Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.

Santha Kumar

7.6 Plate girder bridges

Plate girders became popular in the late 1800's, when they were used in

construction of railroad bridges. The plates were joined together using angles

and rivets to obtain plate girders of desired size. By 1950's welded plate girders

replaced riveted and bolted plate girders in developed world due to their better

quality, aesthetics and econom y. Fig.7.15 shows the cross sections of two

common types of plate girder bridges. The use of plate girders rather than rolled

beam sections for the two main girders gives the designer freedom to select the

most economical girder for the structure.

If large embankment fills are required in the approaches to the bridge, in

order to comply with the minimum head-room clearance required, the half

through bridge is more appropriate [Fig.7.15 (a)]. This arrangement is commonly

used in railway bridges where the maximum permissible approach gradient for

the track is low. In this case the restraint to lateral buckling of com pression flange

is achieved by a moment resisting U-frame consisting of floor beam and vertical

stiffness, which are connected together with a moment resisting joint. If the

construction depth is not critical, then a deck-type bridge, as shown in Fig.7.15

(b) is a better solution, in which case the bracings provide restraint to

compression flange against lateral buckling.

7.6.1 Main plate girders

The design criterion for main girders as used in buildings, was discussed

in chapters on Plate Girders. In the following sections some additional aspects

that are to be considered in the design of plate girders in bridges, are discussed.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Generally, the main girders require web stiffening (either transverse or

both transverse and longitudinal) to increase efficiency. The functions of these

web stiffeners are described in the chapters on plate girders. Sometimes

variations of bending moments in main girders may require variations in flange

thickness to obtain economical design. This may be accomplished either by

welding additional cover plates or by using thicker flange plate in the region of

larger moment. In very long continuous spans (span> 50 m) variable depth plate

girders may be more economical.

Initial design of main plate girder is generally based on experience or

thumb rules such as those given below. Such rules also give a good estimate of

dead load of the bridge structure to be designed. For highway and railway

bridges, indicative range of values for various overall dimension of the main

girders are given below:

Overall depth, D: l/18 = D = l/12 (Highway bridges)

l/10 = D = l/7 (Railway bridges)

Flange width, 2b: D/4 = 2b = D/3

Flange thickness, T: b/12 = T = b/5

Web thickness, t: t ˜ D/125

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Fig.7.15 Common types of plate girder bridge

Here, l is the length between points of zero moment. The detailed design

process to maximise girder efficiency satisfying strength, stability, stiffness,

fatigue or dynamic criteria, as relevant, can be then carried out. Recent

developments in optimum design methods allow direct design of girder bridges,

considering minimisation of weight/cost.

7.6.1.1 Detailed design of main plate girders in bridges

The load effects (such as bending moment and shear force) are to be

found using individual and un-factored load cases. Based on these, the

summation of load effects due to different load combinations for various load

factors are obtained. Since bridges are subjected to cyclic loading and hence are

vulnerable to fatigue, redistribution of forces due to plastic mechanism formation

is not permitted under BS 5400: Part - 3. The design is made based on Limit

State of collapse for the material used considering the following:

· Shape limitation based on local buckling

· Lateral torsional buckling

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

· Web buckling

· Interaction of bending and shear

· Fatigue effect

Shape limitation based on local buckling

Depending on the type of cross section (compact or non-compact) the

variation of stress over the depth at failure varies. A compact section can develop

full plastic moment i.e. rectangular stress block as shown in Fig.7.16 (a). Before

the development of this full plastic moment, local buckling of individual

component plates should not occur. Thus the compact section should possess

minimum thickness of elements on the compression zone such that they do not

buckle locally before the entire compression zone yields in compression. The

minimum thickness of elements for a typical compact section is shown in

Fig.7.17, where f y
is to be substituted in SI units (MPa).

Fig.7.16 Design stresses

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Fig.7.17 Shape limitations for plate girder

The section that does not fulfill the minimum thickness criterion of compact

section is defined as non-compact section. A non-compact section may buckle

locally before full section plastic capacity is reached. Therefore the design of

such section is based on triangular stress block wherein yielding at the extreme

fibre, as shown in Fig.7.16 (b), limit the design moment.

The moment capacity of the compact and non-compact cross sections can

be evaluated by the following formulae:

Mupym
Z =f / for compact sec tions (7.6a)

Zf=/ for
M uym - non compact sec tions (7.6b)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Where, f y
- yield stress

Z p
- plastic modulus

Z - elastic modulus

m - partial safety factor for material strength (1.15)

Even in the compact section, the use of plastic modulus does not imply

that plastic analysis accounting for moment redistribution is applicable. BS 5400:

Part - 3 precludes plastic analy sis and does not allow any moment redistribution

to be considered. This is to avoid repeated plastification under cyclic loading and

the consequent low cycle fatigue failure. When non-compact sections are used

the redistribution will not occur and hence plastic analysis is not applicable.

Lateral torsional buckling

A typical bridge girder with a portion of the span, over which the

compression flange is laterally unrestrained, is shown in Fig. 7.18(a). Such a

girder is susceptible to lateral torsional buckling. Fig. 7.18(b) shows a laterally

buckled view of a portion of the span. The displacements at mid span, where the

beam is laterally restrained, will be only vertical, as shown in Fig. 7.18(c). A part

of the beam between restraints can translate downwards and sideways and

rotate about shear centre [Fig. 7.18(d)]. Failure may then be governed by lateral

torsional buckling. This type of failure depends on the unrestrained length of

compression flange, the geometry of cross section, moment gradient etc. The

procedure in detail for calculating the value of the limiting compressive stress is

given in chapters on laterally unrestrained beams.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Web buckling

The web of plate girders resist the shear in the three modes, namely (i)

pure shear, (ii) tension field action and (iii) that due to formation of collapse

mechanism. These are disc ussed in detail in the chapters on plate girders. They

are presented briefly below:

The elastic critical shear strength of a plate girder is given by

2
p2 Et
qk
c2
=d
()
12 1 -µ
(7.7)

Where,

da 2
k5.344
=+ = when 1.0
ad
da
k 4=+5.34
< when 1.0
ad

Where t, d and a are the web thickness, depth and distance between

vertical stiffeners, respectively.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Fig.7.18 Distrosion caused by lateral torsional buckling

The elastic local buckling of the web in shear does not lead to collapse

Limit State, since the web experiences stable post-buckling behaviour. In mode

(ii), a tension field develops in the panel after shear buckling. In mode (iii) the

maximum shear capacity is reached, when pure shear stress in mode (i) and the

membrane stress, pt in mode (ii) cause yielding of the panel and plastic hinges in

the flanges. This is discussed in detail in the chapters on plate girders.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

The membrane tensile stress pt in terms of the assumed angle [= tan -

1 (d/a)] of the tension field with respect to neutral axis (NA) and the first mode

shear stress q, is given by,

Thus the resistance to shear in the three-modes put together is given by,

()
22
pqq
tcc =+ 3- 2.25Sin
- 22 Sin
3 1.5 (7.8)
qqq
yyy

2
1a pt 2
If m Sinfw =
43 dq y

12
qq pt p
uc t=+ () 2
+ -f 5.264 Sin m Cot Sin
fw
qqyyfyqy
(7.9)
2
1a pt 2
If m Sinfw >
43 dq y

qpq
utc =+ +
d 2
43m Sin
fw
qa2qq
yyy

Where, m fw
is the non-dimensional representation of plastic moment

resistance of the flange, given by

Mp
m fw 2 =
dtf yw

When tension field action is used, careful consideration must be given to

the anchorage of the tension field forces created in the end panels by appropriate

design of end stiffeners.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Shear-moment Interaction

Fig.7.19 Shear-moment capacity interaction diagram

Bending and shear capacities of girders without longitudinal stiffeners can

be calculated independently and then an interaction relationship as given in Fig.

7.19 is employed. In Fig. 7.19, M D

and M R
are the bending capacities of the

whole section with and without considering contribution of the web, respectively.

VD and V R
are the shear capacities with tension field theory, considering flanges

and ignoring the flanges, respectively. However, for girders with longitudinal

stiffeners, combined effects of bending and shear is considered by comparing the

stresses in the different web panels using the relevant critical buckling strengths

of the panel.

Fatigue effect

Under cyclic load, experienced by bridges, flaws in tension zone lead to

progressively increasing crack and finally failure, even though stresses are well

within the static strength of the material. It may be low cycle fatigue, due to stress

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

ranges beyond yielding or high cycle fatigue, at stresses below the elastic limit.

IS: 1024 gives the guide line for evaluating fatigue strength of welded details, that

may be used to evaluate the fatigue strength.

Stress concentration may lead to premature cracking near bracing

stiffener and shear connector welds. Proper detailing of connections is needed to

favourably increase design life of plate girders.

7.6.2 Lateral bracing for plate girders

Fig.7.20 Modes of instability of plate girders

Plate girders have a very low torsional stiffness and a very high ratio of

major axis to minor axis moment of inertia. Thus, when they bend about major

axis, they are very prone to lateral-torsional instability as shown in Fig.7.20 (a).

Adequate resistance to such instability has to be provided during construction. In

the completed structure, the compression flange is usually stabilised by the deck.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

If the unrestrained flange is in compression, distorsional buckling, Fig 7.20(b), is

a possible mode of failure and such cases have to be adequately braced. Thus,

lateral bracings are a system of cross frames and bracings located in the

horizontal plane at the compression flange of the girder, in order to increase

lateral stability.

Loads that act transverse on the plate girders also cause the lateral

bending and the major contribution is from wind loads. Since plate girders can be

very deep, increase in girder depth creates a larger surface area over which wind

loads can act. This, in addition to causing lateral bending, contributes to

instability of compression flange of the girder. Hence, design of lateral bracing

should take account of this effect also.

Triangulated bracing as shown in Fig. 7.15(b) is provided for deck type of

plate girder bridges to increase lateral stability of compression flange. But, it can

not be adopted for the half-through or through girder bridges because it interferes

with functions of the bridge. In these cases, the deck is designed as a horizontal

beam providing restraint against translation at its level and the flange far away

from the deck is stabilised by U-frame action as shown in Fig. 7.15(a). The

degree of lateral restraint provided to the compression flange by U-frame action

depends upon the transverse member, the two webs of the main girder (including

any associated vertical stiffener) and their connections. In this case, the effective

length of a compression flange is usually calculated similar to the theory of

beams on elastic foundations, the elastic supports being the U-frames.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Plate grider bridges

Indian Institute of Technology Madras