment Working
Year capital Interest Debt revenue Total debt

-3 5·00 0·75 5·75 5·75

-2 10·00 2·36 18·11 18·11
-1 10·00 4·22 32·33 32·33
1 4·85 37·18 (0·28) 37·46
2 5·62 43·08 (0·28) 43·36
3 6·50 49·86 3·36 46·50
4 6·98 53·48 3·36 50·12
5 7·52 57·64 4·83 52·81
6 7·92 60·73 4·83 55·90
7 8·39 64·29 2·92 61·37
8 9·20 70·57 2·92 67·65
9 10·15 77·80 4·61 73·19
10 10·98 84·17 1·34 82·83
11 12·42 95·25 0·97 94·28
12 14·14 108·42 (0·14) 108·56

where it can be seen that the mine runs up a total debt or loss of
$108·56 million for its owners on the basis of an expected DCF of
15%. In fact the deposit produces a DCF return of 1·5%, very far
short of a reasonable return.
The economics can be improved by taking a higher metal price or
lower mining costs, but one should be extremely cautious to avoid
being over-optimistic. If mining costs are known reasonably well in a
particular district, it is highly unlikely that they will be reduced in a
506 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

new mine unless new and more productive methods are being intro-
duced. These may increase the capital investment required, however,
and effectively offset any gains. In the case of metal prices a reason-
able market average should be taken for the evaluation. Peak prices
should not be used as these are almost certainly bound to be un-
realistic. Likewise, bottom prices should not be used either as this is
unduly pessimistic and may 'kill' a prospective viable mine.

Evaluation of open pit deposits

In the evaluation of open-pit mines an extremely important factor is
the stripping ratio, which will affect the economics of the deposit. In
many evaluations the overall stripping ratio, calculated to the final
planned depth, is used, but consideration should be given to the
progressive stripping ratio which may be of greater importance. The
principle is illustrated by an example of two hypothetical open-pit
copper deposits worked at the same rate to the same depth over a period
of five years (Fig. 10.9). Both deposits have the same overall stripping
ratio to the end of year 5, but in deposit A the ore is at some depth below
the surface and no ore is recovered in year 1, whereas in deposit B the
ore is at the surface and ore is mined from the start.
An evaluation of the deposits is based on the following parameters:
Mining costs (a): $1·25/tonne of material
Milling and concentrating (b): $2·25/tonne of ore
Services and administration (c): $1·85/tonne of ore
Average grade (g): 2%Cu
Recovery (r): 90%
Dilution (d): 10%.
Total working costs per tonne copper:
a(1+s)+b+c
g(1- d)r
(s = stripping ratio)
Capital cost: $18 million
Concentrate grade: 30% Cu
Transport: $60/tonne concentrate
NSR: $1200/tonne contained copper
DCF of 15% is required.
The economics are summarised in Table 10.7 where it can be seen
that deposit B meets the requirements for a DCF of 15%, whereas
deposit A does not. In fact, the DCF on deposit A is approximately
6%. Both deposits have identical total working costs, transport costs,
copper production and revenue. The example serves to show how it is
important that production commence as early as possible so that reve-
nue from the sales of product can be used to recover the capital invest-
ment before accumulation of interest pushes the total debt too high.
 DEPOSIT A DEPOSIT B

trl
<:
~
c
~o
z
o'I]
"C
WASTE ORE SR WASTE ORE S.R.

YEAR I 2680 YEAR I 1626 1050 1·:15 ~

CIl
2·83
"C
YEAR 2 166:1 1015 1·&4 YEAR 2 1981 699 trl
YEAR3 1873 807 :!·32 YEAR3 2152 528 4·08 q
YEAR4 2288 432 5·18 CIl
YEAR4 1997 683 2·92
YEAR5 2075 605 3·43 YEAR5 2291 401 :1·71

Woo,. and or. In 000', tonnes Overall SI"ppln~ rollos both 3·3t .

FIG. 10.9. Two hypothetical open-pit copper deposits with identical reserves and overall stripping ratios, but different
progressive stripping ratios.
U\
~
 VI
0
00

TABLE 10.7
ECONOMICS OF THE TWO OPEN-PIT COPPER DEPOSITS GIVEN IN FIG. 10.9. COSTS IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS
DCF OF 15% EXPECTED

>-l
DEPOSIT A ttl
(")
:z:
Year Working costs Transport costs Tonnes copper Revenue Loan Profit/(loss) Z
....
I:)
1 3·35 18·00 (21·35) c::
ttl
3·29 16443 19·73 24·55 (15·62) CfJ
2 7·51 ....
3 6·66 2·61 13 073 15·69 17·96 (11·54) Z
4 6·15 2·21 11065 13·28 13·27 ( 8·35) a::
....
5 5·83 1·96 9801 11·76 9·61 ( 5·64) Z
ttl
Totals 29·50 10·07 50382 60·46 ~
:>
t""
DEPOSIT B ttl
><
"C
Year Working costs Transport costs Tonnes copper Revenue Loan Profit/(loss) t""
0
1 7·65 3·40 17010 20·41 18·00 (8·64) ~
>-l
2 6·21 2·26 11324 13·59 9·94 (4·82) ....
0
3 5·52 1·71 8554 10·26 5·54 (2·51) Z
4 5·11 1·40 6998 8·40 2·88 (0·99)
5 5·01 1·30 6496 7·80 1-14 0·35
Totals 29·50 10·07 50382 60·46
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 509

10.5 EXAMINATION OF PROPERTIES

As part of the exploration geologist's job it is frequently necessary to

examine prospects on which a certain amount of mine development
has been undertaken. This may consist of limited surface or under-
ground workings which expose the mineralization or of old aban-
doned mine workings which may have some potential for further
production. In both cases it will be necessary for the geologist to
undertake some mapping and possibly some sampling. In the case of
old mine workings accurate plans may be available on which to plot
geological observations, but, more often than not, it will be necessary
to survey the prospect. Methods of surface surveying have already
been dealt with in Chapter 8 and it is necessary to consider some of
the aspects of underground surveying.

Underground surveying
Both theodolite traverse and compass and tape surveys are used in
underground surveying. Plane tabling, whilst perfectly adequate for
surface surveying, is impractical underground, though small plane
tables have been used in special cases. A theodolite is obviously
necessary for really precise work, but compass and tape surveys can
be sufficiently accurate for many evaluation purposes in small mines
where there is no magnetic disturbance.
When mapping a prospect where a good plan of the underground
workings is available, it is quite easy for the geologist to work on his
own. The end of the tape can be hooked onto survey marks or other
identifiable positions and the geological features can be plotted
directly on the base map. If it is necessary to produce a topographic
survey at the same time as the geological one, however, it is essential
to have at least one assistant, who will be required to hold a lamp for
taking readings to the forward survey station and to hold the tape
while the geologist takes offset measurements and makes geological
observations.
Since underground workings give one a three dimensional view, it is
important to be consistent when plotting features on a plan. When
mapping along drifts and crosscuts, it is the normal convention to plot
everything at approximately waist height. This is often quite difficult to
do accurately and underground surveying is a specialized skill; the
ability to sketch accurately and quickly is a useful asset. The difficulties
can be appreciated by considering how the positions of important
features may vary; sometimes they may only be visible in the walls and
at other times only in the backs or floor.
For a compass and tape survey it is useful to use two stout sticks,
each about 1 m or slightly more in length (pick-axe handles are
510 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

useful), in addition to the compass, tape and clinometer (Abney level).

The sticks are held vertically at each of the survey stations between
which measurements are being made. (Rocks can be piled around the
sticks to help support them.) Both a compass bearing and vertical
angle reading are taken from the top of one stick to another. Then,
while the tape is held tight between the tops of the sticks, offsets are
taken to the sidewalls so that the configuration of the workings can be
plotted. It is important to do this and not simply draw the sides of a
drift as straight lines. For the measurements of offsets a thin wand or
rod about 1·5-2 m long marked in 10 cm intervals is very useful. To
avoid any magnetic effects on the compass it is important not to hold
a lamp, whether it be electric or a carbide lamp, too close to the
compass while taking a reading. For this reason candles, which can be
used in most metal mines where there is no danger of gas, are useful
for reading the compass. In abandoned workings the survey stations
can be marked by a peg and/or small pile of rocks on the floor, but in
operating mines the conventional survey markers should be used.
These consist of copper or aluminium tags, on which numbers are
stamped, fastened to the backs or timber sets by a masonry nail. It is
normal practice to fasten the tag to a suitable place in the backs and
then plumb in the survey station precisely on the floor.
When taking bearings along steeply inclined sights up raises or in
stopes, the old-fashioned hanging compass is a very useful instru-
ment. This consists of a large compass mounted and pivoted between
two supports which can be hooked over a string. When this is done,
the compass swings into a level position and the reading gives the
bearing of the supporting string. To take a measurement a string is
secured taut between the two survey stations and the compass hung
on the line to take the reading. Both forward and back bearings can
be taken by turning the compass around at either survey station.
It will be appreciated that underground surveys consist largely of
open traverses and it is important when surveying along different
levels to close the survey through raises whenever possible. It is also
important to plot the survey as work progresses so that it can be
checked for errors and amendments made if necessary. When ac-
curate base plans are available, the geological survey should be
plotted directly on the base map and not plotted later from notes.
When the geologist has to conduct his own topographic survey, it is
not possible to do this, but each part of the survey should be plotted
as soon as possible so that the survey can be checked on site. For
reference, standard symbols are given in Fig. 10.10 and an example of
underground survey is given in Fig. 10.11.
As a word of caution it should be remembered that old mine
workings can be very dangerous. There may be accumulations of bad
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 511

~ ~ Shaft collor Inclined shaft

!Xl Shoft extending thrOlJQh a level

'-- ..."', --
r_ ....
I
. l_ __
- -
Portal of on odlt

..o..nn non nona.....

~ Bottom of a shoft Logging along a workIng

o
-0"000000000

Roise or winze
HIgh-grade ore (dork redl

~ ROlse or winze extending

k&J
throllCJh a level

~ Low-grade are (light red)

~ Bottom of a roise or wInze

Dump

FIG. 10.10. Some standard symbols for large scale maps of mine workings.

air, timbering may be rotten and loose rock may fall or workings
collapse. If there is any doubt, the geologist should only enter
workings that have been checked by a competent mining engineer or
experienced miner.
Definitions of some mining terms not already given in the text are
listed below:
Back(s). The upper side of a drift or stope or any underground
passage. If the underground working is compared to a room the backs
would correspond to the ceiling. The term 'roof' is used in coal mining
instead of backs.
Crosscut. A level or underground passage driven across the strike of
a vein or ore body.
Drift or drive. A level or underground passage driven along the strike
of a vein or ore body.
Face. In any adit, drive, crosscut or stope the end at which work is in
progress or was last done.
Heading. In any adit, drive or crosscut the end which is being
advanced.
Lagging. Timbering along the sides of a drift or crosscut to prevent
loose material falling into the workings.
512 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

openeosl
16' 15883.
_.---: underground working
,O~:\ ~ slonnlferous pegmatite vem

:/ . , phylille bend
~;/
// .' -1610- orm -llnevllOm

t5883 · underground elevolton (m)

'" locheomeler survey SlOlton

o.... 10
~---',---'-
,
20 30m
-------',

'"
Country rock massively bedded quartzite with occasional
phyllite and schist banss

FIG. 10.11. Surface and underground workings on the No.1 vein, Kitembi
tin mine, Ankole, Uganda. Surface surveying by tacheometry, underground
survey by compass and tape; surveyed by J. H. Reedman 1967.

Level. Group of workings all at approximately the same elevation.

Levels are usually put in at depth intervals of 15-60 m. Workings put
in for a short distance between levels are known as sublevels.
are pass. An opening in a mine through which ore is passed from a
higher level to a lower one.
 EVALUATION OF PROSPECTS 513

Pillar. A piece of ground or ore left to support the roof or hanging

wall. Rib pillars are vertical pillars between stopes. Crown pillars are
horizontal pillars left along the upper part of a stope to protect drives
above. Sill pillars are horizontal pillars left in the bottom of a stope to
protect drives below and to give sufficient height to put in draw points.
Raise. An opening like a shaft to connect a lower level to a higher
one.
Sill. The bottom or floor of an underground opening.
Spiling. A type of timbering put in while advancing in very bad
ground. The spiles are driven into loose ground ahead to permit
removal of material without caving.
Winze. An opening like a shaft to connect a higher level with a lower
one.

Other aspects of a property examination

In addition to geological considerations which determine the extent or
probable extent of the mineralization, it is important to include a
report on a number of non-geological features which will affect the
economics, to complete the property examination. These include:
1. Location. Availability and cost of transport and type of trans-
port. Distance to ports or important centres where product can
be sold or processed.
2. Availability of adequate water supplies.
3. Availability of power-cheap electric power is a big asset.
4. Availability of labour, both unskilled and skilled.
5. Availability of suitable support timber (important for underground
mines).
6. In the case of abandoned mines the amount and condition of
equipment, plant and buildings that might be on site. It is also
important to mention the state and condition of the mine work-
ings.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gilchrist, J. D. (1967). Extraction Metallurgy, Pergamon Press, Oxford,

291 pp.
Griffith, S. V. (1960). Alluvial Prospecting and Mining, Pergamon Press,
London, 245 pp.
Groundwater, T. R. (1967). Role of discounted cash flow methods in the
appraisal of capital projects, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Lond., 76, A67-82.
Lewis, R. S. and Clark, G. B. (1964). Elements of Mining, John Wiley and
Sons Inc., New York, 768 pp.
McKinstry, H. E. (1948). Mining Geology, Prentice-Hall Inc., New York,
680pp.
514 TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

Peele, R. (ed.) (1945). Mining Engineers' Handbook, 2 vols., John Wiley and
Sons Inc., New York.
Plleider, E. P. (ed'.) (1968). Sur/ace Mining, A. M. M. & P. E., New York,
1061 pp.
Pryor, E. J. (1958). Economics for the Mineral Engineer, Pergamon Press,
London, 254 pp.
Pryor, E. J. (1965). Mineral Processing, Elsevier Publishing Company, Am-
sterdam, 844 pp.
Richards, R. H. and Locke, S. B. (1940). Textbook of Ore Dressing, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, 608 pp.
Taggart, A. F. (1951). Elements of Ore Dressing, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
New York, 595 pp.
Thomas, L. J. (1973). An Introduction to Mining, Hicks Smith & Sons, Sydney,
436pp.
Winiberg, F. (1966). Metalliferous Mine Surveying, Mining Publications,
London, 456 pp.
 Index

ABEM Reflex-Fotobor borehole Altitude correction in triangulation

survey instrument, 345 surveys, 421
Abney level, 382, 386 Altitude of a star, 428, 431
Absolute parallax in photogrammetry, Aluminium
72 . deposits, 34
Absorption edges, 191, 192 discovery, 2
Absorption lines, 186, 187, 188 extraction and uses, 2-3
Accuracy in geochemical analysis, 197 per capita consumption, 16
Acid etch for core orientation, 353-4 price, 7, 8
Acid etch test in borehole surveying, use of scrap, 22
343, 344 world production, 2, 3,4,8, 14, 15
Acoustic impedance, 299 Amalgamation of gold and silver
Activators in flotation, 488 ores, 482, 491
Additive constant in tacheometry, 424 Amplitude ratio in Turam surveys,
Admittance in ionic substitution, 97 277, 279
Adsorption in secondary geochemical Analytical methods in geochemical
dispersion, 110-12 exploration, 177-99
Aerial photographs, 59-82 Antimony
Aeromagnetic surveys, 253-6 deposits, 34
AFMAG EM method, 281, 282, 286 price of, in 1975,8
Agricola, De Re Metallica, 1, 17,23 rocks, in, 99
Air sampling methods, 90-1 soils, in, 130
Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) uses in geochemical exploration,
surveys, 285-6 130
Airborne radiometric surveys, 313-14 waters, in, 130
Airborne resistivity surveys, 267-8 world production, 9
AIRTRACE air sampling method, 91 Apparent resistivity, 257, 269, 270,
Alidade, 402, 405 292
Alluvial deposits, ore reserves, 460-2 Apparent susceptibility, 243
Alluvial soils, 145 Arc shooting, in seismic surveying,
Alpha «(X) particles, 306, 307 295
515
516 INDEX

Aries, first point, 429 Barometric heighting, 378, 397--402

Arsenic Barringer Research
pathfinder for gold, 125 AIRTRACE sampling method, 91
plant ash, in, 130, 174 correlation spectrometry, 89-90
rocks, in, 99 E-PHASE method, 267-8
soils, in, 130 IN PUT EM method, 286
stream sediments, in, 130 Base exchange, 140
uses in geochemical exploration, Base line
130 aerial photographs, of, 60-1
waters, in, 130 sampling, for, 166
Asbestos, world production, 5, 9 Bauxite, 34, 144
Assay ticket, 368 world production, 15
Astronomical surveying, 427-32 Beaman's arc, use in tacheometry,
Atlas Copco Cobra drill, 218 426
Atomic absorption spectroscopy Beer's law, 178
(AAS), 177, 182, 185-9, 195, Beryl field test, 27-9
196, 197 Beryllium
Atomophile elements, 94, 95 deposits, 35
Auger drilling, 214-17 discovery, 2
Australia price of, in 1975, 8
bauxite production, II, 15 prospecting for, 130, 195
Broken Hill, New South Wales, rocks, in, 99
lead-zinc deposit, 6 soils, in, 130
nickel boom, 21 stream sediments, in, 130
Northern Territory, uranium uses in geochemical exploration,
deposits, 6 130
Pilbara, iron deposits, 6 Beryllometer, 195
Queensland, bauxite deposits, 6 Beta (f3) particles, 306, 307, 309
tin granites, 102 Biased sampling, 465, 466--7
Windarra nickel deposits, Biogenic processes in secondary
discovery, 27 geochemical dispersion, 115
Automatic level, 390 Biogeochemical prospecting, 172-6
Azimuth, determination, 430-1 Biquinolin reagent in copper analysis,
180, 181
Bismuth
Backs, 511 deposits, 35
Backsight in levelling, 390, 391, 392, price of, in 1975, 8
393 rocks, in, 99
Bacterial leaching of ores, 491 soils, in, 130
Ball mill, 482, 483 uses in geochemical exploration,
Bank sampling, 162 131
Banka drilling, 226--8 Bits in diamond drilling, 332--4
Barium Blind zone in refraction seismic
deposits, 35 surveys, 298
rocks, in, 99 Block caving mining method, 498-9
soils, in, 130 BlooJll test, 179-80
uses in geochemical exploration, 130 Bog soils, 144
waters, in, 130 Bolivia tin deposits, 46
 INDEX 517

Boron Capture, ionic substitution, 97

deposits, 36 Carbonates, tests for, 366
rocks, in, 99 Carbonatite, Nb and La stream
Borros Company overburden sediment anomalies, Uganda,
sampling equipment, 218 123
Botswana, Selebi-Pikwe Cu-Ni Casing, 224, 226, 227, 324, 325, 327,
deposit, 27 328, 330, 331, 335-6
Bouguer anomaly, 230, 232 shoe, 227, 335
Bouguer correction, 230-1, 232 Cassiterite field test, 29
Bowditch's rule, 388, 418 Cation exchange, 140
Boxworks, 50 Celestial equator, 427, 428
Branching ratio, 306-7 Celestial sphere, 427, 428
Brazil niobium production, 8, \0 Cementing of diamond drill holes,
Bremsstrahlung, 191 337
British Columbia, Guichon Creek Chaining surveys, 375-85
batholith Iithogeochemical Cha\cophile elements, 94, 95
study, 103 Channel samples, 208, 463
Broken Hill, New South Wales, Chemical remanent magnetization
Australia lead-zinc deposit, 6 (CRM), 242, 243
Broken Hill (Kabwe), Zambia Chernozems, 143
lead-zinc deposit, 104 Chestnut soils, 143, 144
Brown soils, 143, 144 Chile
Brunton compass, 385-6 copper deposits, 2, 6
Bulk sample, 463 RbjSr ratio as guide to
Bushveld Complex, South Africa mineralization, 104
platinum deposits, 44 Chip sample, 367, 369, 463
Chlorosis, 173
Chromatography, 177, 178
Cable tool drilling, see Churn drilling Chromite
Cadastral surveying, 375 deposits, 36-7
Cadmium world production, 9
deposits, 36 Chromium
discovery, 2 discovery, 2
price of, in 1975, 8 price of, in 1975,8
rocks, in, 99 rocks, in, 99
soils, in, 131 soils, in, 131
uses in geochemical exploration, stream sediments, in, 131
131 uses in geochemical exploration,
Caliper log, 317 131
Camouflage, ionic substitution, 97 Churn drilling, 322, 327, 328-30
Canada Circumpolar star, 429, 430
gravity survey at Pine Point, Classifying in mineral dressing, 482-5
239-41 Clay minerals in adsorption, III
IP survey at Pine Point, 274 Climax, Colorado molybdenum
mine discoveries 1951-1966, 27 deposit, 42
Canadian Shield Closure error in survey traverse,
lake sampling, 177 387-9, 418
litho geochemical studies, 103-4 Cluster analysis, 156
518 INDEX

Coal Continuous coring techniques, 340

grading, 487 Continuous kriging, 477-8
world production, 5 Continuous profiling in seismic
Cobalt method, 302
deposits, 31 Continuous velocity log, 316
discovery, 2 Contour method for ore reserve
paper chromatography analytical calculations, 439, 443, 448,
technique, 178 449,452
plant ash, in, 132 Contract for diamond drilling, 342-3
price of, in 1975, 8 Conventional diamond drilling, 332,
rocks, in, 99 339
soils, in, 131 Copper
stream sediments, in, 131 adsorption by organic matter, 112
uses in geochemical exploration, clearings, 76, 80, 81, 173
132 colorimetric analytical method, 181
waters, in, 132 deposits, 37-8
world production, 9 field test, 29, 179-80
Cold-extractable metal (cxMe), 119, flower, 173, 174
197 gold as pathfinder, 129
Cold extraction field test, 179 hydromorphic anomalies, Zambia,
Collectors, use in flotation, 488 119, 121, 122
Collin's resection, 409-11 major consumers, 13
Colorimetric reagents, 180 major exporters, 13
Colorimetry, 177, 178-81, 195, 196, paper chromatography analytical
197 method, 178
Colour photographs in photogeology, per capita consumption, 16
76-7, 81 plant ash, in, 132
'Colours' in gold prospecting, 52 price of, 6, 7, 8
Compagnie Generale de Geophysique, production and consumption, 9, 13
262 residual soil anomalies in Zambia,
Comparator in spectrographic 116, 118, 121
analysis, 183 rocks, in, 100
Compass and tape surveys, 385-8 soils, in, 109, 110, 112, 116, 118,
Composite sample, 463 132, 164,217
Compton scattering, 311 stream sediments, in, 132, 164
Computer methods use of scrap, 22
geochemistry, in, 154-9 uses in geochemical exploration,
gravity interpretation, in, 234-7, 132
239 waters, in, 132
magnetic interpretation, in, 254-6 world production, 2, 4, 9
ore reserve calculations, in, 455 Copperbelt, 25-6
seismic surveying, in, 305 mining costs, 499-500
Conditioners, use in flotation, 488 Zambia and Zaire, 6, 25
Cone crusher, 482, 483 Core
Contamination in geochemical logging, 360-6
exploration, 171 sampling, 367-9
Continental Oil Company, Vibroseis Core-barrel in diamond drilling,
method, 305 334-5
 INDEX 519

Cornwall, England, tin deposits, 46 Desert soils, 143, 144

Correlation coefficient (r), 156 Detrital Remanent Magnetization
Correlation spectrometry, 89-90 (DRM), 242, 243
Cosmic rays, 305, 313 Diamond(s)
Costean, 214 deposits, 36
'Counting squares' for calculating drilling, 322, 330-71
area, 441-2 bits, 332-4
Craelius core orienter, 354 casing, 335-6
Critical angle, 295 contract, 342-3
Critical distance in refraction seismic core-barrels, 334-5
method, 295 costs, 340
Crone Geophysics Pulse EM, 281 drilling fluids, 336
Crosscut, 51 i rigs, 330-2, 337-9
Cross-over in EM method, 277, 283 rods, 335
Cross-sectional method of ore reserve sludge sampling, 342
calculation, 439-43, 445-52 prospecting for, 52, 53, 54
Crushing of ores, 481-3 world production, 9
Crustal abundances of elements, 94 Dimethyl-glyoxime (DMG), nickel
Curie point, 243 test, 29, 367
Curie unit of radioactivity, 307 Dinoseis, seismic method, 305
Curvature error in surveying, 393-4, Dip, determination in refraction
396 seismic, 297
Cut and fill stoping, 498 Dipole, magnetic, 248-53
Cut-off grades, 455-8 Dipole-dipole electrode array, 270,
Cyaniding of gold ores, 490 271
Cyclone, see hydrocyclone Direct-reading (DR) spectrograph,
Cyprus, lithogeochemical study, 104 182, 184
Discontinuous kriging, 477
Discounted cash flow (DCF), 505,
Daughter element, 306, 312 506,508
Decay constant, 306 Discriminant analysis, 156, 158-9
Declination Disko Island, Greenland, occurrence
earth's magnetic field, 241 of native iron, 95
of a star, 428, 431 Dispersion, coefficient of, 475-6
Deflection, of drill holes, 350-2 Distomat, 426-7
Dense media separation (DMS), 487 Dithiol, reagent in Mo and W
Densities, of rocks and minerals, analysis, 180, 181
233 Dithizone, 178, 179, 180
Density log, 317 Diurnal variation, atmospheric
Depressors, use in flotation, 488 magnetic, 247, 254
Depth pressure, 399
determination, in seismic method, solar heat flow, 314
295, 296, 299 Dogs, use in prospecting, 129
estimates, from magnetic Dot maps, 162, 163
anomalies, 253 Double-tube core-barrel, 334
penetration, EM surveys, 287 Down-the-hole hammer percussion
IP surveys, 270 drill, 323, 324
seismic surveys, 299 Drainage surveys, 159-65
520 INDEX

Drift Emeralds, 35
gravimeters, in, 231-2 Emission spectroscopy, 177, 182-5,
mining, in, 511 195, 196
Drill indicated ore, 434 Engineering surveying, 375
Drill sections, 369-71 Environment, effects of mining on,
Driller's log, 340-2 22-3
Drive, in mining, 511 E-PHASE, EM method, 267-8
Dual frequency, AEM method, 285-6 Equation of time (E), 429
Dual tube drilling, 340, 341 Equilibrium, in radioactive decay, 312
Equipotential (EP) surveys, 290-1
Eros Data Center, USA, 85
Earth resistivity (ER) method, 257-68 ERTS, satellite imagery, 84-5
Earth's magnetic field, 241
Eastings, in surveying, 407
Eastman borehole camera, 343 Face, in a mine, 511
Ecliptic, 428 Factor analysis, 156, 157
Ell, importance in secondary False colour photographs, 76, 85
dispersion, 106, 108-9 False gossan, 50-1
Electric 'drilling', 260, 261 Fan shooting, in seismic method, 295
Electric logging, 315, 316 Faults, detection in refraction seismic
Electric mapping, 260 method, 296-7
Electrode arrays Feasibility studies, 500-8
IP surveys, 270, 271 First point of Aries, 429
resistivity surveys, 258-9 'Fixed mean map', 154
Electrode polarisation, 268 Flotation
Electromagnetic (EM) surveying, cell, 488
274-87 . mineral dressing, 482, 487-9
AFMAG, 281, 283, 286 Fluorescence, of minerals, 32-3
airborne surveys, 285-6 Fluorimetry, in uranium analysis,
depth penetration, 287 193, 196
EM gun, 276, 280-1 Fluorine
pulse EM (PEM), 281-2 rocks, in, 100
tilt angle, 276-7, 278 soils, in, 132
turam, 276, 277-9 specific ion analytical technique,
VLF-EM, 281, 284-5, 286 193
Electron uses in geochemical exploration,
capture, 306 132-3
volt, 306 waters, in, 132
Electronic discriminator, 190 Fluorite
Electronic level, 394-5 deposits, 38
Electrostatic separator, 489, 490 Pb or Zn as pathfinders for, 125-6,
Elements 133
crustal abundances, 94 Flux-gate magnetometer, 245, 247,
Goldschmidt classification, 94-5 254,274
Ellipse of polarisation, 275-6 Foresight, in levelling, 390, 391, 392,
Elongation, of a circumpolar star, 429 393
Eluvial deposits, reserves of, 460-2 Franklin Furnace, N.J., zinc deposit,
EM gun, EM method, 276, 280-1 48
 INDEX 521

Free-air correction, in gravity Gold-contd.

surveying, 230-1, 232 rocks, in, 100
Frequency distributions soils, in, 133
geochemical data, of, 147-52 traditional prospecting methods,
grades in ore deposits, of, 465-9 52, 56
Frequency-domain, in IP surveys, uses in geochemical exploration,
269,270,271,272 133
Frequency effect, 269, 270 waters, in, 133
Frothing agent, use in flotation, 488 world production, 9
Fusion fluxes, in geochemical Goldschmidt
analysis, 197, 198 classification of elements, 94-5
rules for ionic substitution, 97
Gossans, 49, 50-1
Galway granite, Ireland, RbjSr as Grab sample, 463
guide to mineralization, 103 Grade, determination by sampling,
Gamma, magnetic unit, 242 463-79
Gamma (1') ray, 306, 307, 309, 310, Gradient array, in IP surveys, 270
311 Graphite deposits, 36
logging, 312, 317 Gravel spoon sampler, 218
spectrometer, 310-11, 313-14 Gravimeters, 231-2, 233
Geiger-Miiller counter, 307-9 Gravity
Geobotanical prospecting, 173 surveying, 229-41
Geochemical cycle, 98 field procedures, 231-2
Geochronology, 307 interpretation, 232-41
Geodetic surveying, 375 unit, 229
Geodimeter,422-3 Greenwich Apparent Time (GAT),
Geological mapping, importance in 429,430
exploration, 25-57 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), 429,
Geological symbols, 30-1 430
Geophones, 294 Grid co-ordinates, in surveying, 406--7
Geostatistics, in evaluation of ore Grinding of ores, 481-3
deposits, 474-8 Grizzly, 482--4
Geotechnical logging, 363, 366 Groove sample, 464
Geothermal methods, 314-15 Groundwater(s)
Germanium geochemical prospecting, in, 176--7
deposits, 38 podzol, 144, 145
discovery of, 2 Gyratory crusher, 481, 482, 483
'Give and take', for calculating areas, Gy's formula, 470-2
441 Gy's sampling slide rule, 470
Glacial dispersion, 113, 114, 117
Gold
AAS analytical technique, 187 Half-life, of a radio isotope, 306, 312
arsenic as pathfinder for, 125, 133 Hall, Al extraction, 3
'colours', 52 Hammer seismograph, 305
deposits, 38-9 Hand sorting, in mineral dressing,
pathfinder for porphyry copper 482,485
deposits, 129 Hanging compass, 510
price of, in 1975, 8 Heading, in a mine, 511
522 INDEX

Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Indicator plants, 49, 173, 174

(HCMM),89 Induced magnetic poles, 242
Hedstrom, 277 Induced polarisation (IP) surveys,
Height of collimation, booking 267,268-74
method in levelling, 392 field procedures, 269-71
Helicopter, rigid boom EM method, frequency-domain, 269, 270, 271,
285 272
Helium plotting of data, 271-3
atmosphere, in, 133 time-domain, 268-9, 270, 271, 273,
pathfinder for U and hydrocarbons, 274
126, 127-8, 133 Inferred ore, 434
waters, in, 133 Infra-red spectrum, use in remote
Heroult, Al extraction, 3 sensing, 86-9
Hidden layer, in refraction seismic Infra-red tacheometers, 426-7
surveys, 298 Inherent sample variability, 469-72
High tension separator, see Inherent variability of deposits, 472-9
Electrostatic separator In-phase component, EM surveying,
Hollow cathode lamp, 186, 187-8 275, 280, 281, 286
'Holman type' sampler, 218, 219, 220 INPUT, AEM method, 281, 286
Horizontal cylinder Intermediate sight, in levelling, 390,
formula for gravitational effect, 235 391, 392
formula for magnetic effect, 249 Internal standard, in spectrographic
Hour angle, of a heavenly body, 428 analysis, 182, 183
Hour circle, 428 International gravity formula, 230
Humic-gleys, 144, 145 Intersected point, in surveying, 408-9
Humphrey borehole survey Iodine vapour, remote detection of,
instrument, 343-4 89-90
Humphrey's spiral, 482, 486, 487 Ionic radii, 96
Hutch product, 485, 486 Ionic substitution, 96-7
Hydraulic mining, 496 Goldschmidt's rules, 97
Hydrocarbons Ionization potential, 95
geochemical prospecting, in, 129 Ireland
He as pathfinder for, 126, 127-8 hydromorphic Zn anomaly, 119,
Hydrocyclone, 482, 484-5 120
Hydrogeochemical prospecting, 125, overburden drilling, 222, 223
172,176-7 pitting profile across Zn anomaly,
Hydrometallurgy, in mineral dressing, 209, 212
482,489-91 resistivity surveys, 267
Hydromorphic anomalies, 117, zinc in soils, 151, 152
119-22 Iridium
discovery of, 2
price of, in 1975, 8
Ilmenite, field test, 56-7 use in evaluation of Ni gossans,.129
Imaginery component, EM surveying, Iron
275,280 deposits, 39
Indexing, in barometric heighting, 399 ore, world production, 5, 12
Indicated ore, 434 oxides, in adsorption, 11 0-11
Indicator minerals, kimberlites, 53 price of, in 1975, 8
 INDEX 523

Isocentre, of aerial photograph, 65 Lead

Isometric sections, for drill-holes, 369, deposits, 40
371 overburden anomaly, Ireland, 223
Isopleths, 170 pathfinder for fluorite, 125-6, 133
per capita consumption, 16
plant ash, in, 133
Jamaica, bauxite deposits, 6, 34 price of, 7, 8
bauxite production, II, 15 rocks, in, 100
Jaw breaker or crusher, 481, 482, 483 soils, in, 119, 120, 133,223
Jig, in mineral dressing, 482, 485-7 stream sediments, in, 133
Jung's chart, in gravity interpretation, use of scrap, 22
234,236 use in geochemical exploration, 133
waters, in, 133
world production, 2, 3, 4, 9
'Leap-frogging', in barometric
Kalengwa copper deposit, Zambia, heighting, 399, 401-2
discovery of, 216 Least squares, for regression line, 460
Kimberlites, 36 Level, 390
indicator minerals, 53 mine workings, in, 512
Kiruna iron deposit, Sweden, 39 Levelling, 389-95
Kitembi tin mine, Uganda, 512 staff, 390
K-Tines, in X-ray fluorescence, 189-90 Lineaments, in photogeology, 72-5
Kriging, 476-8 Lithium
deposits, 40
rocks, in, 100
La Muda, Puerto Rico, soil sampling soils, in, 134
survey, 109, 110 stream sediments, in, 134
Lagging, 511 use in geochemical exploration, 134
Lake sediment waters, in, 134
anomalies, 123-4 Lithogeochemical surveys, 102-4
sampling, 124, 177 Lithological symbols, 28
Lake waters, in geochemical Lithophile elements, 94, 95
exploration, 176-7 Lithosols, 145
Land chain, 375 L-lines, in X-ray fluorescence, 189-90
LANDSAT, satellite imagery, 84-5, Loam samples, 53
86 Loaming, 53, 55-6
Lanthanum for tin, 53-5
rocks, in, 100 Logging, of diamond drill core, 360-6
soils, in, 136 Log-normal distributions
stream sediments, in, 123, 136 geochemical samples, in, 147
uses in geochemical exploration, mineral deposits, in, 468-9
136-7 . Log-probability plots, 147-51,468-9
Laterite, 39,49,50-1,144 Lolekek carbonatite, Uganda, 148-9,
Latitude 150, 158
correction, in gravity surveying, 232 Longitude, determination of, 429-30
determination by astronomical Longitudinal waves, 293
surveying, 431-2 Longwall stoping, 498
Leaching of ores, 491 Love waves, 293
524 INDEX

Low sun-angle photography (LSAP), Mercury

62 AAS analytical technique, 188-9
deposits, 41
pathfinder for ore, 128
Magnesium price of, in 1975, 8
deposits, 40 rocks, in, 100
discovery of, 2 soil gas, in, 128, 134
price of, in 1975, 8 soils, in, 134
Magnetic gradients, 256-7 stream sediments, in, 134
Magnetic induced polarisation (MIP) uses in geochemical exploration,
method, 273-4 134
Magnetic poles, 241-2, 248-53 waters, in, 134
Magnetic separator, 489, 490 world production, 10
Magnetic surveying, 241-57 Meridian compass, 385, 386
field procedures, 247-8 Metal
interpretation, 248-53 clearings, 173
Magnetometers, 244-7 factor, 269, 270
Magneto-telluric (Mn surveys, 291-2 prices, 6-8
Manganese Metallurgical testing, 492-5
deposits, 41 Metalog, 194, 373
discovery of, 2 Microphotometer, in spectrographic
nodules, 22, 37 analysis, 183, 184
oxides Milligal, 229
adsorption, in, 110-11 Milliroentgen per hour (mR/h), 307
field test, 29 Mineral dressing, 481-95
plant ash, in, 134 Minimum deviation reaming shell,
price of, in 1975, 8 339
rocks, in, 100 Mining
soils, in, 134 costs, 499-500
stream sediments, in, 134 methods
uses in geochemical exploration, surface, 496-7
134 underground, 497-9
waters, in, 134 Mise-a-/a-masse surveys, 290, 291
world production, 9 Mobility, of elements in secondary
Mangula paint, 367 dispersion, 106, 130-9
Mass, estimation from gravity Mobrun Copper, Quebec, tilt-angle
surveys, 239-41 survey, 278
Matheron, 474-8 Molybdenum
Matheron-Wijs formula, in colorimetric analytical method, 181
geostatistics, 476 deposits, 42
Max-Min, EM method, 276 discovery of, 2
Meadow soils, 144, 145 plant ash, in, 135, 174
Measured ore, 434 price of, in 1975, 8
Mechanical processes, in secondary rocks, in, 100
dispersion, 112-14 soils, in, 109, 110, 135
Mechanically transported anomalies, stream sediments, in, 135
116-17 uses in geochemical exploration,
Membrane polarisation, 268 135
 INDEX 525

Molybdenum-contd. Niobium-contd.
waters, in, 135 paper chromatography analytical
world production, 10 technique, 178
Monitor, in hydraulic mining, 496 price of, in 1975, 8
Monochromator, 186, 188, 194 rocks, in, 101
Monopole, magnetic, 248-53 soils, in, 116, 117, 135, 155
Moseley's law, 190 stream sediment anomaly, Uganda,
Moving average, 152-4, 155 123
Moving electrode array, SP surveys, stream sediments, in, 123, 135
288 Sukulu carbonatite, Uganda, in,
Moving electrode method, SP 116, 117
surveys, 288 uses in geochemical exploration,
Multi-band photography, 81-2 135
Multiple reflections, in seismic world production, 10
surveying, 304 Normal distributions, of grades in ore
MUltiplying constant, in tacheometry, deposits, 465-8
424 Northern Rhodesia (Zambia),
Mwambashi copper deposit, Zambia, prospecting in 1930's, 25-6
feasibility study, 500-5 Northern Territory, Australia,
uranium deposits, 6
Northings, in surveying, 407
Net Smelter Return (NSR), 496 Norway, metal clearings, 173
Neutron activation, analytical
method, 178, 194-5
Neutron log, 316-17
Newmont Exploration Ltd, pulse EM Obliquity, 429
surveys, 281 Observer's meridian, 427-8
Newton's law of gravitation, 229 Oersted. 242
Nickel Oil, world production, 5, 12
deposits, 42 Oman, pulse EM survey, 282
discovery of, 2 One-base method, in barometric
field test, 29, 367 heighting, 399-400
paper chromatography analytical Ontario, Temagami Mine, SP survey,
technique, 178 289
plant ash, in, 135 Open pit deposits, evaluation of,
price of, in 1975, 8 506-8
rocks, in, 100 Open stoping, 497-8
soils, in, 135 Optical absorption magnetometer,
stream sediments, in, 135 246-7,254
uses in geochemical exploration, Optical square, 376-7
135 Ore
waters, in, 135 blocks, in reserve calculations,
Windarra deposits, Australia, 27 454-5
world production, 3, 4, 10 definition of, 433
Niobium pass, 512
deposits, 43 reserves, calculation of, 433-62
discovery of, 2 Ore-in-sight, 434
field test, 29 Organic matter, in adsorption, 111-12
526 INDEX

Orientation Phosphate-contd.
drill core, of, 353-8 world production, 5, 10
surveys, 159, 169-70 Phosphorus
Orthophoto, 63 soils, in, 136
Osmium stream sediments, in, 136
discovery of, 2 uses in geochemical exploration,
price of, in 1975, 8 136
Overburden ratio, 497 Photogeological symbols, 73
Overhand stoping, 497 Photogeology, 59-82
Overshot, in wireline drilling, 332 Photogrammetry,59,63-72
Overvoltage, 268 Photometric sorting. 485
Photomosaic, 64
Pilbara, Western Australia, iron
Pak-sak drill, 338 deposits, 6
Palaeomagnetism, 242 Pillar, 513
Palladium Pine Point, N.W.T., Canada
evaluation of Ni gossans, 129 grayity survey, 239-41
price of, in 1975,8 IP survey, 274
Panel sample, 464 Pionjar drill, 218
Panning, 52-3 Piston sampler, 218, 219, 220
Paper chromatography, 178 Pitting, 208-14
Parallax bar, 70-2 Plan methods, ore reserve
Parallax correction, in sun calculations, 436-9
observations, 431, 432 Plane table
Parent element, in radio-active decay, surveying, 402-6
306,312 traverse, 403-5
Partial extraction, in geochemical triangulation, 403, 405
analysis, 197, 198 Planimeter, 439, 440
Pass points, in photogrammetry, 66 Plant ash, use in geochemistry, 173-5
Pathfinders, in geochemistry, 97, Plasma emission spectrometry, 194
125-9 Platinum
Pedalfers, 142-3 deposits, 44
Pedocals, 142-3 price of, in 1975, 8
Pedology, 139 world production, 10
Percussion drilling, 224-6, 322-7 Plumb point, of aerial photograph, 65
hand-held, 218-23 Plumbing fork, for plane tabling, 402
Permeability, magnetic, 241 Podzolization, 142, 144
Petroleum, world production, 5, 12 Podzols, 143
pH Pole-dipole, electrode array, 270, 271
hydrolysis, of, 107-8 Poles, magnetic, 241-2
importance in secondary dispersion, Polygonal methods, ore reserve
106-8 calculations, 437-8, 443, 446,
meters, 106, 193 452
Phase difference, in turam method, Porphyry copper deposits, 37, 39, 52,
277, 279 77, 85, 129
Phosphate Portable isotope fluorescence (PIF)
deposits, 43 analyzer, 191-3
field test, 31 Possible ore, 434
 INDEX 527

Possibly anomalous, 150 Radium-con/d.

Potash uses in geochemical exploration,
deposits, 44 136
world production, 5 Radon
Potassium bisulphate, fusion flux, emanometer, 126, 127
197, 198 pathfinder for U, 126-7
Potassium-40, 306, 307, 310 soil gas, in, 126-7, 136
Prairie soils, 143, 144 uses in geochemical exploration,
Precession of the equinoxes, 429 126-7, 136
Precision, in geochemical analysis, waters, in, 136
197-9 Raise, 513
Primary dispersion, in geochemistry, Ranging rods, 376
98-105 Rare earth deposits, 44
Primary triangles, in surveying, 419 Rare earths
Primary (P) waves, 293 plant ash, in, 136
Principal point, of aerial photograph, uses in geochemical exploration,
60 136-7
Print laydown, 63-4 Ratemeters, 309, 312
Prismatic compass, 385, 386 Rayleigh waves, 293
Probable ore, 434 Real component, in EM surveying,
Probably anomalous, 150 275, 280, 281
Profile shooting, in seismic surveying, Reaming she\1s, 332-4
295 Red Sea brines, 22
Property examination, 509-13 Redmon(!'s tables, use in
Proton magnetometer, 246, 247, 254, tacheometry, 425
256 Redox potential, 108, 287
Proven ore, 434 Reduction tacheometer, 425-6
Pseudo-section, in IP surveys, 271, Referring object (RO), in surveying,
272 420
Puerto Rico, La Muda soil survey, Refining of ores, 495-6
109, 110 Reflection method, in seismic
Pulse EM, EM method, 281, 282 surveying, 298-305
Reflex-Fotobor DDl, 345
Refraction
Q-mode, in geostatistics, 156, 157 correction, in astronomical
Quadrature, EM surveying, 275, 280, surveying, 431, 432
284 error, in surveying, 393-4, 396
Quebec, Mobrun Copper, tilt-angle method, in seismic surveying, 294-8
survey, 278 Regionalized variable, 474-6
Queensland, Australia, bauxite Regolith, 140
deposits, 6 Regosols, 145
Regression analysis, 156-7
Regression line, coefficients of, 460
Radial line plot, 65-70 Remanent magnetization, 242-3, 248,
Radio-active equilibrium, 312 253
Radiometric method, 305-14 Rendzinas, 144, 145
Radium Resected point, in surveying, 409-11
stream sediments, in, 136 Resection, with plane table, 405, 406
528 INDEX

Residual anomalies, 115, 116, 118, Scintillation counters (scintillometers),

121 307,309-10,312,314
Residual gravity map, 237-8 Scintrex Ltd, Metalog, 194, 373
Residual magnetism, 242 Screens, in mineral dressing, 482, 484
Resistivities, of rocks and minerals, Sea, mineral production from, 22
261 Second derivative gravity maps, 239
Resistivity logs, 315-6 Secondary dispersion, in
Resistivity surveying, 257-68 geochemistry, 106-39
field procedures, 259-60 Secondary triangles, in surveying, 419
interpretation, 260-7 Seismic methods, 292-305
Reverse circulation (flow) driJling, reflection, 298-305
340,341 refraction, 294-8
Rhodesia Seismic velocities, 293
as pathfinder for gold, 125 Seismogram, 294,300,301,303
Shangani nickel mine, 27 Selebi-Pikwe, Cu-Ni mine, Botswana,
termite mound prospecting, 114 27
Ridge and spur sampling, 165, 170 Selenium
Right ascension (RA) of a star, 429 discovery of, 2
Rise and faJl, booking method in flora, 173, 174
leveJling, 392-3 Self-potential (SP) surveys, 287-90
R-mode, in geostatistics, 156, 157 Self-reducing tacheometer, 425
Rod miJl, 482, 483 Semi-conductor detectors, for
Roentgen, unit of radiation, 307 radiation, 307, 310
RoJler rock bit, 339, 371-2, 373 Semi-diameter correction, in sun
Rolling mean, 152-4 observations, 431, 432
RoJls, for ore crushing, 482, 483 Shaking tables, 482, 486, 487
Room and piIIar, mining method, 498 Shangani Ni mine, Rhodesia, 27
Rotary driIIing, 322, 371-3 Shear (S) waves, 293
Rotary field, AEM method, 286 Shirley, 27
Rougher cells, in flotation, 488 Shrinkage stope, 498
Rubeannic acid, 178 Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR),
82-4
Sidereal day, 429
Siderophile elements, 94, 95
Sample extraction, in geochemical Silva compass, 385, 386
analysis, 195-7, 198 Silver
Sampling, mineral deposits, 463-79 deposits, 45
Saprolite, 142 price of, in 1975, 8
Saskatchewan, track etch survey, 127 rocks, in, 101
SateJlite photographs and imagery, soils, in, 137
84-6 uses in geochemical exploration,
Scandinavia 137
dogs used in prospecting, 129 waters, in, 137
float mapping, 26-7 world production, 10
Scavenger cells, in flotation, 488-9 Simpson's rule, for areas, 441, 442
Schlumberger electrode array, 258, for volumes, 443
259,260 Sinclair Oil Company, dinoseis
Schmidt variometer, 244 method,305
 INDEX 529

Sine rule, 408 Spectral lines, 182, 183, 184, 185

Sketchmaster, 70 Spectrographs, 182-5
SLAR,82-4 Sphere
Slimes, 489 formula for gravitational effect, 235
Slope correction, in taping distance, formula for magnetic effect, 249
421 Spherical excess, 420
Sludge sampling, 342, 373 Spiling, 513
Sluice box, 482, 485, 486 Split-spread shooting, 302, 304
Smelting of ores, 495-6 Square set stopes, 498
Sodium iodide, scintillometer crystal, Staining techniques, for minerals,
309 366-7
Soil(s) Standard atmosphere, 398
azonal, 142, 145 Star Almanac, 429, 431, 432
classification of, 142-5 Statistics, in treating geochemical
definition of, 139-40 data, 147-59
formation of, 140 Steel, world production, 5
intrazonal, 142, 144--5 Stereographic projections, use in drill-
physical properties, 145-6 hole problems, 355-60
podzolization, 142, 144 Stope, 497-8
profile, 141-2 Stream sediment
series, 146-7 anomalies, 122-3
surveys, 165-71 surveys, 159-65, 177
collecting samples, 167-9 field procedures, 160-1
contamination problems, 171 follow-up work, 162-5
follow-up work, 171 plotting of data, 161-2
numbering samples, 167-8 rating anomalies, 164--5
orientation surveys, 169-70 Strip mining, 497
plotting of data, 170-1 Stripping ratio, 497, 506-7
sampling grids, 166-7 Stu lied stope, 498
treatment of samples, 168-9 Sub-level caving, 499
types, 139-47 Sudbury, Ontario, Cu-Ni deposits, 6,
zonal, 142-4 42, 44
Solar day, 429 Sukulu carbonatite, Uganda
Solar heat flow, 314 iron ore samples, 492-5
Solonchak, 144, 145 pitting project, 209, 210
Solonetz, 144, 145 Zr and Nb in rocks and soils, 116,
Soloth, 144, 145 117
Solution processes in secondary Sulphides, staining tests for, 366-7
dispersion, 114--15 Sulphidization of oxide ores, 494
Solvent extraction Sulphur
AAS analysis, in, 187 deposits, 45
mineral dressing, in, 491 dioxide, as pathfinder for sulphides,
Sonic log, 316 128-9
South Africa, gold production, 8, 9 Surveying, 375-432
Southern Africa, mine discoveries arrow, 376
1954-74,27 boreholes, of, 343-9
SP logs, 316 chain, 375
Specific ion electrode, 193, 196 targets, 414--5
530 INDEX

Surveying-contd. Time-domain
underground, 509-12 EM surveying, 281, 286
Susceptibility, magnetic, 242, 243, 244 IP surveying, 268-9, 270, 271, 273,
274
Tin
Tacheometry, 423-7 deposits, 46
Tagg's method, interpretation of granites, in, 102-3
resistivity surveys, 263-5 price of, in 1975, 8
Talus sampling, 112-13 rocks, in, 101
Tangential tacheometry, 426 soils, in, 137
Tantalum stream sediments, in, 137
deposits, 45-6 traditional prospecting, 53-5, 56
discovery of, 2 use of scrap, 22
price of, in 1975, 8 uses in geochemical exploration, 137
rocks, in, 101 world production, 3, 4, II
world production, 10 Titanium
Tapes, in surveying, 421-2 deposits, 46--7
Tares, in drift of gravimeters, 232 discovery of, 2
Telescopic alidade, 405, 426 field test, 32
Telluric currents, 291 price of, in 1975, 8
Tellurometer, 422 rocks, in, 101
Temagami Mine, Ontario, SP survey, soils, in, 137
289 stream sediments, in, 137
Termite mounds, use in prospecting, uses in geochemical exploration,
114 137
Terradex Corporation, Track Etch waters, in, 137
method, 126--7 Tonnage factor, 434, 458-62
Terrain corrections, in gravity Top hammer percussion drilling,
surveying, 230--1 323-6
Tertiary triangles, in surveying, 419 Torsion magnetometer, 245
Theodolite, 395, 411-14 Total Heavy Metal (THM), cold
traverse, 414-18 extractable analytical method,
Thermal imagery, 86--9 180
Thermo-remanent magnetization Track Etch, Rn survey, 126--7
(TRM), 242-3 Transit
Thorium-232, decay series, 307, 308, star, of a, 428-9
310 see Theodolite
Three electrode array, 270, 271 Transverse waves, 293
Three-layer case Trapezium rule, for calculating
refraction seismic method, in, 298 volume, 442-3
resistivity surveys, in, 262, 263 Trapezoidal rule, for calculating area,
Three point problem, see Triangle of 441,442
error Trenching, 208, 213, 214
Threshold, geochemical anomaly, 147 Trend surface analysis, 156, 157
Ties, in chaining surveys, 377 Triangle of error, in plane tabling,
Tilt-angle, EM method, 276--7, 278 405,406
Time--distance graph, refraction Triangle shooting, in seismic
seismic method, 295-7 surveying, 295
 INDEX 531

Triangular method, ore reserve Unit pole, magnetic, 241-2

calculations, 437, 438, 443, Universal Time (UT), see Greenwich
447, 452 Mean Time
Triangulation surveys, 419-20 Unrolled sections, 454
Tribrach, of a theodolite, 412, 415 Upper transit
Tricone bit, 371 star, of a, 428-9, 430, 431
Triple-tube core-barrel, 335 sun, of the, 429-30, 432
Trommels, 482, 484 Uranium
Tro-Pari, borehole survey instrument, demand for, 6, 22
343, 344 deposits, 47-8
Tropical red earths, 143, 144 discovery of, 2
True gossan, 50-1 field test, 32
Tundra soils, 143 fiuorometric analytical technique,
Tungsten 193
deposits, 47 He as pathfinder for, 126, 127-8
discovery of, 2 plant ash, in, 138
field test, 32 Rn as pathfinder for, 126--7
price of, in 1975, 8 rocks, in, 10 I
rocks, in, 101 soils, in, 138
soils, in, 138 stream sediments, in, 138
stream sediments, in, 137 stripping ratio, 311
uses in geochemical exploration, uses in geochemical exploration,
138 138
world production, II waters, in, 138
Turair, AEM method, 285 Uranium-235, decay series, 307, 308
Turam, EM method, 276, 277-9 Uranium-238, decay series, 307, 308,
Turkey, magnetic survey, 253 310
Two-base method, barometric USA, copper deposits, 2, 6
heighting, 399, 400--1 selenium flora, 173, 174
Two-layer case USSR, platinum production, 8, 10
refraction seismic, 295-6
resistivity surveys, 263-5
Vanadium
deposits, 48
Uganda discovery of, 2
Kitembi tin mine, 512 field test, 32
Lolekek carbonatite, eu and Zn in plant ash, in, 138
soils, 148-9, 150, 151 price of, in 1975, 8
Nb and La stream sediment rocks, in, 101
anomalies, 123 soils, in, 138
orientation survey at Butiriku uses in geochemical exploration,
carbonatite, 169-70 138
pitting project at Sukulu, 209, 210 waters, in, 138
Sukulu, iron ore samples, 492-5 world production, II
tin prospecting, 53-5, 56 Variogram, use in geostatistics, 474-8
Zr and Nb in soils at Sukulu, 116, Vegetation anomalies, 124-5
117 Vegetation surveys, in geochemical
Underhand stoping, 497 exploration, 172-6
532 INDEX

Velocity logs, 299-300, 316 Zaire

Vernal equinox, 429 cobalt production, 8, 9
Vertical cylinder, formula for copperbelt, 6, 25
gravitational effect, 235 Zambia
Vertical sheet, formula for magnetic auger drilling, 216, 217
effect, 249 Broken Hill (Kabwe), Pb-Zn
Vibroseis, seismic method, 305 deposit, 104
VLF-EM, EM method, 281, 284--5, copper clearings, 76, 80, 81, 173
286 copper flower, 173, 174
copper ore samples, 494--5
Copperbelt, 6, 25-6
Wad, 41 hydromorphic copper anomalies,
Wagon drilling, 224--6 119, 121, 122
Walker-Neer Company, continuous IP survey, 272
coring system, 340 Kalengwa copper deposit, discovery
Walsh, 186 of, 216
Water surveys, in geochemical mining costs on Copperbelt,
exploration, 172, 176-7 499-500
Weathering, 140-1 Mwambashi copper deposit,
Wedge, for deflecting drill holes, 350, feasibility study, 500-5
351, 352 prospecting in 1930's, 25-6
Well conditioned triangles, 376 residual copper anomalies, 116,
Well logging techniques, 315-17, 373 118, 121
Wenner electrode array, 258, 259, 260 stream sediment copper anomalies,
Western Australia, discovery of 119, 122, 164, 165
Windarra nickel deposits, 27 wagon drilling, 225, 226
Wij's formula, in geostatistics, 476 Zenith, in astronomical surveying,
Window sampler, 218, 219, 220 427
Wing-tip AEM method, 285 Zinc
Winkie drill, 338 deposits, 48
Winze, 513 hydromorphic anomaly, Ireland,
Wireline diamond drilling, 332, 339 119, 120
Wisconsin, groundwater survey for overburden anomaly, Ireland, 223
Zn,l77 paper chromatography analytical
Witwatersrand, gold fields, 6 method, 178
Wolfram, field test, 56 pathfinder for fluorite, 125-6, 133
Worm diagrams, 162, 163 per capita consumption, 16
plant ash, in, 138
price of, 7, 8
X-ray rocks, in, 10 1
absorption coefficients, 191 soils, in, 119, 120, 138,223
drill, 338 stream sediments, in, 138
fluorescence, 177, 182, 189-93, 195, test for secondary minerals, 367
196 use of scrap, 22
uses in geochemical exploration,
138
Yttrium, in soils, 136 waters, in, 138
Yukon, litho geochemical study, 103 world production, 3, 4, 11
 INDEX 533

Zirconium Zirconium-contd.
deposits, 49 Sukulu carbonatite, Uganda, in,
discovery of, 2 116, 117
rocks, in, 10 1 uses in geochemical exploration,
soils, in, 116, 117, 139 i39