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247 views43 pagesDC Circuits
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 43
Gi NCaw4
D.C. Circuits
cirouit theory to the solution of simple circuits and
's law and Kirchhoff’s laws, and the concepts of potential
this chapter you should be able
ial differences, power and energy dissipations for circuit
by applying Ohm's law.
for more complex networks using Kirchhoft's Laws.
potential divider technique, and branch currents using the
‘of a Wheatstone Bridge.
‘ofa slidewire potentiometer.
E
. “os ‘When resistors are connected ‘end-to-end’ so that the same current
SS ee flows through them all they are said to he cascaded or connected in
series, Such a circuit is shown in Fig. 2.1. Note that, for the sake of
> simplicity, an ideal source of emf has been used (no intemal resistance).
31 32
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
From the previous chapter we know that the current flowing through
the resistors will result in p.d.s being developed across them. We also
know that the sum of these p.d.s must equal the value of the applied
‘emf. Thus
V, = IR, volt; V, = IR, volt; and V, = JR, volt
However, the circuit current J depends ultimately on the applied emf E
and the total resistance R offered by the ciscuit. Hence
E= IRvolt
V+ ¥, FY, volt
and substituting for E, V;, V3 and Vs in this last equation
we have IR = IR, + IR, + IR, volt
and dividing this last equation by the common factor I
R=R +R, +Ryohm en
where R is the total circuit resistance. From this result il may be seen
that when resistors are connected in series the total resistance is found
simply by adding together the resistor values.
Worked Example 2.1
Q — Forthe circuit shown in Fig. 2.2 calculate (a) the circuit resistance, (b) the circuit current, () the pd
developed across each resistor, and (dl) the power dissipated by the complete circuit.
A
E> 24V,R, = 3300;R = 150008, = 4700
33002 | 18Ka ! aon DC. Circuits
33
(a) R= RR, + Rohm
330+ 1500 + 470
= 2300 or 23KNANS
wr
an
2300
1043mAAns
(0 Y= IR, volt
1043 x 10°? x 330
Vi =244V Ans
Vy = IR, volt
10.43 x 10 1500
Vy = 15.65 volts Ans
Vy = IR, volt
043 x 107 x 470,
Vy = 490VAns
Note: The sum of the above pds is 23.99V instead of 24V due tothe rounding
errors in the calculation, tt should also be noted that the value quoted for the
curent was 10.43 mA whereas the calculator answer is 10.4347 mA. This latter
value was then stored inthe calculator memory and used inthe calculations for
part (c, thus reducing the rounding errors to an acceptable minimum
() P= twat
= 24x 1043 x 107
P= 0.25Wor250mW Ans
Ieshould be noted that the power is dissipated by the three resistors in the
circuit. Hence, the circuit power could have been determined by calculating the
power dissipated by each of these and adding these values to give the total. This
is shown below, and serves, as a check forthe last answer.
= PR watt
10.43 x10" x 330
5.93mW
P= (10.43 x10") x 1500
63.33
P= (1043x104) x 470
118m
total power: P=P, +P, +P, watt
s0P=250.46mw
(Note the worsening effect of continuous rounding error) 4
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Worked Example 2.2
Q _Tworesistors are connected in series across a battery of emf 12V. Ifone ofthe resistors has a value
of 162 and it dissipates a power of 4W, then calculate (a) the circuit current, and (b) the value of the
other resistor.
A
Since the only two pieces of data that are directly related to each other concern
the 16. resistor and the power that dissipates, then this information must
form the starting point fr the solution of the problem. Using these data we can
determine either the current through or the pd. across the 1682 resistor (andit
Is notimportant which ofthese is calculated first). To illustrate this point both
‘methods will be demonstrated. The appropriate circuit diagram, which forms an
integral part of the solution, is showin in Fig. 23.
a B tea o
= 12V;Rgc = 1605 Pye = 4W
(a) PRgc = Pac ware
a
pa fe
Rec
-4-oas
i
s01=05AAns
=Bermn
os
Ray ~ R= Roc
= 24-16
50Rup = 89 Ans
Alternatively, the problem can be solved thus:
@ Py watt
Vic = Pac X Rc = 4 X16
64 DC. Circuits
35
s0 Vgc = BV
1= “amp
is
s01=05AAns
E~ Vecvolk
n-8
Pe Lo
‘When resistors are joined ‘side-by-side’ so that their corresponding ends
‘are connected together they are said to be connected in parallel. Using
this form of connection means that there will be a umber of paths
through which the current can flow. Such a circuit consisting of three
resistors is shown in Fig. 2.4, and the circuit may be analysed as follows:
hoR
fe
me 36
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Since all three resistors are connected directly across the battery
terminals then they all have the same voltage developed across them.
In other words the voltage is the common factor in this arrangement
of resistors. Now, each resistor will allow a certain value of current to
flow through it, depending upon its resistance value. Thus
E E E
1, = Lamp; f, == amp; and 1, = 2 amy
= amps fa = peamps and ly = Ramp
‘The total circuit current Fis determined by the applied emf and the total
circuit resistance R,
E
sof = amy
zp
Also, since all three branch currents originate from the battery, then the
total circuit current must be the sum of the three branch currents
sol =
h+hth
and substituting the above expression forthe currents
Ez z + z + z
and dividing the above equation by the common factor E:
siemen (22)
a
R
zl
Note: The above equation does NOT give the total resistance of the
circuit, but does give the total circuit conductance (@) which is measured
in Siemens (S). Thus, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, so
to obtain the circuit resistance you must then take the reciprocal of
the answer obtained from an equation of the form of equation (2.2).
‘Conductance sa measure ofthe ‘wilingness' of a materi or eruitto alow cuent to
flow throught
‘That is — = Gsiemen; and
Rohm
ra a 23)
However, when only (wo resistors are in parallel the combined
resistance may be obtained directly by using the following equation
RR ohm 24)
RAR, DC. Circuits 37
If there are ‘x’ identical resistors in parallel the total resistance is
Intis context the word wy Rs ol
‘identical means having the = Si™Ply Kx ohms.
same value of esletance
Worked Example 2.3
Q Considering the circuit of Fig. 25, calculated (a) the total resistance ofthe circuit, (b) the three branch
‘current, and (¢) the current drawn from the battery.
A
= 24V;8, ~ 3300;8, = 15000; ~ 4700
@ Ads A semen
RRR
Lyi
‘0 | 1500 470
0.00303 ~ 0.000667 + 0.00213
= 0.005825
50 R = 171.6802 Ans (reciprocal of 0.005825)
1500
I= 16mAAns 38
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
70
y= 51.08mA Ans
tht hamo
7273 + 18 + 5L.06mA
so = 139.8mA Ans
wor
Alternatively, the circuit current could have been determined by using the
values for Eand Ras follows
Te
1 139.8mAAns
Compare this example with worked example 2.1 (the same values
{for the resistors and the emf have been used). From this it should be
obvious that when resistors are connected in parallel the total resistance
of the circuit is reduced. This results in a corresponding increase of
‘current drawn from the source, This is simply because the parallel
arrangement provides more paths for current flow.
Worked Example 2.4
Q—Tworesistors, one of 2 and the other of 3.2 resistance, are connected in parallel across a source of
emf of12V, Determine (a) the effective resistance ofthe combination, (b) the current drawn from the
source, and (¢) the current through each resistor.
A
‘The corresponding circuit diagram, suitably labelled is shown in Fig. 26
1
wv
Fig 26 DC. Circuits
39
E= DVR = 6;R, = 30
Rf
a) n= 88 ohm
RR,
oxa_ ie
a9
soR= 20Ans
)
Worked Example 2.5
Q AoA resistor, a 2001 resistor and a 3000 resistor are connected (a) in series, and then
(b)in parallel with each other. Calculate the total resistance for each of the two
connections.
= 1008, = 200;8) = 300
(a) R=R, +R, + Rohm
10+ 20+30
6)
A =01+005+0033
30
so p-—1_ = 5.460.Ans 40
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Altematively,
50,8
‘When resistors are connected in series the pad. developed across each
resistor will be in direct proportion to its resistance value. This is a
useful fact to bear in mind, since it means itis possible to calculate the
pas without first having to determine the circuit current. Consider two
resistors connected across a 50V supply as shown in Fig. 2.7. In order
to demonstrate the potential divider effect we will in this case firstly
calculate cixcuit current and hence the (wo p.d.s by applying Ohm's law:
R=R,+R,ohm
R=15+25= 1009
= am
zm
50
00
V, = IR, volt
05x75
V, =37.5V Ans
V, = IR, volt
0.5% 25
V, =12.5V Ans
isa y
E|sov
Pe[]2sa ve DC. Circuits 4
Applying the potential divider technique, the two p.d.s may be obtained by
using the fact that the pad, across a resistor is given by the ratio of its
resistance value tothe total resistance of the cicuit, expressed as a proportion
‘of the applied voltage. Although this sounds complicated itis very simple to
ppt into practice. Expressed inthe form of an equation it means
25)
and
26)
and using the above equations the p.d.s can more simply be calculated
as follows
v= 2.xs0=375V Ans
100
and V, = 2% x50 = 12.5 Ans
100
‘This technique is not restricted to only two resistors in series, but may
be applied to any number. For example, if there were three resistors in
series, then the pd. across each may be found from
Pe Mec eae
thas been shown that when resistors are connected in parallel the total
circuit current divides between the alternative paths available, So far we
have determined the branch currents by calculating the common p.d
‘across a parallel branch and dividing this by the respective resistance
‘values. However, these currents can be found directly, without the need to
calculate the branch p.d,, by using the current divider theory. Consider
‘wo resistors connected in parallel across a source of emf 48V as shown in
Fig. 2.8. Using the p.d. method we can calculate the two currents as follows: 2
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
elev [Joa m,[ oso
Fig. 28
cis now worth noting the values of the resistors and the corresponding
‘currents, Itis clear that Ris half the value of Ry, So, from the calculation
we obtain the quite logical result that f, is twice the value of fp, That is,
‘ratio of 2:1 applies in each case, Thus, the smaller resistor carries the
greater proportion of the total current, By stating the ratio as 2:1 we ean
say thatthe current is split into three equal ‘parts’, IWwo ‘parts’ ae flowing
Uhrough one resistor and the remaining ‘part’ through the other resistor.
Thus 27 flows though Ry
ant 1 dows toh
Since I = 6 A then
In general we can say that
@n
and
xr 2.8)
RrR
Note: This is NOT the same ratio as for the potential divider. If you
‘compare (2.5) with (2.7) you will find that the numerator in (2.5) is Ry
whereas in (2.7) the numerator is Ry. There is a similar ‘eross-over
when (2.6) and (2.8) are compared,
Again, the current divider theory is not limited to only two resistors in
parallel, Any number can be accommodated. However, with three or DC. Circuits
4B
‘more parallel resistors the current division method can be cumbersome
to use, and it is much easier for mistakes to be made. For this reason it
is recommended that where more than two resistors exist in parallel the
‘p.d. method’ is used. This will be illustrated in the next section, but
for completeness the application to three resistors is shown below.
Consider the arrangement shown in Fig, 2.9:
1otia
RRR
‘and examining the numerator, we have 4 +3 +2
Fig. 28
‘Thus, the current ratios will be 4/9, 3/9 and 2/9 respectively for the
three resistors.
So, h,
X18 = 6A 1,
2.5 Series/Parallel Combinations
‘Most practical circuits consist of resistors which are interconnected in
both series and parallel forms. The simplest method of solving such
circuit is to reduce the parallel branches to their equivalent resistance
values and hence reduce the circuit to a simple series arrangement
‘This is best illustrated by means of a worked example.
Worked Example 2.6
Q _Forthe circuit shown in Fig. 2.10, calculate (a) the current drawn from the supply, (b) the current
through the 6. resisto
nd () the power dissipated by the 5.6.2 resistor.
A
‘The first step inthe solution isto sketch and label the circuit diagram, clearly
showing all currents flowing and identifying each part of the circuit as shown in 44 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Fig 2.11, Also note that since there is no mention of interna resistance it may be
assumed thatthe source of emf is ideal
Fig.2.11
(a) To determine the current drawn from the battery we need to know the
total resistance Ryc ofthe circuit
6x4 produc
ict
sing POU for wo resistors in parallel)
F (using PO parallel)
Fac
10 Rec DC. Circuits 4S
Rye = Ray * Rac Ohm (resistors in series)
=56+24
SOc 80
t= eam
Te
sol BAAns
(b)_Tofind the current , through the 62 resistor we may use ether of two
methods. Both ofthese are now demonstrated.
pa. method:
Voc ~ Mac vol (Fig. 2.12)
8x24
50,Vgc = 19.2V
\
1, = “amp (Fig. 2.11)
Ae amp g-211)
192
Gi
so) = 32.AAns
This answer may be checked as follows:
andsince I= I, += 32+ 48-88
Which agrees with the value found in a)
current division method:
Considering Fig. 2.1, the current I splits into the components /, and I;
according to the ratio of the resistor values, However, you must bear in rind
that the larger esistor cartes the smaller proportion ofthe total current
0.)
(Pg PRyg watt
Bx56
50,Pag ~ 3584W Ans
‘Alternatively, Pag ~ Via watt
where Vjp = E= Vycvolt = 64-192 = aaay
Py = 448 x8
50,Pqy = 3584W Ans 46 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Worked Example 2.7
Q_ Forthe circuit of Fig. 2.13 calculate (a) the current drawn from the source, (b) the pd. across each
resistor, (c) the current through each resistor, and (d) the power dissipated by the SU resistor.
Tav
Fig. 213
A
“The ist step inthe solution isto label the diagram clearly with letters at the
junctions and identifying p ds and branch currents. This shown in Fig. 2.14,
(a)
ebltetyt
Ro & RR F 6 8
grasa is
2 (2a
24
fo = 4 = 160
15
R= Reg Rac + Reyohm
R=2445+16=90
= 2A Ans DC. Circuits 47
(b) The circuit has been reduced to its series equivalent as shown in Fig, 215,
Using this equivalent circuit itis now a simple matter to calculate the pd
across each section of the ctcuit
Vyg = IRagvolt = 2 24
Vig = 48V Ans
{this pd. is common to both R, and Ri)
Vac = Rec volt = 2% 5
Vgc = 10V Ans
Veo = IReovolt = 2* 16
Veo 32V Ans
(this pd. is common to Re Rs and Re)
©
1, = 1.067 Ans
sol,
= 1067 AAns
= Axa
is
1.0533 AAns
3
= de
ued
1.= 04 RAns 48 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Notice that the p.d. method isan easier and less cumbersomeone than
‘current division when more than two resistors ae connected in parallel.
(a) Py BR, watt or Vgcts watt
Vic
cor ME wat
‘and using the fist ofthese alternative equation:
*
Itis left to the reader to confi that the other two power equations above
yield the same answer,
Bxs
20W Ans.
‘We have already put this law into practice, though without stating it
explicitly. The law states thatthe algebraic sum of the currents at any
Junction of a circuit is zero. Another, and perhaps simpler, way of
stating this isto say that the sum of the currents arriving at a junction
is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction. Thus we have
applied the law with parallel circuits, where the assumption has been
‘made that the sum of the branch currents equals the current drawn from
the source, Expressing the law in the form of an equation we have:
sr=0 9)
where the symbol 2 means ‘the sum of”
Figure 2.16 illustrates a junction within a circuit with a number of currents
arriving and leaving the junction, Applying Kirchhofl's current law yields:
L-hthth-h=0
where ‘+’ signs have been used to denote currents arriving and ‘—”
signs for currents leaving the junction. This equation can be transposed
to comply with the alternative statement for the law, thus:
h+hth=h+l
Fig. 2.16 DC. Circuits 49
Worked Example 2.8
Q For the network shown in Fig. 2.17 calculate the values of the marked currents.
Fig. 2.17
Junction A:
Junction C:f, + f= 80
1 +50=80
Junction E: fg +25~ 1
1,7 110-25
50 1, = 85 AAns
Junetion F: Ig +f, =30
1,4 85-30
0-85
S5AAns
[Note:The minus signin the last answer tells us that the current is actually
flowing away from the junction rather than towards it as shown.
Aneel een
“This law also has already been used — in the explanation of pd. and in
the series and series/parallel circuits. This law states that in any closed
network the algebraic sum of the emis is equal to the algebraic sum of
the pds taken in order about the network. Once again, the law sounds
very complicated but it is really only common sense, and is simple
{o apply. So far, it has been applied only to very simple circuits, such
as resistors connected in series across a source of emf. In this ease
‘we have said that the sum of the p.d.s is equal to the applied emf (eg
Vj + Vp = B). However, these simple circuits have had only one source 50
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
of emf, and could be solved using simple Ohm’s law techniques.
When more than one source of emf is involved, or the network is more
‘complex, then a network analysis method must be used. Kirchhoft's is
cone of these methods.
Expressing the law in mathematical form.
3E=3IR 2.10)
A generalised cicuit requiring the application of Kirchhoff's laws is
showa in Fig. 2.18, Note the following:
11 The circuit has been labelled with letters so that itis easy to refer
to a particular loop and the ditection around the loop that is being
considered. Thus, ifthe left-hand loop is considered, and you wish
to trace a path around it in a clockwise direction, this would be
referred to as ABEFA. If a counterclockwise path was required, it
‘would be referred to as FEBAF or AFEBA.
R, * R,
F t D
Fig. 2.18
2. Current directions have been assumed and marked on the diagram.
‘As was found in the previous worked example (2.8), it may well
turn out that one or more of these currents actually flows in the
‘opposite ditection to that marked. This result would be indicated by
‘a negative value obtained from the calculation. However, to ensure
consistency, make the initial assumption that all sources of emf are
discharging current into the ciscuit; ie, current leaves the positive
{crminal of each battery and enters a its negative terminal. The
current law is also applied at this stage, which is why the current
flowing through Ry is marked as (J, + J) and not ass. This is an
important point since the solution involves the use of simultaneous
equations, and the fewer the number of ‘unknowns’ the simpler the
solution, Thus marking the third-branch current in this way means DC. Circuits 51
that there are only two ‘unknowns’ to find, namely J, and Jy. The
value for the third branch current, f, is then simply found by using
the values obtained for J, and J,
3. Ianogative value is obtained for a current then the minus sign
MUST be retained in any subsequent calculations. However, when
you quote the answer for such a current, make a note to the effect
that itis flowing in the opposite direction to that marked, e.g. from
CwD,
4 When tracing the path around a loop, concentrate solely on that
loop and ignore the remainder of the circuit. Also note that if you
are following the marked ditection of current then the resulting
p.di(s) are assigned positive values. Ifthe diection of ‘travel’ is
opposite to the current arrow then the p.d. is assigned a negative
value.
Let us now apply these techniques to the circuit of Fig. 2.18
‘Consider first the leftchand loop in a clockwise direction, Tracing
around the loop it can be seen that there is only one source of emf
‘within it (namely £;). Thus the sum of the emis is simply E; volt
Also, within the loop there are only two resistors (R, and R,) which
will result in (wo p.d.s, Ry and (I, + /))Ry volt. The resulting loop
equation will therefore be:
ABEFA: B, = 18, +(, + 1,)R u)
Now taking the right-hand loop in a counterclockwise direction it can
be seen that again there is only one source of emf and two resistors.
‘This results in the following loop equation:
CBEDC: £, = 1,8, +h, +1,)R, p
Finally, let us consider the loop around the edges of the diagram in a
clockwise direction. This follows the ‘normal’ direction for Ey but is
‘opposite to that for By, so the sum of the emfs is By — B volt. The loop
equation is therefore
ABCDEFA: £, ~ E, = R,- HR, GI
Since there are only two unknowns then only two simultancous
equations are required, and three have been written, However itis a
useful practice to do this as the ‘extra’ equation may contain more
convenient numerical values for the coefficients of the ‘unknown’
currents,
‘The complete technique for the applications of Kirchhoft"s laws
becomes clearer by the consideration of a worked example containing
numerical values, 52
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Worked Example 2.9
Q _ Forthe circuit of Fig. 2.19 determine the value and direction of the current in each branch, and the pid
across the 100 resistor.
a [sa
roa
tov
Fig 2:19
a
“The circuits frst labelled and current flows identified and marked by applying
the current law Thisis shown in Fig. 220,
Ah Bp hthe
sa 2a
ay
F e D
Fig. 220
ABEBA:
10-4= 31-21,
:06-3/,—21, 0
ABCDEEA
10= 3), +10(1, +4)
Bl, +10h, +102,
5010131, +10l, 2 DC. Circuits 53
cote:
fy +10, +)
+101, = 10%,
so4=101, +12, 3
Inspection of equations [1] and [2] shows that if equation [1] is multiplied by 5
‘then the coefficient off willbe the same in both equations. Thus, ifthe two are
now added then the term containing Jy wll be eliminated, and hence a value
can be obtained for h.
30-151, —101, xs
10-134, +101, 2
40 = 28h,
40
sol 1429,AAns
8
Substituting this value for /; into equation [3] yields
4= 1429121,
121, = 41429
1029
0572 AAns
(p+) Reg volt
57210
50 Veg ~ 5.72.V Ans.
Worked Example 2.10
Q _Forthe circuit shown in Fig 2.21, use Kirchhoft’s Laws to calculate (a) the current flowing in each,
branch ofthe circuit, and (b) the pd. across the 52 resistor.
isa 2a
sa
av
ev
Fig. 221 54
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
a
Firstly the circuits sketched and labelled and currents identified using
Kirchhof’s current law. This is shown in Fig 2.22,
45
F E °
Fig. 222
(9) Wecan now consider three loops inthe circuit and write down the
corresponding equations using Kirchhoff’s voltage lav
ABEFA:
I, + U0, + 1)R, volt
65h +510, +1) “15K, +54 +5
50,6651, +5), a)
eeepc:
EB R, HUy HR, volt
AS=2h +5Uh + )= 2h +5h +5h,
$0,45= 51, =7y Cy
‘ABCDEFA:
F,-B,= 18, — 8, volt
6-45 = 15h —2h,
50,15=15h -21, a
Now, any par of these three equations may be used to solve the problem,
using the technique of simukaneous equations. We shall use equations (1),
and [3] to eliminate the unknown current, and hence obtain a value for
current To do this we can multiply [] by 2 and (3] by 5,and then add the
‘two modified equations together, thus:
12=13h, +101, ux
75=751,-101, xs
195 ~ 2051,
hence, 1, = 423-0951 Ans
205 DC. Circuits 55
Substituting ths value for into equation [3] gives:
1
1
hence, 2/5
and f
(15X0.951)—21,
427-2,
427-15 =-0.0732
0.0366 A Ans
‘Note:The minus sign in the answer for I indicates that ths currents
actually flowing in the opposite direction to that marked in Fig. 222. Tis
means that battery; is both supplying current to the 522resistor and
charging battery
Curent through 52 resistor ~ f+, amp ~ 0.951 +(~0.0366)
ent through 5 resistor = 0.951— 0.0365 = 0.914 A Ans
(b) To obtain the pd. across the 5 resistor we can either subtract the pd
{voltage drop) across R; from the emf for add the pad. across 8 to emf
E, because Eis being charged. third alternative is to multiply Ry by the
current flowing through it. ll three methods willbe shown here, and,
provided that the same answer is abtained each time, the correctness of
the answers obtained in part (a) will be confirmed.
Veg = 6,18, volt = 6 (0.951x1.5)
= 61.4265
50, Vg = 4574 V Ans
on
= R, volt = 4.5 + (0.03662)
=45+0.0732
50, Vp = 4573 Ans
oR:
914xs
(1, ~ 1) volt
457 Ans
The very small diferences between these three answers is due simply
10 rounding errors, and so the answers to part (a) are verified as
conect.
2.8 The Wheatstone Bridge Network
This is a network of interconnected resistors or other components,
depending on the application, Although the circuit contains only one
source of emf, it requires the application of a network theorem such
as the Kirchhofi’s method for its solution, A typical network, suitably
labelled and with current flows identified is shown in Fig. 2.23, 56 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Fig. 223
[Notice that although there are five resistors, the current law has been
applied so as to minimise the number of ‘unknown’ currents to three.
‘Thus only thrce simultaneous equations will be required for the
solution, though there are seven possible loops to choose from. These
seven loops arc
ABCDA; ADCA; ABDCA; ADBCA; ABDA; BCDB; and
ABCDA
If you trace around these loops you will find that the last three do not
include the source of emf, so for each of these loops the sum of the
‘emis will be ZERO! Up to a point it doesn’t matter which three loops
are chosen provided that at least one of them includes the source.
IL you chose to use only the last three “zero emf” loops you would
succeed only in proving that zero equals zero!
‘The present level of study does not require you to solve simultaneous
‘equations containing three unknowns. It is nevertheless good practice
in the use of Kirchhoff’s laws, and the seven equations for the above
loops are listed below. In order for you to gain this practice itis
suggested that you attempt this exercise before reading further, and
‘compare your results with those shown below.
ABCA: £, = [Ry + (,— 1)Rs
ADCA: Ey = LR: + i, + IDR,
ABDCA: Ey = [Ry + 1sRs + (L, + 1)Ry
ADBCA: Ey = LR; —1sRs + ( — 1)R
ABDA: = 0=1,R, + LRs— LR,
BCDB: 0 = (I, — 1)Ry—h, + IR, — LRs
ABCDA: 0 = [Ry + (F, ~ B)Rs— Uh + B)Re— Re DC. Circuits
As a check that the current law has been correctly applied, consider
junctions B and C:
‘current arriving at B
total current leaving = I, +f
sol=h+h
current arriving at C= (J, —1,)+(, +)
h-hthth
hth
Hence, current leaving battery = current returning to battery.
Worked Example 2.11
Q _Forthe bridge network shown in Fig.2.24 calculate the current through each resistor, and the current
drawn from the supply.
tov
Fig, 2.26
A
‘The circuits frst abelled and the currents identified using the current law as
shown in Fig. 224
BDA:
1, +51 — By
5, — 31, + Sly it}
ance
0-51, +1 +4)—AUl,— 1)
I, +1, hah, = 4h
41, + 10%, a
57 58 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
ADCA
10=31, +10, +4)
Bh th th
10-41 +h, 3)
Multiplying equation [ by 2, equation [2] by 3 and then adding them
0= 1-61, + 10%, x2
O==12h +3h, +30% (2x3
o = 3h, +401, fa)
Multiplying equation [3 by 3, equation [4] by 4 and then adding them
30 12, + ah (xa
0=-12h, +160, axa
30 1631,
20
1 = 22 =0.184 A Ans
168
Substituting for in equation [3]
10-41, +0.184
41, =9.816
2816 9 454.A Ans
Substituting for I and fin equation 12)
0=~41, 42.458 + 1.84
294
1, = 4294 1074 a ans
4
hth
= 1074+ 2.454
529 A Ans
1
Since all of the answers obtained are positive values then the currents will
ow in the directions marked on the circuit dlagram.
Worked Example 2.12
Q Ifthe circuit of Fig. 2:24 is now amended by simply changing the value of Rocfrom 1 to 20, calculate
the current flowing through the 5 2 resistor in the central limb,
A
The amended circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 2.25
BDA:
0-61 ~5h,-31,
0-61-31, +5h, ) DC. Circuits 59
tov
Fig. 2.25
Shy + 2h +h) Mh ~h)
5h, +2h, 42-4 +41,
41, +21, “1 2
Multiplying equation (1) by 2, equation [2] by 3 and adding them
0 124-62, +10h, x2
0-12 +61, +33, x3
= ly
sol =0AAns
At first sight this would seem to be a very odd result, Here we have a
resistor in the middle of a circuit with current being drawn from the
source, yet no current flows through this particular resistor! Now,
circuit, current will ow between two points only if there is a difference
of potential between the two points. So we must conclude that the
potentials at junctions B and D must be the same, Since junction A is
‘a common point for both the 62 and 30 resistors, then the p.d. across
the 62 must be the same as that across the 32 resistor. Similarly, since
point C is common to the 42 and 2 resistors, then the p.d. across
ceach of these must also be equal. This may be verified as follows.
Since J is zero then the 5 resistor plays no part in the circuit. In this
ccase we can ignore its presence and re-draw the circuit as in Fig. 2.26.
‘Thus the circuit is reduced to a simple series/parallel arrangement that
can be analysed using simple Ohm's law techniques.
Ruse
80 Rage
h
sof,
Vay = GR, volt = 1X6 = 6 60 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Balance condition refers
to that conton when 220
curent fows through the
contra arm of he bridge
creut, due toa parteular
combination of resistor
values inthe four outer
arms of the bridge
snd Vag = 2x3 6V
‘Thus Vig = Van = 6V, so the potentials at B and D are equal. In
this last example, the values of Ry, Ry, Ry and R, are such to produce
what is known as the balance condition for the bridge. Being able to
produce this condition is what makes the bridge circuit such a useful
one for many applications in measurement systems. The value of
resistance in the central limb has no effect on the balance conditions.
This is because, at balance, zero current flows through it. In addition,
the value of the emf also has no effect on the balance conditions, but
will of course affect the values for fy and Jy, Consider the general case
ofa bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 2.27, where the values of resistors
Ry to R; ate adjusted so that J, is zero. DC. Circuits 61
Vag = LR, and Vay = LR,
but under the balance condition Vag = Van
sohR, = bRy UW)
Similarly, Vgc = Voc
so (h-ly) Ry = (FIR
but, Jy = 0, so current through Ry =
and current through Ry ~ J, therefore
ARs = Re (2)
Dividing equation [1] by equation [2]
AR _ LR
LR 1Re
wh &
RR,
‘This last equation may be verified by considering the values used in the
previous example where Ry = 60, Ry = 322, Ry = 4Q and Ry = 20.
ie Sat
302
So for balance, the ratio of the (wo resistors on the left-hand side of the
bridge equals the ratio of the two on the right-hand side.
However, a better way (o express the balance condition in terms of the
resistor values is as follows. Ifthe product of two diagonally opposite
resistors equals the product of the other pair of diagonally opposite
resistors, then the bridge is balanced, and zero current flows through
the central limb
ie. RAR, = RR, ean
and transposing equation (2.11) to make Ry the subject we have
R= 2 R 2.12)
‘Thus if resistors Ry, Ry and R, can be set to known values, and adjusted
until a sensitive current measuring device inserted in the central limb
indicates zero current, then we have the basis for a sensitive resistance
‘measuring device. 62
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Worked Example 2.13
Q _ AWheatstone Bridge type circuit is shown in Fig. 2.28. Determine (a) the pd. between terminals B and
D, and (b) the value to which Rg must be adjusted in order to reduce the current through R to zero
(balance the bridge!
ry
“The circuit is sketched and currents marked, applying Kirchhot's current law, as
shown in Fig, 228,
Kirchhoff’ voltage law is now applied to any three loops. Note that asin this,
case there ae three unknowns (J, and J) then we must have atleast three
equations in order to solve the problem.
BDA:
0-201, + 81-101,
50,0201, — 10h, + 8h, ny
Boe:
0-84 +21 +h) 51,
8), +2 +2l,—5, + 5h,
:0,0=—5/, +21, +151, 2
ADCA
10= 10 +21, +4)
=10/, +2%, +21,
$0,10= 12h, +21, Bm
Using equations [1] and [2)to eliminate 1, we have:
= 20/-10%, +81, a
0=~20/, ~8/, +601, axa
and adding, 0= —2/, + 68/, (4) DC. Circuits 8
Fig. 229
and now using equations [3] and [4] we can eliminate fy as fellows:
121, +21, ee
1 408%, lax
To=ai0%,
10
m0
Ry volt
0024 x8
$0, Vig = 0.195 V Ans
0244 A
(b)_Forbalance conditions
Rae ~ Rie
= 85 ohm
_20%2
10
50,R,~ 40. Ans
PEM ec ones
‘This is an instrument used for the accurate measurement of resistance
cover a wide range of resistance values. It comprises three arms, the
resistances of which can be adjusted to known values. A fourth arm
contains the ‘unknown’ resistance, and a central limb contains a sensitive
:ictoammeter (a galvanometer or ‘galvo"), The general arrangement is
shown in Fig, 230, Comparing this ciuit with that of Fig. 2.27 and using
equation (212), the value of the resistance to be measured (R,) is given by
R,
Be R, ohm
Ry 64
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
R,, and R, are known collectively as the ratio arms, where R,, is the
multiplier and R, is the divider arm. Both of these arms are variable
in decade steps (ie. 1, 10, 100, 1000). This does not mean that
these figures represent actual resistance values, but they indicate the
appropriate ratio between these two arms. Thus, if Ry is set to 10 whilst
Ry, set to 1000, then the resistance value selected by the variable arm
R, is ‘multiplied’ by the ratio 1000/10 = 100.
Worked Example 2.14
Q —_Tworesistors were measured using a Wheatstone Bridge, and the following results were
obtained,
(2) Ry = 1000; y= 1:8,
(b)_ Ry = 1iRe= 1000;R, = 2960
35020
For each case determine the value ofthe resistance being measured.
a
(= 102 3500 250m Am
!
(m= ag 286 ontenan DC. Circuits 6
From the above example it may be appreciated that due to the ratio
arms, the Wheatstone Bridge is capable of measuring a very wide
range of resistance values. The instrument is also very accurate
because itis what is known as a null method of measurement.
‘This term is used because no settings on the three arms are used
to determine the value of R, until the galvo (G) in the central limb
indicates zero (null reading). Since the galvo is a very sensitive
microammeter itis capable of indicating fractions of a microamp.
Hence, the slightest imbalance of the bridge can be detected. Also,
since the bridge is adjusted until the galvo indicates zero, then this,
condition can be obtained with maximum accuracy. The reason for
this accuracy is that before any measurements are made (no current
through the galvo) itis a simple matter to ensure that the galvo pointer
indicates zero. Thus, only the sensitivity of the galvo is utilised, and
its accuracy over the remainder of its scale is unimportant, Included in
the central limb are a resistor and a switeh, These are used to limit the
zgalvo current to a value that will not cause damage to the galvo when
the bridge is well off balance. When the ratio arms and the variable
‘arm have been adjusted to give only a small deflection of the galvo
pointer, the switch is then closed to bypass the swamp resistor R,. This
will revert the galvo to its maximum sensitivity for the final balancing
using R,. The bridge supply is normally provided by a 2V cell as
shown,
Do not confuse accuracy with sensitivity, Foran instrument to be accurate i must also
be snstve, However, a sensiive instumentis not necessarily accurate, Sensi isthe
ably to react to smal changes ofthe quantity being measured Accuracy sto do with
‘he closeness of he ndcated value to the tue value
eee
‘This instrument is used for the accurate measurement of small
voltages. Like the Wheatstone Bridge, itis a null method of
‘measurement since it also utilises the fact that no current can flow
between points of equal potential. In its simplest form it comprises a
metre length of wire held between two brass or copper blocks on a base
board, with a graduated metre scale beneath the wire. Connected (o one
end of the wire is a contact, the other end of which can be placed at any
point along the wire. A 2¥V cell causes current to flow along the wire.
‘This arrangement, including a voltmeter, is shown in Fig, 2.31. The
wire between the blocks A and B must be of uniform cross-section and
resistivity throughout its length, so that each millimetre of its length
hhas the same resistance as the next. Thus it may be considered as a
number of equal resistors connected in series between points A and B.
In other words itis a continuous potential divider, 66 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
av
Fig. 2381
Let us now conduct an imaginary experiment. If the movable contact
is placed at point A then both terminals of the voltmeter will Be at the
same potential, and it will indicate zero volts. Ifthe contact is now
‘moved to point B then the voltmeter will indicate 2V, Consider now
the contact placed at point C which is midway between A and B. In
this case itis exactly halfway along our ‘potential divider’, so it will
indicate 1, Finally, placing the contact at a point D (say 70cm from
A), the voltmeter will indicate 1.4 V. These results can be summarised
by the statement that there is a uniform potential gradient along the
wire, Therefore, the p.d. ‘apped off” by the moving contact, isin direct
proportion to the distance travelled along the wire from point A. Since
the source has an emf of 2V and the wire is of 1 metre length, then the
potential gradient must be 2V/m. In general we can say that
Vgc = SEB volt (2.13)
where AC = distance travelled along wire
AB = total length of the wire
and £ = the source voltage
‘Utilising these facts the simple cirewit can be modified to become a
‘measuring instrument, as shown in Fig. 2.32, In this case the voltmeter
ov
Fig. 232 DC. Circuits Gl
has been replaced by a galvo, The movable contact can be connected
either to the cell to be measured or the standard cell, via a switch,
Using this system the procedure would be as follows:
1 The switch is moved to position ‘I’ and the slider moved along the
wire until the galvo indicates zero current, The position ofthe sider
on the scale beneath the wie is then noted. This distance from A
represents the emf E, ofthe standard cel
2. With the switch in positon "2, the above procedure is repeated,
whereby distance along the scale represents the emf E, ofthe cell to
be measured.
3 The value of E, may now be calculated from
£,=*2xe
ac
here AC represents the scale reading obtained forthe standard cell
and AD the scale reading forthe unknown cell
I should be noted that this instrument will measure the true emf of the
cell since the readings are taken when the galvo carries zero current
(Ge. no current is being drawn from the cell under test), hence there
will be no p.d. due to its intemal resistance.
Worked Example 2.15
Q _Aslidewire potentiometer when used to measure the emfs of two cells provided balance conditions
at scale settings off] 600mm and (b) 745 mm. f the standard cellhas an emf ef 1.0186V anda scale
reading of 509.3 mm then determine the values for the two cell emfs
A
Let E, 6; and 6; represent the scale readings fo the standard celland cells! and
2 respectively Hence:
509.3mm,
6 Sxe, vol
= 2 10186
093
B= 12V Ans
6-2 xe, volt
a
~ 2 x 10186
5003
&=149,V Ans
Iis obviously inconvenient (o have an instrument that needs to be one
‘metre in length and requires the measurements of lengths along a scale. 68 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
In the commercial version of the instrument the long wire is replaced
bby a series of precision resistors plus a small section of wire with a
‘movable contact. The standard cell and galvo would also be built-in
features. Also, to avoid the necessity for separate calculations, there
‘would be provision for standardising the potentiometer. This means
that the emf values can be read directly from dials on the front of the
instrument.
Ry = RoRy DC. Gruits
Assignment Questions
1
7
“Two 56000 resistors are placed in series across
2 400V supply, Calculate the current drawn,
‘When four identical hotplates ona cooker
areallin use, the current drawn from a 240V
supply is 33 A Calculate (a) the resistance
cof each hotplate, (6 the current drawn
when only three plates are switched on. The
hotplates ae connected in parallel.
Calculate the total current when six 1200
torch bulbs are connected in parallel across a
9V supply.
“Two 2001 resistors are connected in parallel
and this group is connected in series with 2402
resistor What is the total resistance ofthe circuit?
{A120 resistors connected in parallel with a
15Q resistor and the combination is connected
in series witha 90 resistor this crcuitis
supplied at 12V, calculate (a) the total resistance,
(b) the current through the 90 resistor and
(the current through the 120 resistor
For the cicuit shown in Fig. 2.3 calculate
the values for (a) the current through each
resistor, (b) the pa. across each resistor and
(€)the power dissipated by the 200 resistor.
ea
<——v__**
Fig 2.33,
Determine the pd. between terminals Eand F
of the circuit in Fig, 2.34
20v
10
u
2
3
“
For the circuit of Fig. 235 calculate (a) the pa.
across the 82 resistor (b) the current through
‘the 1002 resistor and (c) the current through
the 120 resistor
wo
aa
seo
10a)
Pav
Fig. 235
Three resistors of SQ, 60 and 70 respectively
are connected in parallel. This combination
is connected in series with another parallel
‘combination of 32 and 422 If the complete
circus supplied from a 20V source, calculate
(a) the total resistance, (b) the total current,
(@)the pa across the 32 resistor and (d) the
current through the 4 resistor.
Two resistors of 18M and 12 are connected in
parallel and this combination is connected in
Series with an unknown resistor R. Determine
the value off ifthe complete circuit draws a
current of 06, from a 12V supply
Three loads, of 248, 8 A and 12 A are supplied
from 200V source Ifamotor of resistance
24Misalso connected across the supply,
calculate a) the total resistance and (b) the
total current drawn from the supply
Two resistors of IS @and 5A connected in
seves with a resistor R, and the combinations
supplied from a 240 volt source. fthe pd across
the 52 resistors 20V calculate the value off,
‘A200, 05 Alamp isto be connected in
seties witha resistor across a 240V supply.
Determine the resistor value required for the
lamp to operate at ts correct voltage
12M and a 60 resistor are connected in
parallel across the terminals of battery of emf
{6V and internal resistance 0.50, Sketch the
circuit diagram and calculate (a) the current
drawn from the battery, (b) the terminal pd
and (€) the curent through the 61 resistor. 70
Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
ET eae
15
16
v7
1»
20
a
ns
An electric cooker element consists of two
parts, each having a resistance of 180, which
‘canbe connected (a)in series, () in parallel, or
{@)using one part only. Calculate the current
