Mac 416

MAC 416 SOCIOLOGY OF MASS COMMUNICATION
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
COURSE CODE: MAC 416
COURSE TITLE: SOCIOLOGY OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
COURSE
GUIDE
MAC 416
SOCIOLOGY OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Course Team John Babatunde Aremu (Course Developer/Writer)

Ebute Elefun, Lagos Island
Dr. H. Onwubere (Course Coordinator) - NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
E-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2014
ISBN: 978-058-762-4
All Rights Reserved
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction........................................................................ iv
What you will Learn in this Course................................... iv
Course Aims...................................................................... v
Course Objectives.............................................................. v
Working through this Course............................................ v
Course Materials................................................................ vi
Study Units......................................................................... vi
Textbooks and References................................................. vii
Assignment File................................................................. viii
Assessment......................................................................... viii
Tutor-Marked Assignment................................................. viii
Final Examination and Grading.......................................... ix
Presentation Schedule......................................................... ix
Course Marking Scheme..................................................... ix
Course Overview................................................................. ix
How to Get the Most of this Course................................... xi
Facilitators/Tutor and Tutorials........................................... xi
Summary.............................................................................. xi
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INTRODUCTION
One of the most promising recent developments in Mass

Communication research is the study of the social processes by which
Mass Communication contents, most importantly, news and
entertainment, are produced. Riley and Riley (1959) cited in AR Journal
(1979) while reviewing research on Mass Communication and social
system, called for a sociological view of the Mass Communication
process that placed the mass communicator within the social context of
group memberships, reference groups, and the larger social structure. At
that time, there were few sociological studies of mass communicators,
mass media organisation and processes of production.
This course is designed to provide students with a broader framework

for understanding the complex interconnectivity between the media and
the society. It is further designed to provide students a broad survey of
the key issues relating to the study of the media as an important
institution of a modern society.
It considers the social organisation, social impact and social meaning of

the media of mass communication. It is also designed to simplify the
relationship between media and society as well as to equip students with
the intellectual tools to be critically aware of the roles and influences of
the mass media in the society.
The course will examine the concept of sociology and its relationship to
mass media. It will point out the role of the media and its influence on
the society as an agent of social change. It will equally look at the
economic and political influence on the mass media.
The course has a guide that serves as an indicator towards effective use
of this course material. There is also tutor-marked assignment which
should be treated with all seriousness. The provision of self-assessment
exercises will ensure that the student is well and adequately prepared.
This should not be neglected or discarded.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
The aim of MAC 416 Sociology of Mass Communication is to examine

the relationship between the Mass Media institution and social structure.
It pays detailed and specific attention to concept of sociology; society
and culture; impact of the mass media on the society; knowledge of the
mass media and its relationship with the major social institution.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
The meaning of sociology and society will be examined in this course.

The student will also learn about the mass media, functions of the Mass
Media, theories of the press and its relationship with the constituent
element of the society. Attention will be paid to mass communication,
contents of the mass media, media and the social world, media
ownership, control and press freedom and press censorship and the role
of media in economic and political processes, cultural imperialism,
globalisation and new technology.
This course will assist students in having an informed thought on topics

such as social change, social structure, globalisation and the media.
COURSE AIMS
The main aim of this course is to look at the relationship between the
media and the social institutions within the society. It also aims at
exploring the social organisation, social impact and social meaning of
the mass media.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
 Evaluate theories and debate about media practice.

 Have a better understanding of media institutions, messages,
technology, audience and outcome to improve professional
capacity for those working with or in the media.
 Have a thorough knowledge and critical understanding of the
media as a key social institution.
 Develop an awareness of the political and economic forces that
shape the production of the media.
 Enhance student’s media literacy through critically assessing the
media and becoming seriously aware of their experience as media
consumers.
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
In order to benefit effectively from this course, the student is expected to

read the recommended text and other materials provided by National
Open University of Nigeria (NOUN).
The Self-Assessment Exercises in each unit must be handled with all

seriousness. Students are expected to submit assignment for on-ward
and periodic assessment. There will be an examination at the completion
of this course. Below are the components of this course and what is
expected from you.
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COURSE MATERIALS
The major components of this course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study units in Modules
3. Recommended Textbooks
4. Assignment Files
5. Presentation
You must obtain a copy of the materials provided by NOUN. Your copy
may be obtained through the bookshop if however you have problem
getting the materials, you may contact your tutor.
STUDY UNITS
Module 1 An Overview on Sociology and Mass

Communication
Unit 1 Meaning of Sociology

Unit 2 Sociological Perspectives
Unit 3 Concept of Sociology and Culture
Unit 4 Socialisation and the Family
Unit 5 Sociology and Mass Communication
Module 2 Media and Social Influences – Mass Media and Society
Unit 1 The Mass Media

Unit 2 Relationship between the Media and the Society
Unit 3 Theories of the Press
Unit 4 Functions of the Mass Media
Unit 5 Media as the Fourth Estate of the Realm
Module 3 Media Industry and Social Structures –

Ownership and Control
Unit 1 Political Economy of Media Ownership

Unit 2 Media and the State – Control of the Media
Unit 3 Concept of Press Freedom
Unit 4 Press Censorship
Unit 5 Cultural Imperialism and Media Independence
Module 4 Media as a Social Agent
Unit 1 Media as a Social Agent
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
Unit 2 Media and Political Subject

Unit 3 Media and Social Inequality: Race, Gender and Class
Unit 4 Media and Audience
Unit 5 Media and New Technology
Unit 6 Globalisation
Every unit has at least a Self- Assessment Exercise drawn from the
materials the students have already studied. The exercises are designed
to assist the students assess themselves on the basis of what they have
studied. If taken and handled seriously, its combination with the Tutor-
Marked Assignments will go a long way in ensuring the achievement of
the overall objectives of this course.
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
Akinfeleye, R. A. (Ed.) (2005). Mass Media and Society: A Multi-

Perspective Approach. Lagos: Integrity Press.
Annual Review Sociology Journal. (1975). Vol. 5:193 – 217.
Bamisaye, R. (1990). Sociological Foundation of Nigerian Education.

Ibadan: AMD Publisher.
Livesey, C. (2005). AS Sociology for AQA: A Paper Presentation.
Cristobd, A., Landregan, J. Navia, P. & Vial, J. (2006). Political

Institutions, Policymaking Processes and Policy Outcomes in
Chile. Washington: New Inter-American Development Bank.
Dan, Amor (2010). Nigeria: Western media and Cultural Imperialism.

A paper Presentation.
George, Rodman (2006). Mass Media in a Changing World. New York:

McGraw Hill.
Goke, Rafiu (2003). Mass Media and Society: Issues and Perspective.
Abeokuta: Meek Associate.
Holz, J. R. (1979). Sociology of Mass Communication: Annual Review

Sociology Journal. Vol. 5:193 – 217.
Ifedayo, Daramola (2005). Mass Media and Society. Lagos: Rothan

Press.
James, Watson (2003). Media Communication: An Introduction to

Theory and Process. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
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Lai, Oso & Umaru, Pate (Eds). (2007).Mass Media and Society in
Nigeria. Lagos: Malthouse Press.
Livingston, S. (1998). In Liebes, T. & Curran, J. (Eds). Media, Rural

and Identity: Essay in Honour of Elihu Katz. London: Routledge.
Long, R. Social Problems: Gender inequality.
Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies (2005). The Gender and

Media: Promoting Equality, Diversity and Empowerment.
Owens-Ibie (1992). “Media/Cultural Imperialism and Nigerian Women:

Whose Culture; Which Imperialism?” A Journal of Social
Development in Africa.
Scott, London. (1993). How the Media Frame Political Issues: An Essay
Review.
Tylor, E. D. (1902). Primitive Culture. John Murray.
Van, Dijk Power and the News Media: A University of Amsterdam

Publication.
THE ASSIGNMENT FILE
The assignment file contains the details of the work you are expected to
submit to your tutor for marking. The marks obtained here will count
towards the final marks you will obtain in this course.
Further information will be found in this assignment file itself and also
in the sections on assessment.
ASSESSMENT
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First is the tutor-
marked assignments and the second is a written examination.
In handling the assignment, the information and knowledge garnered
during the course should be applied.
Assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in

line with the deadline stated in the Assignment File. The work submitted
to your tutor is 30% of your total course marks. Afterward, you will sit
for a final two-hour examination which makes up the remaining 70%.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
There are 15 TMAs in this course. You are expected to submit all the
assignments. The best four (that is the ones with the highest scores) will
be counted. The total marks for the best four assignments will be 30% of
your total course mark.
The assignments for the unit in this course are contained in the
Assignment File. You should complete the assignment appropriately
with textbooks and study units as guide. You are equally advised to use
other reference materials to broaden your scope and assist in providing
deeper understanding of the subject.
Your assignments are expected to be completed on time and sent to your

tutor before the deadline. In case you are unable to complete any
assignment on schedule, contact your tutor to possibly get an extension.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
The final examination of MAC 416 will be two hours for a total mark of
70% of the course grade. The content of the examination will reflect the
type of Self-testing, practice exercise and tutor-marked assignment. All
areas of the course will be addressed.
You are therefore, advised to revise the entire course after studying the
last unit before you sit for the examination. It will be very useful if you
equally review your tutor-marked assignment and the comment of your
tutor on them before the final examination.
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
The presentation schedule included in your course material gives you

the important dates for the completion of the tutor-marked assignments
and attending tutorials. Remember, that it is important to submit all your
assignment by the due dates. You should guard again lagging behind in
your work.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME
This is shown in the table below:
Assessment Marks
Assignment 1 – 15 15 Assignments. Best four (4) marks of 15 at

7.5% each = 30% of course marks
Final Examination 70% of total course marks
Total 100% of course marks
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COURSE OVERVIEW
This brings together the units, the number of weeks expected for the
completion and the assignments that follows.
Unit Title of Work Week’s Assessment

Activities (End of Unit)
Course Guide
Module1 An Overview on Sociology and Mass
1 Meaning of Sociology 1 Assessment 1
2 Concept of Culture and 2 Assessment 2

Society
3 Socialisation and the 3 Assessment 3

Family
4 Sociology and Mass 4 Assessment 4

Communication
Module 2 Media and Social Influences – Mass Media
1 The Mass Media 5 Assessment 5
2 Relationship between the 6 Assessment 6

Media and Society
3 Theories of the Press 7 Assessment 7
4 Functions of the Mass 8 Assessment 8

Media
5 Media as the Fourth Estate 9 Assessment 9

of the Realm
Module 3 Media Industry and Social Structures –
Ownership and
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
1 Political Economy of 10 Assessment 10

Media Ownership
2 Media and the state – 11 Assessment 11

Control of the Media
3 Press Freedom 12 Assessment 12
4 Cultural Imperialism and 13 Assessment 13

Media Independence
5 Press Censorship 14 Assessment 14
Module 4 Media as a Social Agent
1 Media as a Social Agent 15 Assessment 15
2 Media and Political Subject 16 Assessment 16
3 Media and Social 17 Assessment 17

Inequality
4 Media and Audience 18 Assessment 18
5 Media and New 19 Assessment 19

Technology
6 Globalisation 20 Assessment 20
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HOW TO GET THE MOST OF THIS COURSE
Study units replace university lecturer in distance learning. This is an

advantage in distance learning because you can read and work through
the materials provided at your own convenience and pace. The study
unit lectures you telling you when to read, when to attend your lecture.
It also gives you study exercises in the same manner your lecturer in the
university will do.
Each unit have the same pattern. The introduction of the subject matter
and how a unit connects with other units and the course generally is the
first. This is followed by the learning objectives which allow you to
know what you should be able to do at the end of the unit. The
objectives are guide to your study. You need to confirm at the end of
each unit if you have achieved the set objectives.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will be from your set books or other materials.
FACILITATOR/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS
There are 12 hours of tutorials provided for this course. This will be
communicated including the date, time and location as well as name and
phone number of your tutor once you are allocated tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep close
watch on your progress and any difficulties you may encounter and will
provide assistance during the course. Ensure your tutor-marked
assignment is mailed well before the due date (at least two working
days). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you. Do not
hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if
you need help of any sort on your work.
SUMMARY
MAC 416 is packaged to provide students with a broader framework for

understanding the complex interconnection between the media and the
society. In this course, you will learn among other things the following:
1. Concept of Sociology and Culture

2. Sociological Perspectives
3. Media Ownership and Control
4. Society and Relationship with the Media
5. Functions of the Media in the Society
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
6. Press freedom and Censorship.
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 An Overview of Sociology and Mass

Communication…………………………….... 1
Unit 1 Meaning of Sociology……………………….... 1

Unit 2 Sociological Perspectives…………………….. 8
Unit 3 Concept of Sociology and Culture…………... 24
Unit 4 Socialisation and the Family…………………. 34
Unit 5 Sociology and Mass Communication………... 42
Module 2 Media and Social Influences –

Mass Media and Society……………………. 45
Unit 1 The Mass Media…………………………….... 45

Unit 2 Relationship between the Media and
the Society……………………………………. 50
Unit3 Theories of the Press…………………………. 54
Unit 4 Functions of the Mass Media……………….... 63
Unit 5 Media as the Fourth Estate of the Realm…….. 69
Module 3 Media Industry and Social

Structures – Ownership and Control…….... 73
Unit1 Political Economy of Media

Ownership……………………………………. 73
Unit 2 Media and the State – Control of the Media… 83
Unit 3 Concept of Press Freedom…………………… 90
Unit 4 Press Censorship ……………………………... 95
Unit 5 Cultural Imperialism and Media
Independence…………………………………. 99
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Module 4 Media as a Social Agent……………………...

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Unit 1 Media as a Social Agent………………….........

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Unit 2 Media and Political Subject…………………...
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Unit 3 Media and Social Inequality: Race,
Gender and Class……………………………....
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Unit 4 Media and Audience…………………………..
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Unit 5 Media and New Technology……………..........
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Unit 6 Globalisation…………………………………..
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MODULE 1 AN OVERVIEW OF SOCIOLOGY AND
MASS COMMUNICATION
Unit 1 Meaning of Sociology

Unit 2 Sociological Perspectives
Unit 3 Concept of Sociology and Culture
Unit 4 Socialisation and the Family
Unit 5 Sociology and Mass Communication
UNIT 1 MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of sociology
3.2 Nature of Sociology
3.3 Scope of Sociology
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall introduce you to Sociology of Mass

Communication by examining the definitions of sociology, nature of
sociology and its scope. This will afford you the opportunity to come up
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with good background knowledge on the relevance of sociology to Mass

Communication.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define sociology
 explain the nature of sociology
 discuss the scope of sociology.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Sociology
Sociology concerns itself with social relationship. A network of these

relationships is called the Society which is the main concern of
sociology. Although there are other aspects of the social science that
focus on some other aspects of the society, the main concern of
sociology is the relationships of human race.
Sociologists have generally vied into the nature of Sociology instead of

defining it. Some have used colourless definitions such as “Sociology is
the science of society.” Or “Sociology is the science of social
phenomena.” There are others too, who define “Sociology” as “the name
applied to a somewhat inchoate mass materials which embodies our
knowledge about society.” There are other definitions that are definite
but are inadequate and unsatisfactory in many ways. An example of
such is “Sociology” being defined as “the science of social process” and
“Sociology is the science of social relations.” A better definition than
the above two is “Sociology” being defined as “the study of men
considered as affecting and as being affected by association” or “the
study of human association, including whatever conduces to it or
modifies it.” Sociology treats of the phenomena of society arose from
the association of mankind. It includes a body of classified knowledge
relating to society and number of principles and laws. It investigates
causes and effects, discovers social forces, and formulates laws of
control or rules of actions.
In view of this, a number of definitions of Sociology will be considered

in this unit.
Bamisaye (1990) defines “Sociology” as “a scientific study of human

behaviour in the society.” The behaviour that sociologists are interested
in is one that influences the lives of other members of the society in an
important way. A sociologist that studies the village life will be
interested in how villagers behave at festivals, place of worship, their
method of buying and selling in the village market. Another sociologist
that studies urban society will be interested in factory workers, spending
pattern, social life, executive or business life of those living in the city.
The concern of a sociologist determines his area of interest in his study.
American Sociological Association defines “Sociology” as “the study of
social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of
human behaviour.” Sociologist attempts to investigate the structure of
groups, organisation and society and how people interact within these
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contexts. For the fact that all human behaviour is social, the central idea
of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mobs; from
organised crime to religious cult and from the division according to race,
gender and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture. It
provides many distinctive perspectives on the world generating new
ideas and evaluating old ones.
Tony Fitzgerald sees “Sociology” as “the study of social order.” From

this definition, sociology is made up of competing theories on society
and all of them are described as mainly involved in the project of
describing and explaining ‘social order’ - human behaviour. He is not of
the opinion that sociology is not concerned with social conflict and
social change rather he holds that both arose from the objective of
understanding ‘social order.’
David Kessel, an American academician, gives this stand point about

sociology. “Sociology is the study of us… people… living together.”
This definition might not be lengthy, it is much better than saying
sociology is the ‘scientific study of society.’ Sociology indeed studies
issues, concepts, investigations and results of living together as a people.
Sociology though focuses on group, the focus should not be without
emphasis on individuals since individuals make up a group and it is the
group that produces the individuals. In order to fully understand the two,
they must be studied together.
Wikipedia, an online encyclopaedia defines “Sociology” as “the study of

the social lives of humans, groups and societies.” The concern of
sociology in this respect is the social rules and processes that bind and
separate people not only as individuals, but as members of the
associations, groups, and institutions.
Max Weber, one of the foremost sociologists defines “Sociology” as “a

science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in
order thereby to arrive at casual explanation of its course and effect.”
The action here refers to all human behaviour once the individual
involves attached a subjective meaning to it. The action in this sense
may be either overt or purely inward or subjective. It may have positive
intervention in a situation or if intentionally refraining something from
happening even though you do not agree with it. Action is social
inasmuch as, based on subjective meaning attached to it by the
individual or individuals; it takes account of the behaviour of others and
is thereby oriented in its course.
Two American College Lecturers, Loren Demerath and Michelle

Wolkomir lend their voices to the meaning of sociology howbeit in a
technical way. They define “Sociology” as “the systematic study of
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
human beings, human groups and humanly constructed institutions and

organisations.” Sociologists attempt to understand how humans interact
with one another to create the lasting institution and organisations that
link generations in civilisation. They pay serious attention to the manner
in which those institutions and organisations affect human interaction.
More importantly, they are interested in promoting social change to
resolve problems of society that they come across in their research.
There are several other definitions of sociology as there are individuals

who undertake research in sociology. The main issues that however run
ring round all these definitions and explanation is the fact that sociology
is concerned with social aspect of human behaviour. It is concerned
about us, the people, how we interact, behave and above all, how we are
influenced by our interactions.
Based on the above background, “Sociology” therefore “is a scientific

study of human behaviour in groups, having for its aim the discovery of
regularities and order in such behaviour and expressing these
discoveries as theoretical proposition or generalisation that describe a
whole a wide variety of patterns of behaviour.” This definition takes into
account the point of focus in the different definitions that have been
examined. Members of a group interact at individual level with one
another. The patterns of behaviour are also the sum of the activities of
one member on another in the group. Therefore, sociology is seen as the
formation and the transformation of groups and the relationship between
groups and group members with one another with the notion that where
there is group there is the tendency for participation, cohesion and of
course conflict. Therefore, we could define “Sociology” as “a scientific
study of the total aspect of our life as human beings and how these
interact with the social entities of individuals within a group between
groups in a society.”
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
In the light of the definitions above, attempt a comprehensive definition

of Sociology.
3.2 Nature of Sociology
Professor Giddings quoted by Livesey (2005) defines “Sociology” as

“an attempt to account for the origin, growth, structure and activities of
the society by the operation of physical, vital and psychical causes
working together in a process of evolution”. Though it is difficult to
give a brief definition of sociology that proves entirely satisfactory due
to changes of a developing science, Professor Giddings is of immense
assistance to those who wish to have a clear understanding and a precise
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view of the nature of science. This is because sociology is by nature a

science. It is a social science because it focuses on the study of human
behaviour in a social environment. In addition to this, sociologists use
scientific methods in carrying out their research.
A comprehensive knowledge of the true nature of sociology and import

of sociology may be obtained by a careful consideration of the
underlining principles of the science rather than by attempting to follow
any careful formulation of definitions. It is possible to have a science of
society without going back to the origin of society, but there are some
advantages of studying, as much as we could, the society in its primitive
state. This is the rule in all scientific investigations – complex forms are
traced to simpler ones in order to discover laws and principles. Society
today is so complex to the extent that the laws applying to it are high
generalisations not easily discovered while the simple movements of
society in its earlier forms reveal the causes and effect of social action.
As botanist add to the description of plants the nature of its development
from seed and trace the law of growth from the beginning, so also the
sociologists follow the growth of society from its primitive conditions.
Sociology therefore begins with the study of social origin.
Also, in demonstrating the scientific nature of sociology, early writers

on this concept used many terms borrowed from Physics and Biology.
Society represents many interrelated parts that are more or less
dependent upon one another. The activities of social groups have been
discovered to resemble to a great extent the activities of individuals
within the society.
Furthermore, sociology can be described as both static and dynamic.

These two expressions belong to the mechanic but they have been
modified to fit into the requirements of a science which deal with human
beings with all power as against a science that deals with the inanimate
issues. Dynamic sociology refers to development or progress whereas
static refers to relationship. We must have the basis of static. If we were
to take an instantaneous view of the society with it various co–
relationships with regards to structure or activity and considering the
society moving forward with its various relationships changing at each
successive stage, we would have a dynamic conception. If on the other
hand, the comparison of relationship might be referring to some ideal
standard which would lead us to an ethical basis of the society; it is
regarded to as static conception. Since social static is a subdivision of
social dynamic, therefore, it is better to speak of social dynamic and
subdivide it into social static and social kinetics with social static
dealing with social movement which do not change in rate or direction
and social kinetic which deals with those that change in rate and in
direction or both.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
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Explain briefly the nature of sociology.
3.3 Scope of Sociology
The scope of sociology is in three main areas. These are:-
1. A study of socially relevant concepts.

2. A study of social system and institutions.
3. A comparative study of social system and institution in different
parts of the world.
1. Study of Socially Relevant Concepts
Sociologists are interested in socially relevant concepts which describe

human societies as a group or the way of life of a group. They also have
interest in concepts that can influence social life in significant ways.
These social concepts include the society, communities, age groups,
social class, status, tribes or clan etc. They are referred to as social
concepts because they mean a collection of people or describe a person
in relation to members of a group. The study of these social statuses
helps them to understand human society better and more so when
studying a particular human society.
2. A Study of Social System and Institutions
Sociology also studies social institutions which evolved with the human
race itself and play significant roles in directing human destiny along a
particular pattern. Such institutions include marriage, family, religion,
government, the economy, education system, legal system etc. Social
institutions are important and they form the basis for social wellbeing all
over the world. A society with a stable government is able to make
useful and meaningful plans for its members. A society that holds
marriage and family institution in high esteem tends to be more stable
than one where these institutions are not considered important. In
addition, the institutions of religion, government, education and legal
system have more direct effect on the welfare of the people to a very
great extent. It is for this reason that sociologists study them because he
has a better understanding of the society for doing so.
3. A Comparative Study of Social Systems and Institutions
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
Sociology is also a comparative study. It studies the various social

systems in the different parts of the world and does a comparison
between them. With this, sociologists have a good understanding of his
society and as well as other societies outside his own. As an individual,
it helps sociologist to cope better wherever he finds himself outside his
own social environment.
Any sociologist who wants his work to be meaningful must understand

people’s view about the world. The knowledge of behavioural patterns
in various societies helps in sociology. The different views about life
affect people’s social behaviour and it is important that one understands
these about the societies which he is studying in order to understand the
outward behaviour of the people.
Briefly highlight the scope of sociology.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, the meaning of sociology has been examined with different
opinions about what sociology mean to different sociologists. One thing
that is paramount is the knowledge that sociology is a social science. It
studies and analyses behaviour which is a social element and how it
influences the society and the way the society also influences our
behaviours
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has explained the meaning, nature and scope of sociology. In
doing so, a number a definitions which represent the view of different
sociologists were considered.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
By nature, sociology is a science. Discuss.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Holz, J. R. (1979). Sociology of Mass Communication: Annual Review

Sociology Journal. Vol. 5:193 – 217.
Bamisaye, R. (1990).Sociological Foundation of Nigerian Education.

Ibadan: AMD Publisher.
Livesey, C. (2005). AS Sociology for AQA: A Paper Presentation.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
UNIT 2 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Sociological Perspectives
3.2 Types of Sociological Perspectives
3.2.1 Functionalism
3.2.1.1Functional Prerequisites of Society
3.2.1.2The Concept of Function
3.2.1.3 Presuppositions and Assumptions
3.2.1.4Value Consensus
3.2.2 Symbolic Interactionism
3.2.2.1Basic Principles of Symbolic Interactionism
3.2.2.2The Method and its Impact on the Study of
Mass Communication
3.2.2.3Symbolic Interactionism Assumptions
3.2.3.4Marxism
3.2.3.4.1Marx’s Historical
Perspective
3.2.3.4.2Marx’s Dialectical Materialism
3.2.3.5Neo-Marxism
3.2.3.6Feminism
3.3 Conflict Theory and Mass Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we learnt about sociology by examining an overview of

the concept. The overview examined the definition, nature and scope of
the concept. Having taking time to do this, we move on to the study of
the various view points from which sociologists looked at sociology.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this study, you should be able to:
 define perspective
 highlight the various sociological perspectives
 explain the various perspectives
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 analyse the differences between these perspectives.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Sociological Perspectives
Sociologists analyse social phenomena at different levels from diverse

perspectives. This ranges from concrete interpretation to overall
generalisation of society and social behaviour. Sociologists study
everything from specific events (macro level of analysis of small social
problems) to the broader picture (the macro level of analysis of large
social pattern). Today, sociologist employ three primary theoretical
perspectives; namely: - the Symbolic Interactionism Perspective
(Symbolic Interactionism), the functionalist Perspectives
(Functionalism) and the Conflict Perspectives. These perspectives offer
Sociologist theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences
people and how people influence society. Each perspectives basically
conceptualises society, social forces and human behaviours. This is
shown in the table below.
Sociological Level of Focus

Perspective Analysis
1. Symbolic Micro Use of symbols, face to face

Interactionism interaction.
2. Functionalism Macro Relationship between the parts of

society. How aspects of society
are functional (adaptive).
3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce resources;

How the elite control the poor
and weak.
What is Sociological Perspective?
Thinkers generally have varying opinions on a particular issue. This

variation in their opinion about issues makes them to give different
interpretations to a particular concept. This is applicable to the
sociologist in the view they held about man, about Society and about the
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interaction between the two. The position adopted by each group of

thinkers to view the society determines how they interpret it and what
they regarded as being the most important aspects of social life. This
position from which the study is approached is what is called
perspective.
Therefore, perspective is defined as “a frame of reference, a series of

working rules by which a person is able to make sense of complex and
puzzling phenomena”. This phenomenon refers to the social life. To take
a particular position towards its study, one must make a set of
assumptions on which analysis can be based. This basically includes
ideas about the nature of human beings, of society and of the interaction
between the individuals and society.
“Sociological Perspective” therefore “is the frame of reference, a set of

working rules by which sociologists make sense of complex and
puzzling social issues.”
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Attempt your own definition of Sociological Perspective.
3.2 Types of Sociological Perspective
Sociological perspective is of three types
1. Functionalism
2. Symbolic interactionism
3. Action and conflict
3.2.1 Functionalism
Functionalism is a sociological perspective that falls under the

consensus model which sees society as a system. This means that
society is made up of a set of interconnected parts which together form a
whole. According to functionalists, the basic unit of analysis is society
and the various parts that make up the society are understood purely
with regards to their relationship to the whole. The society in the view of
early sociologists is like an organism like human body with several
important parts that work together harmoniously towards the survival
and maintenance of the organism (human) being. Therefore, to
understand any part of the society is to analyse its relationship with
other parts and essentially its contribution to the maintenance of the
society.
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Functionalist argue further that just as human body has some basic
needs that must be satisfied for it to survive, so also does society has its
own basic needs that must be met if it must continue to exist. Based on
this knowledge, social institutions such as the family, religion, polity,
education and economy are seen as indispensable part of the social
system rather than an isolated unit.
3.2.1.1Functional Prerequisites of Society
The basic needs or those necessary conditions of existence of society are

referred to as the functional prerequisite of society. Several approaches
have been used to identify what these functional prerequisites of society
are that cut across all societies. Some argue that all societies have some
form or other of social stratification; others are of the opinion that the
family is found in every society. The assumption here is that the existing
institutional arrangements such as family and social stratification meet
the needs that are common to all the societies. The functional
prerequisites here are
a. The need to device a mechanism, to ensure that social positions

are adequately and appropriately filled by motivated persons.
b. There is the need to device a mechanism for the reproduction and
socialisation of new members of society for its renewal and
continuity. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2000).
Another approach to identify the functional prerequisites is woven round

an analysis of factors that threaten the continued existence of society
such as apathy, assimilation, extinction of members or what Horbbes
(1651) described as “war of all against all”. In this regard, Levy (1952)
is of the opinion that for a society to survive, it must create means of
preventing these events from occurring such as a system of social
reproduction, role differentiation and assignment, as well as, a system of
goals and reward to motivate members of society to want to perform
their assigned tasks and responsibilities. These means of securing the
continued existence of society themselves form some of the basic needs
that should be met.
A third approach is also used for identifying these prerequisites. In this

case, the issue of deducing from an abstract model of the social system
becomes more relevant and the functional prerequisites are more largely
inferred than identified. Since it is assumed that society is a system for
example, the basic requirement for its survival would include a
minimum level of integration between its constituent parts as well as,
some level of mutual compatibility of the parts. (Haralambos and
Holborn, 2000). In such approach, religion is seen to be the vital part of
society, which meets the functional part of society, which meets the
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functional needs of social integration and cohesion through the

inculcation of the social norms and values of society among its
members.
3.2.1.2The Concept of Function
“Function” in functionalist analysis refers to “the contribution of the part

to the whole”. This means the significant role played by a given part of
the society. Therefore, the function of the family can be said to be the
continued existence of society through reproduction and socialisation of
new members. The religion on the other hand does the integration of the
society through the imparting of common values. As long as these social
institutions perform their role adequately, they remain functional.
However, any deviation from the excepted roles of maintaining the
society in a cohesive and harmonious state would make them
dysfunctional.
3.2.1.3Presuppositions and Assumptions
Parson (1955) gave seven assumptions that guides structural

functionalism. These are:
1. “Systems have property of order and interdependence of parts;

2. Systems tend towards self-maintaining order, or equilibrium.
3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of
change.
4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form
that the other parts can take.
5. System maintains boundaries with the environment.
6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes
necessary for a given state of equilibrium of a system; and
7. System tends towards self-maintenance of boundaries and of the
relationships of parts to the whole, control of environmental
variation and control of tendencies to change the system from
within.” (Parsons cited in Ritzer, 1996:240)
3.2.1.4Value Consensus
The analysis of Functionalists concerned itself majorly with the main

question of how social system is maintained. This focus has streamlined
the functionalist’s search for answers to value consensus (a collective
conscience comprising common values, norms, beliefs and sentiment
which if not present would make social solidarity and cohesion
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impossible).
Value consensus therefore, is from the fundamental integrating principle

that joins the various parts of society together. Social order will be
maintained if members shared and remain committed to the same norms
and values. Compared to those that all groups share in common,
differences of interests are considered as of minor and secondary
importance.
3.2.2 Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism has its beginning in the development of

sociological theory which follows the publication of G. H. Mead’s in
1934/1962. Mead and others with his view argue that human beings are
unique in their ability to use symbolic communicating (use of ideas and
concepts as distinct from mere gesture) in their social interactions. In
this respect, language, which represents the symbol system in use,
reflects certain generally accepted symbols or structures, which equally
shows universal orders within the human mind. Communication is an
expression or exchange of these symbols and the tasks of the
interactionist are to discover or uncover the nature of these patterns of
exchange (Ritzer, 1996).
Mead is of the opinion that through language, humans are able to:
1. Organise and store up schemata of impressions and

understandings of the social and physical world.
2. Transmit same to others who share the same language form and
3. Apply same to new situations, perceptions or symbolic
communications received from others, and in the process create
new forms of understanding of such signals. (Meighan, 1986).
Being able to choose from a range of available response option that has
developed over time in the mind of the individuals help to free them
from the determining and constraining forces of nature. Due to the
increasing consciousness, the individual becomes an active subject to
the direct impact of eternal stimuli for he can delay his response to such
stimuli, anticipate and weigh their significance and the consequences
against certain actions towards them before he makes a final approach
(Hargreaves 1972). The individual is now an active participant in his
social world acting and being acted upon within and toward situations.
Caution about the individuals’ all time awareness of the processes that
make up their social interaction is however needed. The extent of such
awareness can be argued and the social observer is mandated to be alert
not only to the overt intentions and understanding of his subjects but
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also to the outcomes of unexpected and unintended actions that are

within the observed interaction.
3.2.2.1Basic Principles of Symbolic Interactionism
The basic principles of symbolic interactionism were listed by a host of

its adherents. These have been summarised by Ritzer (1996) into seven
distinct but interrelated principles of the theory. They are:
1. Human beings, unlike lower animals, are endowed with the

capacity for thought.
2. The capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction.
3. In social interaction people learn the meanings and the symbols
that allow them to exercise their distinctively human capacity for
thought.
4. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on distinctively
human action and interaction.
5. People are able to modify or alter the meanings and symbols that
they use in action and interaction on the basis of their
interpretation of the situation.
6. People are able to make the modification and alterations because
in part, of their ability to interact with themselves which allows
them to examine possible course of action, assess their relative
advantages and disadvantages, and then choose one.
7. The intertwined patterns of action and interactions make up
groups and societies. (Ritzer, 1996: 347).
3.2.2.2The Method and its Impact on the Study of Mass

Communication
Most of symbolic interactionists’ methods involve the struggle to

understand the meaning of events for people in particular situations,
with emphasis being placed on the participants’ interpretation of reality
(Ritzer 1996). From the perspective of social action, meaning is placed
where the symbolic interactionists seek meaning. This approach is
conceived along the line familiar enough to social anthropologists who
are equally concerned with the ways in which the social world is
organised by the members (Burgess, 1984b). The connection between
symbolic interactionism and ethnographers is that the symbolic
interactionists are primarily interested in the cultural patterns and
behaviour of the group and, in particular, the members’ perception of
the world in which they operate. This is the focus of mass
communication. It is interested in the cultural pattern of the society and
tailors its programmes to suit this culture while at the same time
transmitting other cultural values of certain similarities.
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3.2.2.3Symbolic Interactionism Assumptions
In spite of it obvious subjective nature, symbolic interactionism is

guided by a set of assumptions which gave a hint about its objectivity as
well. It may be useful to look again here at the claim made for the
method in this area. Wilcox (1982) has pointed out some of the
fundamental precepts, which guide this type of inquiry.
1. Set aside one’s own preconception or stereotypes about what is
going on and they explore the setting as it is perceived and
constructed by its members.
2. Try and make the familiar strange “to assume that which seems
common place is nonetheless extraordinary and to question why
it exists or take place as it does or why something else foes not”.
3. In order to understand why things take place as they do, one must
view the relationship between the setting and its context.
4. Establish, maintain and develop relationship with the subjects of
study in order to ensure the constant flow of data.
5. Remain in the field long enough to note regularities and
irregularities and interpret them with confidence.
Highlight the basic principles of symbolic interactionism.
3.2.3 Conflict Perspective
In the previous discussion of sociological theories be it at functionalism

(macro-level) or micro-level (symbolic interactionism), a common
assumption is that the social arrangement and interactional situations
which govern social reality are a product of the people involved. They
existence of social arrangement and some interactional, social situation
that seem to favour some groups more than other is never questioned.
Social inequalities in terms of access to and ability to use and control
resources in society are accepted as given and unproblematic (Meighan,
1986). Even at that, conservative functionalists accept that social groups
can have differences of interest resulting in conflict as a valid and
necessary part of social discourse though they undermine the
significance of such conflict in disputing the social order.
The failure of both consensus and action perspective to provide

satisfactory answers to the question of inequitable distribution of
resources or exploitative relationships preventing the society, makes it
necessary to come up with an alternative theory of how to societies hold
together and develop as way of showing how order and coherence in
society are founded on conflict and the domination of some over others.
This new theory comes up from Karl Marx writings. The theory breaks
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with the Durkheimian view of the primary society over the individual by
focusing on the notion of power as the mediating factor in its concept of
binary opposition and further opened the door to a number of other
theories especially in those areas where the concept of binary opposition
and the notion of power gave support. In the view of the Marx, the basic
aspect of social order is to be found in the concept of binary opposition.
Social order is achieved through a continual process of disputed
interaction between men, of sectional struggles and of the imposition of
order by those who win power (Meighan, 1986). Going by the Marxian
Binary model, the conflict theorists demonstrate that though the ‘haves’
and ‘have nots or those who own the means of production and the forces
of production are binary opposites, the notion of power mediates
between each pair of opposites. This mediation occurs at two levels:
(i) It empowers certain individuals within a group to shape, direct

and define the rules governing the conduct of the group members
as a way of managing intra-group conflict and maintaining order.
(ii) It enables one group of people to successfully overcome
opposition from other groups or even other individuals.
This way, all social arrangements governing the interrelationship

between individual’s action and the structure of the society and all
interaction situations are therefore subjected to a pervasive Hegelian
dialectical analysis.
There are many varieties of the conflict perspective within sociology as

pointed out by Haralambos and Holborn (2000). They are united in the
following ways:
(i) View society as a whole

(ii) Adopt a structural approach.
(iii) Use the notion of the existence of different groups that have
different interests in the society resulting in conflict.
(iv) They submit that social arrangements will tend to favour some
groups at the expense of others.
Just as it is with functionalists, the conflict theorists also inclined

themselves towards the study of social structures and institutions.
As pointed out by Ritzer (1996) however, conflict theory represents

majority a series of contentions that often contradict the views of the
functionalists about social reality.
Several varieties of conflict theories thus exist, but the focus here will be
only on three of such names; Marxism, Neo-Marxism and Feminism.
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3.2.3.4Marxism
Marxism is named after its founder, Karl Marx, a German born

philosopher, economist and sociologist. As a theory, Marxism started
from the simple observation that human survival depends on the
production of food and material objects. People enter into social
relationships with each other in this production process. Production is
therefore a social enterprise involving individuals forming certain
association and affiliations from which they derive the benefits of
collective effort (Meigham, 1986). This production however, involves a
technical aspect known in the Marxian parlance as the forces of
production, which refers to the scientific knowledge, raw materials,
implements and the entire technology used in the process of production
(Haralambos and Holborn, 2000). In this sense, every major stage in the
development of the forces of production is characterised by a particular
form of social relationship of production.
The forces of production and social relationships that characterised them

together form the economic basis of society which the Marxist regards
as infrastructure. The other institutional aspects of society such as the
legal, political, educational and the belief and value system that are
determined by economic factors form what Marxist called super
structure. These two parts (infrastructure and superstructure) are
interdependent to the extent that a major change in infrastructure will
result in a corresponding changes in the superstructure (Haralambos and
Holborn, 2000).
In the opinion of Marx, all historical societies are characterised by basic

contradictions that make it difficult for them to survive forever in their
existing forms. These contradictions as noted by Haralambos and
Holborn (2000):
involve the exploitation of one social group by another:

in feudal society, lords exploit their serfs, in capitalist
society, employers exploit their employees. This creates
a fundamental conflict of interest between social
groups, since one gains at the expense of another. This
conflict of interest must ultimately be resolved since a
social system containing such contradictions cannot
survive unchanged.
Two views of Marx need discussion at this stage. The first is his
perception of people as being both the producers and product of history.
The second has to do with his view subjecting human history to a
pervasive Hegelian dialectical analysis. These views are discussed
briefly below:
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3.2.3.4.1Marx’s Historical Perspective
Here, people are both a product and producer of society. They are the
architect of society and themselves by their own very action. History, by
this, becomes a process of self-creation. In the same vein, people are
shaped and moulded by the same social relationships and systems of
thought that they helped to bring about through their actions and
reactions. This calls for historical perspectives that help to unearth the
process through which humanity both produces and is produced by
social reality. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2000)
The Marxian theory sees society as a whole and the various part as
interdependent and influencing one another. These parts can therefore,
be understood from the perspective of their mutual effect.
3.2.3.4.2Marx’s Dialectical Materialism
The Marxian view of history is based on dialectic which represents a

struggle of opposites and a conflict of contradictions. Conflict therefore
becomes the source of change and the prime mover of the dialectical
process is to be found in the concept of binary opposition. In effect, the
prime mover is the struggle or conflict between two binary oppositions.
The struggle or conflict between two binary opposites escalates in
intensity leading to a collision which also paves the way for the
emergence of a new set of forces at a level of development (Haralambos
and Holborn, 2000).
The idea of dialectical change came from Hegelian dialectical analysis.

In Hegel’s view, social change finds its basis in conflict between
incompatible ideas. Contrarily, Marks placed emphasis on the economic
system as a way of rejecting the priority Hegel accorded to ideas.
Haralambos and Holborn (2000), further explain that it is in
contradiction and conflict in the economic system that the major
dynamic for social change lies”. This is what earned Marx’s view the
name dialectical materialism.
3.2.3.5Neo-Marxism
This is the second variety of the conflict perspectives. Neo-Marxism is a

term applied to a variety of sociological theories whose critical approach
reflects the idea of Marx. Marx has given a profound influence on a
number of other theorists who profess to be operating within the
guideline laid down by Marx’s original work. However, it is not always
the case that these theorists who applied Marx method shared Marx
assumption. This was rightly noted by Ritzer (1996). In drawing this
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distinction, Ritzer (1996) has attempted to weigh the various types of

Neo-Marxist theories with the respective concerns in sociological
analysis. We will be looking at these three – economic determinism,
Hegelian Marxist and critical theorist briefly.
1. Economic Determinism
The economic determinists based their argument on Marx’s insistence

on the paramount importance of the economic system in exerting the
primary influence on other aspects of society. Such that economic
factors determine all other sectors of the society such as religion,
politics, value system and education, Marxism is interpreted in terms of
economic determination. Economic determinism became prominent in
the period 1889 – 1914, at a time when market capitalism had its booms
and busts, which led to predictions about its imminent collapse (Ritzer,
1996). Followers of this interpretation argued that the collapse of
capitalism was inevitable because of the contradictions that interplay
within its economic structures. The class struggle between workers and
capitalist class is expected to lead to an inevitable overthrow of
capitalism and the emergence of socialism.
It was this last point that Ritzer took up as it looks to circumvent the
Marxian dialectic by undermining the significance of human thought
and action. The whole imagery of the class struggle is about actors who
are constrained by the economic structures of capitalism into a series of
action.
2. Hegelian Marxism
The apparent contradictions between economic determinism and Marx’s

thought referred to above gave rise to a number of other varieties of
Marxian theory. One of such is the Hegelian Marxism which calls for a
return to the Hegelian roots of Mark theory as a way of complementing
the strength of early Marxists’ objectivity with a subjective orientation.
The concern here is to restore the dialectic between the subjective and
the objective aspect of social life (Ritzer, 1996).
Notable thinkers in this group are George Lukas and Antonio Gramsci.
Both are typical of a group which would:
(i) Openly reject the economic determinism of the Marxian theory

but still use something of its analytical method.
(ii) Attempt to re-establish the dialectic between the objective and
subjective aspects of social life by focusing on collective ideas
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rather than on social structure.
Gramsci’s central concept of Hegemony which he defined as cultural

leadership exercised by the ruling class is negotiated rather than attained
through coercion. Therefore, it is not enough to gain control of the
economic structure and the state apparatus, equally it is important to
gain cultural leadership over the rest of the society. (Ritzer, 1996;
Haralambos and Holborn, 2000).
3. Critical Theory
The critical theory consists mainly of criticism of various aspects of
social and intellectual life ranging from the economic determinism of
Marxism theory from which it draws its inspiration, scientism of the
discipline of sociology, the cultural repression of the individual in
modern society, to the absolutism of the positivist methodology (Ritzer,
1996).
This theory was developed by a group of German Neo-Marxist notably,

Horkheimer, Adorno and Marcuse of the Institute of Social Research in
Franfort. The main contribution of this theory is in its efforts to steer
Marxian theory in a subjective direction at both individual and cultural
levels. At the cultural level, they argue that the economic determinants
have over emphasised the prominence of economic structures at the
expense of other aspect of social reality such as culture. While at the
individual level, they are concerned with actors and their consciousness
as well as what happens to them in the modern world (Ritzer, 1996).
A second aspect of the critical theorists’ main contribution lies in their

dialectical approach, which emphasises the importance of social totality.
The notion of social totality is that “no partial aspect of social life and
no isolated phenomenon may be comprehended unless it is related to the
historical whole, to the social structure conceived as a global entity”.
This approach rejects a focus on a simple aspect of social life outside of
its broader context such that promoted by the economic determinists.
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Briefly discuss the view point of Marxism.
3.2.3.3Feminism
This is another brand of the conflict perspective. It is described as “that

system of general ideas designed to describe and explain human social
experiences from a women-centred vantage point. (Ritzer, 1996)
Different versions of feminism exist but both shared common elements
Ritzer (1996), mentioned three questions that govern and unite all the
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varieties of contemporary feminist theory:
(i) “The descriptive question and what about women?”

(ii) “The explanatory question, why then is all this as it is?”
(iii) “The qualifying questions, what about the differences among
women?”
Adopting a response pattern to the first of the three question (and what
about the women?) Ritzer further categorises feminist theory into four as
follows:
1. Gender difference: - This category emphasises the difference

between men and women in terms of their location, in and
experience of, most situations.
2. Gender Inequality: - This category stresses that women’s

Location in most situations is not only different from that of men,
but it is also less privileged and unequal.
4. Gender Oppression:- This category promotes the view that

women are, in addition to being different from and unequal to,
oppressed and actively restrained, subjugated, moulded as well
as, used and abused by men.
5. Third Wave Feminism: - The fourth category argues that

women’s experience of difference, inequality and oppression
varies by their social location.
Feminists are concerned with the divisions within society, but they
differ from Marxist in the way they explain these divisions. Marxist
focuses on class differences, Feminist focus on the major division as
being existed between men and women (Haralambos and Holborn,
2000). They like the Marxist are of the view that society is characterised
by exploitation, they differ in terms of the exploitation they are
concerned with. Marxists emphasise exploitation of working class by
ruling class, feminists emphasis exploitation of women by men as the
most important source of exploitation. They therefore describe
contemporary society as patriarchal, a man’s world in which women are
dominated and relegated to lower status position, poor-paid jobs and
restriction to political power.
The main objective of these varieties of feminism therefore, is to put an
end to men’s dominance and rid the society of male chauvinism and its
resultant and unjust exploitation of women.
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Explain briefly the main concern of Feminism.
3.3 Conflict Theory and Mass Communication
The application of the conflict theory to mass communication can be

seen from two main viewpoints – Economic and Political and Cultural
perspectives. The control of media is both economic and political. This
sometimes or most of the time conflict with the professionalism in the
operation of the media. There are times when the media stand is dictated
by who holds the ace as far as the economic control or political control
is concerned. The action of the media must follow the dictates from
these angles.
The other part is on cultural perspective. There are some cultures which
prevent media activities on certain aspects of their society. For the
media to exist and continue to exist in this respect, it has to go with the
cultural dictates of such society. For example, certain aspects of the Eyo
festival are shielded from the media coverage because of cultural value,
belief and norms. These aspects of the society are in conflict with the
social function which the media aim to perform.
The location of the media as one of super-structures of society which is

affected by the more important infrastructure, as seen in Marxian
analysis, provides a useful basis in understanding the degree to which
changes or reforms can be made in it. The Marxian believes that without
a corresponding change in economic infrastructure, there cannot be
change in media activities.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have seen in this unit that the various sociological perspectives are
of relevance to the study of sociology of mass communication. The
understanding of these perspectives guides the activities of the media
within the society they exist as the practitioners attempts to carry out
their assignments. The knowledge of this relationship between the
various elements of the society to themselves and to the whole is of
great importance. The various views by different sociologists have
equally been examined.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has examined the various perspectives of sociology under three
different perspectives. It has explained what each stands for and their
argument. Areas of differences were also mentioned.
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State the argument of Feminists. Compare and contrast the views of the
Marxists and the feminists.
Bamisaye, R. (1990).Sociological Foundations of Nigerian Education.

Ibadan: AMD Publishers.
Connerton, Paul (Ed.) (1976).Critical Sociology. Harmonsworth,

England: Pengium.
Haralambos, M. &Holborn, M. (2000).Sociology and Perspective.

London: Collins Educational.
Meigham, R. (1986),A Sociology of Education. London: Cassel

Educational.
Ritzer, G. (1996).Sociological Theory. New York: McGraw – Hill.
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UNIT 3 CONCEPT OF SOCIOLOGY AND CULTURE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Society
3.2 Concept of Culture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, we have discussed the introduction to sociology of

mass communication and sociological perspectives. In this unit, we shall
be looking at the society, its meaning and it relationship with the mass
media. We shall also look at culture as well as its relationship with the
mass media.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define society and culture

 state the features of a society
 analyse the relationships that exist between society and mass
media
 describe the content of culture
 explain the role of culture in media practice.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Society
Society is a key concept in sociology. As a matter of fact, society is the

focus. People are always in groups and members of the groups do
interact together. As such, a social relationship thus exists when these
individuals or groups possess reciprocal expectations concerning the
behaviours so that they tend to act in relatively patterned ways. The
groups, the individuals and their activities take place in a larger set up
often called community or society. Community is different from a
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society. It is more embracing as it refers to a definite population living

in a particular place. It includes everybody, adult and children, social
and non-social person living in a given place, sharing a common mode
of life, but all members are not necessarily conscious of its organisation
or purpose.
A society is however, a sub-community whose members are socially

conscious of their mode of life and are united by a common set of aims
and values. In this sense, a society can be seen as “a group of human
beings sharing a self-sufficient system of action and is capable of
existing longer than the life span of an individual, the group members
being recruited at least in part by the sexual reproduction of its
members”. From the above, one would realise that children are members
of a community, but are functionally not members of a society, because
they do not know their rights, their duties and obligation as full
members of their society. They are also ignorant of the way their society
functions though; they are potential members of the society.
There are various definitions of society. George Simmel cited in

Daramola (2005) defined society as “a number of individuals connected
by interaction”. Also Anthropologist Ralph Linton in Daramola (2005)
described society as “any group of people who have lived and worked
together long enough to think of themselves as a social unit with well-
defined limits”.
Both definitions emphasise interaction as being important in classifying

a group to be a society. In living and working together, there would be
interactions between the people.
Society therefore, is “an organised group of persons associated together

for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic or other
purposes.”
Members of a society do not just come together but with specific

purposes which are usually outlined and internalised. They all work
together to ensure that these set goals are achieved and are abided with
for the continuous existence of the society. Each member works
relentlessly towards ensuring the sustainability of the society.
Before a group could be regarded as a society, there are certain criteria
that should be fulfilled. Four of them are highlighted by Levy (1950).
These are that:
1. The group must be capable of existing longer than the life-span

of the individual.
2. The group must recruit its new members, at least in part by
means of sexual reproduction.
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3. The group must be united in giving allegiance to a common

complex, general system of action.
4. The system of action should be self-sufficient.
Aside these criteria, there are certain conditions and morals that regulate
their behaviour towards one another. These are regarded as codes of
conduct. They include:-
1. Cohesion: - Cohesion refers to resistance to division. It could be

of a social unit or the entire society. Cohesion may be as a result of:
(i) Allegiance to the larger unit

(ii) Good overall co-ordination
(iii) Mutual interest or Inter-dependence
(iv) Intersection of ties; and
(v) The quality and strength of ties
(Cohen, 1969)
2. Conformity: - This has to do with conforming to the morals and

regulations that are necessary for harmony in the society. The
conformity could be internally or externally motivated. These are
usually as a result of individual’s attachment to the society.
3. Cooperation: - This is a deliberate and voluntary effort to

facilitate the performance tasks by others in return for similar services.
An individual may be required to make personal service because of the
common good of the society. Every member has a role to play
depending on his or her status in order to ensure the oneness of the
society. What individuals do is cooperation with others playing their
own roles towards the attainment of the societal expectations.
4. Participation and Interaction: - Every individual of a society

has a role to play. Certain things are being expected from members in
order to fulfil the aspirations of the society. Individually and
collectively, participation of members is necessary for the society to
survive.
(i) Purposefulness: - It should be directed towards achieving or

clearly recognising and generally accepting goals of the society.
(ii) It is interpersonal as members are conscious of the existence of
each other.
(iii) It is reflective and individuals usually develop the consequences
of their belonging to a group that can affect, influence or alter
their attitude to themselves and to other members.
(iv) Interaction is also historical in that the consequences of past or
recent happenings often interfere with the interaction in the
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present.
Interaction occurs in different ways. These include communication,
competition, conflict and tolerance.
Discuss the criteria a group must meet before it can be called a society.
3.2 Element and Characteristics of Human Society
A society is mainly defined as a collection of individuals. It consists of

individuals of male and female sex and of different age groups. The sex
ratio in the society strikes a balance. The vital activities such as the
birth, growth and death go on in the society as long as the society is
there. The immigration and emigration and the birth and death of the
population also strike balance of the population in the society. But the
improvement in the medical facilities increases the average life span of
the individual thereby leading to population explosion.
A common geographical area: A particular society has been

demarcated by the other with natural or artificial boundaries. The natural
boundaries such as the rivers, mountain ranges or forests, canals etc. and
the artificial boundaries are there demarcated by political settlements.
The people of the area share the resources in common and participate to
reach the common goals of population. The people develop unity,
integrity, oneness and collective consciousness.
Variety of interactions: The society is full of interactions and the

different social processes and going on in the society. The people come
face to face and interact among themselves. People share certain
interests, attitudes, aptitudes, traditions, customs, values, objectives and
morals. The people of the society depend upon each other for their
survival. The division of labour among the individuals exists and the
functions assigned to them are performed. This develops functional inter
relationship among the members of the society.
Feeling of Solidarity: Since individuals of the society occupy a

common territory, common customs and traditions, common values,
common history, common cultures, self-contained interdependence on
each other obviously causes oneness and they develop a feeling of
solidarity among them. Though occasionally they interact with other
societies, they never forget their identity and remain united as long as
their society survives.
Total culture: Each society has its own culture and the individual
relationships are organised and structured by the culture. Because of
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commonness in the culture content and tradition of the society, the

members unite together. The society will be differentiated by the other
society because of its unique culture. Culture is present in human society
and the same is absent in animal society.
Social Organisation: Members of a society are socially organised.

Society itself has a structure and the important components and elements
of social structure are norms, rules, statuses, power, authority, groups,
associations and institutions. The norms are important. They give
stability, order and structure to human society that without them social
interaction would be difficult and chaotic. Organisation of human
society is maintained with the help of norms and institutions that
pervade the society. Social organisation helps maintain society in social
equilibrium.
Functional differentiation: All the individuals in human society never

perform similar activities and functions. They perform different
functions depending upon their sex, age, interest, abilities, skills and
other qualifications. There is more and more specialisation in each work
and they are expected to do the work allotted to them. Thus several
persons can work on a single activity. There is division of labour
depending upon sex and age.
Explain the characteristics of a society.
3.2.1 Types of Society
A society can be described as any of the following ways:-
1. Pre Industrial Societies:-These type of societies exist in the

Western world before they became industrialised as well as in
many parts of un-industrialised parts of our contemporary world.
This was described by Aina (1988) in Bamisaiye (1990) as
“societies that primarily rely on human and animal sources
(animate source) for their productive system, that of the absence
of industrial production”.
2. Industrializing Societies:-These are societies that were
traditionally pre industrial but, because of the contact with the
outside world, civilisation and technology, especially in the urban
part, have been transformed. Nigeria is an example of such
societies.
3. Industrialised Societies:-These refer to societies with great
advancement in technology. There are no borrowed or transferred
technologies. Taiwo (1988) cited in Bamisaiye (1990) described
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them as “characterised by improvements and achievements in

technological developments which have not been seen before in
the human history”. These have transformed and increased the
productivity in them. These societies are highly urbanised. There
is a huge difference in both the family and social structure
compared to pre-industrialised and industrialising societies.
4. Classed Societies: These are highly stratified societies where
movement from one class to another is impossible. One thing
worthy of note is the fact that despite the seeming impossibility
in movements between the classes, it is still the aspiration of
those in the lower class to move up. Class movement is only
impossible and a taboo in the caste system.
5 Classless Societies: These are societies where everybody is equal
and has equal right. This is usually the case in social clubs,
associations or even a given class in school. However, for the
sake of administration, some people have to be at the helms to
facilitate organisation.
6. Informal Societies: This can be an informal group of people
brought together for the purpose of communal living. This was
the pattern of civilisation that emerged worldwide. Migrants
settle at different location or place as a result of war, trade among
others things.
7. Formal Societies: A society can be established for certain
reasons or by law. This is usually the case in business, social or
religious groups. These associations are established for reasons of
economy, political, psychological, social or spiritual needs of the
people. Formal societies are different from informal societies in
some ways. These are:
(a) Members of a formal society apply voluntarily. In

informal
Societies, membership is not voluntary. It is not decided
by the members.
(b) There are guiding rules in formal societies for members
and for
participation. There are no rules other than the set
society/rules.
(c) The societies outlive their members as people come in and
go out but a whole community could be extinct by war or
epidemic.
(d) There are formally set goals which they aim to achieve.
The societies thrive mainly on communal living and each
member is free to choose life goals and aspiration he
wants for people.
8. Mixed societies: These are societies that combine the attributes
of both formal groups. Societies of the world are becoming
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mixed societies. People are being born into the society while
some apply to be members of such society. Example: - The US
Green Card DV Lottery affords many of the opportunity to be
members of that society.
Explain six types of societies.
3.2.2 Concept of Culture
“Culture” is defined by Taylor (1902) as “That complex whole which

includes knowledge, beliefs, anti-morals, laws, customs and any other
capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”. Meaning that
culture here is taken as an entity which is peculiar or applicable to all
societies. Aligning with Taylor, Reuter (1950) defined “culture” as “the
sum total of human creation, the organised results of group experience
up to the present time, adding that culture includes all that man had
made in the form of tools, weapons, shelter and other material goods, all
that he had elaborated in the way of attitudes and beliefs, ideas and
science, philosophy and social organisation”. All the aspects of human
life including his inventions are all regarded as culture by this definition.
Going further, Olsen (1968) cited in Akinfeleye (2008) made some

assertions that explains the concept of culture.
a. “As (people) communicate about common activities, exchange

attitudes, values and beliefs, develop common standards of
action, and adopt similar ways of doing things, they create a
culture”.
This means that it is people that create their culture through their
interaction and relationship. Activities of the people create their
culture.
b. “A culture is a relatively unified set of shared ideas that is
associated with one or more patterns of social order within the
process of social organisation”.
To have a clearer understanding of culture, one must make a

distinction among ideas, objects, and actions. Culture is in the
realm of ideas whereas social phenomena describe objects and
actions. This means that cultural ideas give meaning to social
objects and actions; while social objects and action lead to
cultural ideas.
c. (1) “Social values are shared agreements among the members

of a social organisation as to what is desirable or
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undesirable in social life”.

(2) “Social beliefs are shared ideas concerning the nature of
man and his social life”.
(3) “Social standards (norms and rules) are shared agreements
among the members of a social organisation regarding
acceptable and unacceptable actions”.
(4) “Social technology refers to knowledge about the technical
aspects of social organisation how to establish, maintain
and operate this process”.
Some social relevant components of culture include value consensus,

belief consensus, standard consensus and technical or methods
consensus. It is about what is desirable and undesirable; acceptable and
unacceptable and how to establish to maintain and to operate this
process.
3.2.3 Characteristics of Culture
Ezewu (1983) identified six characteristics of culture.
1. Culture is Organic and Supra-Organic:-It is said to be organic

because it comprises of human beings and supra-organic because
it goes beyond the life-span of any given individual of that
society.
2. Culture is Overt and Covert:-It is covert when the ideas,
worldview and attitude towards nature of the culture are
considered. However, it is overt when its artefacts, speech etc, are
considered.
3. Culture is both Explicit and Implicit:-There are some things
we believe in that we cannot really explain. These are regarded as
implicit. On the other hand, some things exist, some actions we
take or some roles we play which we can easily explain. These
are regarded as being explicit.
4. Culture is Ideal and Manifest:-The way people ought to behave
or what they believe they ought to do is regarded as ideal culture.
The action people take or things they do that other people
recognise or see them do are what make culture to be manifest.
5. Culture is Stable and yet Changing:-Cultures are passed on
from one generation to another to maintain the norms and value
of the society. Most time, some aspects of the culture are
considered no longer to be relevant or have to be changed when
in contact with other culture. If the culture is stronger than the
new one or incoming one, it absorbs it and makes it a part of it; if
it is however not as strong as the incoming one, it will be
relegated to the background and the new one takes its place. But
if they are of equal strength, they may fuse into one another.
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6. Culture is shared and learned:-Individuals imbibe the culture

into which they are born. The level at which individual imbibes a
culture is different even though it is a common right. We can
therefore say that individuals learn at different rates.
3.2.4 The Components of Culture
Wisler (1923) classified the component or content of culture into the

following:
(i) Speech which includes languages and writing system.

(ii) Material traits and food habits, shelter, transportation, dress,
utensils, tools, weapons, occupation and industries.
(iii) Art – carving, painting, drawing, music, dance
(iv) Mythology and scientific knowledge
(v) Religious practices – ritualistic form, care of the dead, etc.
(vi) Family and social practices – marriage, inheritance, social
control, sports and games, method of reckoning relationship.
(vii) Property – real and personal; standards of value and exchange
and trade;
(viii) Government, political and judicial form;
(ix) Warfare
The above mentioned are all what constitute the different aspects of the
culture of a given society and no single one is equal with culture. They
all make up the entirety of what is referred to as culture.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
i. Define culture in your own words.

ii. Explain briefly the components of culture.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to define both culture and society, seen
the characteristics of both society and culture. We have also discussed
those criteria a group must meet before it could be regarded as a society.
While at the same time, the components of culture have been
highlighted.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has explained the meaning of society and culture; explained
the characteristics as well as criteria for a society and components of
culture.
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A group cannot be regarded as a society until certain criteria are met.

Discuss these criteria that must be fulfilled.
Ayedun-Aluma, V. “Information Culture and the Democratic Process”

in Akinfeleye, R.A. (Ed.) (2008). Mass Media and Society: A
Multiperspective Approach. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.
Cohen P. S. (1969). Modern Social Theory. London: Heinemann.
Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of Education. Lagos: Longman.
Levy, Marion. (1952). The Structure of Society. Princeton: P.U. Press.
Wisler, C. (1923). Man and Culture. New York: T. Y. Crowell & C.
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UNIT 4 SOCIALISATION AND THE FAMILY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Socialisation: Meaning
3.2 The Family
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The meaning of society and what role each member of a society is

expected to play have been discussed in the previous unit. In this unit,
we shall be discussing the role of socialisation and its agents in making
the young ones full members of the society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define the concept of socialisation and family

 state the importance of socialisation
 explain the various agents of socialisation.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Socialisation: Meaning
Socialisation is the process by which a person acquires the knowledge,

skills and disposition that make them more or less integrated members
of their society.
This concept is a popular concept to sociology, anthropology and

psychology. It is a life time process through which members of a society
learn certain habits, traditions, knowledge, skills, norms and values of
society that are considered important.
Douglas (1973) cited in Daramola (2005) defines “Socialisation” in

general terms as “the process through which individuals acquire the
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social knowledge and skills necessary to enable them interact with

others”. He went further to say that it is a process through which
individuals locate themselves in the society. In his view, socialisation is
a life time process.
Belton (1981) cited in Daramola (2005) sees “socialisation” as “a

process by which we acquire the culture of the society into which we are
born and learn the ways of thought and behaviour considered
appropriate in our society”. He explained further that as soon as an
individual, through socialisation, accepts the rules and expectations of
their society that constitute its culture and used them to determine how
they should act, it is regarded that such a person have internalised
society’s culture rules.
The above views was buttressed by McKee (1981) in Daramola (2008)

when he says “Socialisation is the basic process by which the human
organism becomes a person and a functioning member of a society and
by which such a person is continually integrated into groups by
acquiring as their own the norms, values and perspectives of such
groups”. It therefore becomes a process essential for individuals; they
could not become essential for society because it could not persist
without continually socialising new members.
3.1.1 Aims or Importance of Socialisation
Socialisation is important for the survival of the individuals in the

society. The importance is highlighted by Peretomode (1995) as follows.
1. It provides the foundation for individual’s effective participation

in society.
2. It inculcates basic discipline in the individual such as respect for
elders, toilet habit, eating habit, etc.
3. It instills aspiration in societal members.
4. It provides individuals with identities largely through the
aspiration it encourages or discouraged.
5. It provides for the stability, persistence and continuity of society
by communicating the contents of the culture from one
generation to the other.
6. It makes minimum, initial communication and interaction
possible by providing for members to possess specific skills,
values, internal behavioural disposition etc.
3.1.2 Agents of Socialisation

The process of socialising the young ones in the society is in different
stages. Each stage has a role to play though all are targeted at ensuring
that the young ones are fully integrated into the full membership of the
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society. These agents are:
1. Peer Group
The peer group is an important age of socialisation. The age grade or the
peer group comprises of persons of about the same age. Though it is not
an established institution like the schools or the family, it has its own
customs and organisation.
Peer group can then be defined as “one composed of members of

roughly equal age, sharing equal status as well as pursuing some
interests in common. The roles of members are not clearly defined as the
roles change often as well as membership.
The peer group provides children an avenue to become less dependent

of family authority. They are able to form their own identity. The peer
group provides a useful transaction between the adolescent world and
adulthood. The group exposes members to knowledge which they do not
have access to in their individual families. They do certain things that
are not allowed by the adult once they are sure there are no prying eyes.
It helps to forge a child into a complex individual. They are exposed to
values and experiences of several other families which most likely
varied. These contacts help to broaden their horizon and perceptions.
The level of interaction is always very high. Socialisation here is very

effective because members are few, very close and the contacts are
continuing. There are norms and values which members strive to adhere
to. Degree of participation determines success within the group as well
as status within the group.
The influence, power and functions of the peer is highlighted in this

statement, “A peer group shelters, and protects its members. It gives him
psychological sustenance by meeting emotional needs of affection,
understanding and acceptance”. Data (1984) Going further he said “Its
members can interact directly with one another. It thus provides an
effective learning situation, it transmits the culture of society (undiluted
form) teaches certain roles and social expectations and conditions the
attitude and sentiment of its members”.
In view of this, the media needs to use the strong influence of the peer
group to assist a child in inculcating a positive attitude in the society
through its programmes. Media practitioners must be oblivious of this
influence.
2. The School
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The school is a formal and planned social institution with rules and
regulations guiding it. It is specifically charged with the responsibility of
preserving, improving and extending the culture by showing
appreciation to it and adherence to its norms. The basic function of the
school in socialising a child is the development of the cognitive ability.
The curriculum is a major instrument used to transmit on to the children

as well as reinforce the skills, practical knowledge, important cultural
values and norms, patriotism and loyalty, lesson of obedience, ambition,
concern for others and so on.
This is where a child has a large contact to be made and learn to deal
with a world that is more complex than his own family.
3. The Religious Organisation
The religious organisation includes the church, the mosque as well as

the traditional religious setting. These are socio-religious institutions in
the society which help to satisfy individual’s spiritual needs. The major
area of interest is the moral aspect of personality development of both
children and adults. This institution affects the economic, political
orientation, beliefs, values, intellectual and social growth of their
members through their practices, preaching and teachings. The modern
system has a different mode of teaching. Any firm of indoctrination is
discouraged as children are expected to learn and believe on the basis of
empirical evidence and environment of freedom. If there are conflicts,
teachers are expected to help children resolve such without enforcing
their own beliefs on the pupils.
4. The Mass Media
These include books, magazines, newspapers, posters, advertising

billboard, films, television, the radio, the internet. This is not a formal
socialising institution but could be used in most cases by educators as a
powerful instrument of socialisation.
The mass media transmit all messages – information, entertainment,

persuasions, appeals, propaganda etc. These messages have effect on
people’s orientation, beliefs, values and experience in no small measure.
It then does not only socialise the child but also continues to socialise
adult.
Television, radio and internet could ensure that both children and adults
jettison the culture of reading. It equally could promote pornography
because they use their leisure time for entertainment.
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Despite this, the mass media is helpful as an educational tool and strong
agent of socialisation. Influence of ICT is growing by the day at an
alarming rate. But children can be guided to pick positively from it.
Discuss socialisation and its agent briefly.
3.2 The Family
The definition of family is not a complex one. It can simply be viewed

as “the father, the mother and the children” to define it in the nuclear
sense. The definition can be broadly few to be “the social unit that is a
person’s biological or adopted origin”. This means people who are born
into a family or who have been adopted into a social unit and share
affections and feelings. Some people as a result of their inability to live
with their natural parents are fostered to surrogate parents who take over
the parental responsibility of bringing them up
The family in another view is seen as “the fundamental, biological and

social institution into which a child is born and where the child’s
primary socialisation takes place”.
Family is seen in another respect as “a group of related kin, linked by

blood and marriage, which occupy a common household and are usually
characterised by economic co-operation and solidarity”. This definition
is equally well articulated, family members are closely knitted and work
together for the common good of the family.
3.2.1 Characteristics of Family
The family has a hold on the life of its members for life, particularly in
Africa. This may be because of the strength of the ties formed among
members of the same family which is usually very strong.
The characteristics of family include:
1. Marriage – Family has its origin in marriage. Marriage is simply

the union of both man and woman. Every family be it nuclear or
the extended originates from marriage. Thus, there must be
marriage before a family can exist.
2. Composition: - A family comprises of husband, wife and children
(Nuclear). Other blood relatives may find their way into this
group making the composition to expand (extended). But
majorly, a family is made up of father, mother and children.
3. The family members are united together. This could be by means
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of legal bonds; economic, religious and other kinds of rights and

obligations. Also, by different amount of feelings such as love,
affection, respect, cares, etc.
3.2.2 Types of Family
Families are formed majorly by a union of spouses of different gender.

Classification is based on how the unions are formed, the number of
spouses of either gender or the way they co-habit. On this premise, the
following kinds of family can be identified.
1. Natal Family: - This is a family into which one is born. A person

with a biological parent belongs to a family. Though a person’s
parent may not have been married but as soon as a child identifies
his father, he automatically calls his father’s family his family.
2. The Conjugal Family: - This exists when a person gets married
and starts a conjugal family. This refers to that family he or she is
a spouse (husband or wife) and not a child.
3. Nuclear Family: - This family consists of one husband and one
wife at a time with their children. It is also called a monogamous
family.
4. Joint Family: - This is a family that consists of all people who
are related by blood living together on the patri-lineal estate. This
is common in Nigeria and especially among the Yorubas. It is
called Agbo-ile and it is headed by the eldest male child. Each
male child marries into that estate and resides there with his
family.
5. Polygamous Family: - This is made up of a man and several
wives and their children, all living together at the same time in
the same place.
6. Extended Family: - This is similar to joint family. The only
difference is that members need not live together in a compound.
However, they do things together and relate together as one.
7. Monoandrous Family: - This is a family in which a woman
marries a man and brings him to her house to live. She exercises
control over the household and the children belong to her.
8. Polyandrous Family:- This is a family in which a woman
marries more than one man at a time and brings them to leave in
her house. She exercises control over the household and the
children belong to her. This is also called matrilineal household.
9. One-Parent Family: - This is a new development in the
sociology of the family. It is perhaps a fall out of the constant
struggle for equity of the sexes which has reached a crescendo
with the women’s liberation struggle. This is not a family by
design. This could occur when a woman loses her husband
through death and refuses to re-marry.
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Babatunde (1987) cited in Bamisaiye (1990) mentioned three other

families. These are:
(a) Leviratic Family: - This is a family where a brother marries the

widow of his late brother to raise children in his memory.
(b) Sorronate family: This is a family where a man marries two
sisters either both living or after one had died.
(c) Ghost family: In this type of family, a woman referred to as
‘pater’ marries another woman for a man (a genitor) who bears
children for the pater.
All said and done, family is basically a product of conjugal relationship

either formal or informal between a man and a woman.
Define family. Briefly explain the types of family.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have discussed in this unit that the socialisation and the family. We
have pointed out the meaning of socialisation, the aim of socialisation
and its agents. The place of the family has equally been highlighted.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have explained the meaning of socialisation and family,

discussed the types of family, agents of socialisation as well as the aims
of socialisation.
Explain the role of the peer group, the school, religious organisation and
the mass media in the socialisation of a child.

Bamisaiye, R. (1990). Sociological Foundations of Nigerian Education:
An Introduction. Ibadan: AMD Publishers.
Daramola, I. (2005). Mass Media and Society. Lagos: Rothan Press

Limited.
Daramola, Y. (2005). “Mass Media and Society in Nigeria: Selected

Functional Perspectives.” In Akinfeleye, R. A. (Ed.) Mass Media
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and Society: A Multi-Perspective Approach. Lagos: University of

Lagos Press.
Delta, A. (1984). Education and Society: A Sociology of African

Education. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Peretomode V. F. (1975).Sociology of Education. Lagos: O.O.P.
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UNIT 5 SOCIOLOGY AND MASS COMMUNICATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sociology and Mass Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, we have taken a decisive and comprehensive look

at sociology, society and other related elements. This unit takes a look at
the relationship between society and mass communication.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define Mass Communication

 state the role of mass communication in the society
 discuss its relationship with the society.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Sociology and Mass Communication
Society is the nucleus of sociological study. Therefore, the society is the

main concern of sociologists. Sociologists want to know the relationship
between the society and its constituent elements. How these elements
influence the society and how the society influence these elements. The
mass media is one of those elements in the society that makes the
society to thrive and is at the same time influenced by the society. The
influence the society has on the media dictates the type of media that
exist within such society. It is for this reason that some media are
classified as: socialist media, communist media, capitalist media, etc.
The relationship between the media and the society is a symbolic one.
This is because of the link between them - communication. While it is
difficult for the mass media to thrive without the society, it will be more
difficult for the society itself to thrive without the mass media. The
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advancement in technology is as a result of the improvement in the mass

communication.
The mass media uses the people in the society for the day to day running
of its activities - the people make the news, the society (government)
provides the facilities; the society needs the mass media to progress in
respect of the media providing them information, entertainment and
education.
It is also a multiplier of resources of knowledge and information etc.

(Raufu, 2003).
The media is an important element in building the society. During the

nationalist struggle and the struggle for independence in Nigeria, the
role of the media cannot be quantified. This is why there are nationalist
media outfits all over. The media helps to project the view of the
members of a society and build a strong society in the process. It was
the tenacity of the nationalist media that helped the colonial masters
realise the intention and the resolve of the people. During the struggle to
achieve civil rule in Nigeria, the role of the media was so enormous that
the government of the day had to prescribe media houses for the
seeming “anti-government” publications. The resilience and consistency
of the media during the military era paved the way for civil rule.
As said earlier, the relationship is symbiotic. There are some things that
the media do to benefit the society while at the same time; the society
benefits the media in some ways.
What exists between mass media and society is not only a give –and-
take exchange but also a permanent as well as enduring or a lasting
association. It can then be said that one cannot do without the other.
This is because it obviously will be difficult for the media to grow and
proposer in isolation from society. It will equally be unthinkable to
imagine the level of backwardness and ignorance in the society without
mass media.
Mass media is needed to provide people with news information,

education and entertainment. In the same vein, mass media uses the
people for running their daily operations. For example, people regarded
as public figures, celebrities and important personalities or dignitaries
make news; journalists gather, write as well as publish the news;
government provide funds and facilities to assist the news media.
More importantly is the fact that mass media and society must be seen
as partners in the process of national, economic and social development.
The people, the government, mass media and other institutions in the
society e.g. religion, are all stakeholders in the process of nation-
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building. These institutions must therefore complement each other and
work together before the nation can hope to foster and generate socio-
economic progress for all members of the society.
Explain briefly ways in which mass media and society interact.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have discussed in this unit that the society and the mass media are a
symbiotic duo that are inseparable. It has been established that the two
are together and depend on themselves exceedingly.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has discussed the relationship between the media and society
and further broke it down to how it relates to government and the rural
community.
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT
The relationship between the mass media and society is symbiotic.

Discuss.

Limited.
Raufu, A. (2003). Mass Media and Society: Issue and Perspectives.

Lagos: Meek Associates.
Watson, J. (2003). Media Communication. An Introduction to Theory

and Process. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
MODULE 2 MEDIA AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE–

MASS MEDIA AND SOCIETY
Unit 1 The Mass Media

Unit 2 Relationship between the Media and Society
Unit 3 Theories of the Press
Unit 4 Functions of the Mass Media
Unit 5 Media as the Fourth Estate of the Realm
UNIT 1 THE MASS MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of the Mass Media
3.2 Characteristics of the Mass Media
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The mass media is an integral part of our society. Its role in the society
cannot be quantified. This unit will take a general look at the mass
media as a concept.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define mass media

 mention those media classified as mass media
 state the role of the mass media.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of the Mass Media
The nucleus of the mass media is communication. It deals with the

interaction among the elements within the society. What then is
communication? Since the concern of this unit is not communication per
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se, we will look briefly at the meaning of communication.

Communication is defined by as many scholars as believed to really
understand the concept. To some scholars, it is the link between
communities in the formation of a larger whole – a metropolis, a
province or a nation. It is not only man that communicates. Animals also
communicate through gesture, attention-grapping, colours, flashing
lights and complex scent. We communicate through the exchange of
symbols. We create symbols as human beings, ascribe meanings to them
and interpret them. On this basis, we could say that communication is
“the exchange and interpretation of meaningful symbols between the
sender and receiver through a medium”.
Other definitions of communication exist. “Communication is the

transfer of thought from one person to another.” “Communication is the
process by which one person (or a group) shares or imparts information
to another person (or group) so that both people (and group) clearly
understand one another.” (Daramola, 2005) The main concern of
communication is to transfer messages from one place to another using a
medium that best suits the message and with the hope of getting a
feedback or a reaction. Therefore, communication can be defined as “the
exchange of meaningful symbols and signals between the sender
(source) and the receiver (destination) through a medium with the hope
of a feedback which could be immediate or delayed.”
In the light of this brief explanation and for the purpose of this unit, our
concern is the medium through which messages are sent. This is what
brings about the discussion on the mass media.
As people communicate between themselves they employ the means

that best convey their messages. These could be spoken language,
smites, smoke signal, numbers, alphabets, gun shots, flute or other
things that they believe will best convey their messages. The mass
media is a large-audience medium of communication. It deals with a
large group over who one may not be able to exercise control.
McQuail (2000) describes “Mass Media” as “means of communication
that operates on a large scale, reaching and involving virtually everyone
in a society to a greater or lesser degree”. It is a large scale medium
media is the plural form of medium which means a channel or
instrument through which something (information, message, and
signals) is transmitted or carried. Mass media are the channels of
communication in modern society. There are broadly two- the print and
electronic media.
Media are different in the kind of information they convey. They are
also different with respect to perception and thought as well as the
personal experience and social interaction they make possible to the
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people.
McQuail (2000) define Mass media as “an organised means of
communicating openly and at a distance to many receivers within a
short space of time”. It is the quest to reach a large population in this
modern time that makes the development of mass media to thrive. Their
capacity is so great that the structure of society is fundamentally altered
by their existence.
The mass media comprises of television, radio, newspapers, magazine,

books, journals, movies and now the internet. They are not personal
communication and they have the ability to reach large audiences. They
affect the perception and behaviour of members of a society in distinct
way. As much as they affect the society, the society also affects them.
The mass media because of their size and reach have tremendous impact
on society. It is for this reason that Murphy (1977) cited in Daramola
(2005) summarised the societal impacts as oil, glue and dynamite.
As oil, the media can keep the running of the society while assisting
individuals to adjust and settle to the reality of their lives. The media
assists in the maintenance of order through reporting of the
misadventure of those who transgress the law or social norms.
As glue, it fosters social cohesion and helps maintain it. The media
provides everybody with something to talk about by setting agenda of
discussion. During the petrol subsidy removal crisis, the media gave
enough attention to the issue. This way, it gave the society something to
discuss on. The scam that also came from the investigation on subsidy
was well exposed and attention shifted from the subsidy removal palaver
to bribery scandal of the committee investigating the subsidy issue.
As dynamite, mass media is capable of ripping the society apart. It could

be used as a tool to incite the society into action, and could cause untold
damage if not utter destruction to the continued existence of such
society. The sensitisation that attended the cancelation of the June 12,
1993 presidential election led to several crises within the country
particularly in the western states of Nigeria. The country was on the
verge of disintegration at the time as many people were running to their
places of origin so that they will not be caught unaware should there be
outright secession in the country. That is the power of the media. Egbon
(1995) cited in Daramola (2005) attested to this when he said “It is
significant to recognise the fact that mass media can be a very useful
‘servant’ but could also be a dangerous ‘master’.
Explain briefly the concept of mass media.
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3.2 Characteristics of Mass Media
The characteristics of mass media are:-
1. Mass media is designed for a large audience. The audience are

large in terms of number or population, they are heterogeneous
and they cannot be controlled.
2. It is a big business with a large number of employees. It is a
business that gulps a huge amount of money to establish.
3. The main information they disseminate is news (factual, current
and verifiable information).
4. The speed of information gathering and dissemination is very
fast. They are gathering information continuously and are
sending them out at the same time. This is what makes it different
from other media.
5. They develop and attain maturity at the same time as a response
to the situation at hand and to achieve a purpose.
List the characteristics of the mass media.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has been able to establish that the media is a significant
element of the society. It is the means through which messages, ideas
and information are sent to the end users (receivers). It is mentioned that
the media can be a positive as well as a negative weapon on the society.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we defined communication and mass media. It was

established that the mass media is the medium that is used in passing
across messages. We also treated mass media as being the oil, the glue
and the dynamite in the society. The characteristics of mass media were
also mentioned.
Define mass media. Explain this saying: “mass media is the oil, the glue
and the dynamite in a society.”
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
Bittner, J.R. (1991). Mass Communication: An Introduction. Ibadan:

Heinemann Educational Books.

Functional Perspectives.” In Akinfeleye, R. A. (Ed.) Mass Media
Lagos Press.
Daramola, I. (2005). Mass Media and Society. Lagos: Rathan Press

Limited.
Ogundiran, B, Akintayo, A.O. Olopade, O & Ayoola, K.A (2004).An

Introduction to Business Communication. Lagos World System &
Services Ltd.
Raufu, A. (2003). Mass Media and Society: Issues and Perspectives.

Watson, J. (2003). Media Communication: An introduction to Theory

171
UNIT 2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS MEDIA

AND SOCIETY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Media Duties to the Society
3.2 Society’s Duties to the Media
3.3 Media Duties to the Rural-Communities
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit will be taking a look at the relationship between the media and
the society. In this regard, we will be looking at the duties media
perform to the society, what the society does for the media and also
what the media does for the rural communities.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 discuss the duties of the media to the society

 highlight the duties of the society to the media
 mention those duties expected of the media to the rural
communities.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Media duties to the Society
The media provides the society with the following.
(a) Information
(b) Education
(c) Entertainment
These three are important for any society to make an appreciable

progress. One cannot live in isolation and as such, information received
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through the media about other society help to bring about the education
of the mind in such society for the development of the society. Events
going on in other societies are made known to the people for them to
learn from and adopt to avert such occurrence or to use for the progress
of their own society.
The media provide entertainment to relax the people from stress and
their labour. It creates a forum for people to loosen up those things that
could cause health problems for them. This is done through various
programmes – dramas, soap operas, sports, talk shows among others.
Explain briefly the duties of the media to the society.
3.2 Society’s Duties to the Media
The society, on the other hand, provides the media with
(1) News event

(2) Consumption of the news
(3) Sustenance of the media business.
The society provides the media with news events through it activities.
All the things that are happening within the society are used by the
media for the benefit of the society by relaying the information to the
members of the society. However, if this were not made available by the
society, it will be difficult to have it in the media. The society makes
laws, creates conflicts, punishes offenders and rewards obedience. All
these and many more come from the society and are reported by the
media.
There will be no media if there are no consumers of the news and other
activities in the media. It is through this consumption that the media
business is sustained. It also creates employment for members of the
society – reporters, editors, vendors, etc.
With the Government the media is a partner in the development process

with the government. Government uses the media to promote its
developmental programmes and tries to sell it to the society through the
media. For example, Lagos State Government is promoting the payment
of tax by advertising in the media those things that have been done using
tax payers money. This is to spur members of the society into payment
of their taxes.
It plays the role of the watchdog as it watches the society, relays
173
government activities to the people and at the same time voice out some
of the people’s request to the government. Example is the recent bribery
scandal in the House of Representation. The media publicised it and
brought it to the door step of the society. When those involved were
cleared, it also made it known to the public and the reactions of the
society were also declared.
The media is the link bridge between the government and the governed.
It is the intermediary of both the government and the people.
Government tells the people its activities through the media; the people
also tell the government their reactions through the media.
Highlight the duties of the society to the media.
3.3 Media Duties to the Rural Community
The media perform some duties to the rural community in specific ways
because they are usually left unattended by those in government. These
are the ways the media could build and sustain with the rural
communities:-
(a) By being an active participant in the development of the

community.
(b) It should be the voice of the voiceless.
(c) It should be an agent of socialisation.
(d) It should be a projector of self-help development.
(e) It should be partner in culture or tradition preservation,
maintenance and sustenance.
(f) It should be an educator of a unique kind who gives attention to
economic, social and political matters.
(g) It should bridge the government-community, socio-political-
economic distance.
Highlight the role expected of the media to rule community.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have seen clearly that mass media and the society are closely
related. One cannot be divorced from the other. The society feeds the
media the information that it processed and disseminates and at the same
time, the media feeds the society with information that helps it generate
new information. One would be correct to say this relationship is in a
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circle.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has taken a look at the relationship between the society and the
mass media. This was viewed from three different angles – media to
society, society to the media and media to the rural communities.
A society determines the type of information it gets from the mass

media. Discuss.
Bittner, J. R. (1991). Mass Communication: An Introduction. Ibadan:

Heinemann Educational Books Plc.

Limited.

Watson, J. (2003). Media Communication: An introduction to Theory

175
UNIT 3 THEORIES OF THE PRESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Authoritarian Theory
3.2 Libertarian Theory
3.3 Social Responsibility Theory
3.4 Soviet-Communist Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous unit took a look at the relationship between the media and
society. This unit will look at the various theories within the society that
affect the activities of the press. A number of theories will be discussed
as follows: Authoritarian Theory, Libertarian Theory, Social
Responsibility Theory, Soviet Communist Theory, Democratic
Participant Theory and Development Theory,
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 mention the theories that we have in the media

 explain the concern of each of the theories
 describe the activities of the media under each theory.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Normative Theories
The four theories, regarded as the normative theories of the press, were
propounded by three renowned communication scholars Siebert,
Peterson and Schramm. These theories explain the operational
characteristics of the media in the society. One thing that we must point
out here is the fact that aside the four theories – Authoritarian,
Libertarian, Soviet Communist and Social responsibility Theories – that
are regarded as basic theories, two other theories - Democratic
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participant and Development theories – were derived from the four.
3.1 Authoritarian Theory
The authoritarian theory evolved in the sixteenth and seventeenth

century. It was found among the ruling families in England, France and
Spain. It later extends in modern society into government in Japan,
Imperial Russia, Germany and Spain as well as some Asian and in the
American countries at various times. It is the oldest theory of the press.
Some things are of importance to this theory. One is that a human being
is subservient to the state; second as an instrument of the state, it (state)
has the right to use man to maintain order and strengthen the existence
of the state. The press is seen as an instrument for disseminating the
state’s position to their populace telling them what is right or wrong
based on the state’s interpretation of issues and providing the policy
statement of the ruling elite. After determining what the objectives are,
the state uses the press as a means of obtaining those objectives.
Therefore, the press becomes a means to an end rather than an
instrument of criticism of neither means nor ends. At the early stage, as
subvert and others pointed out, the press was used negatively by making
sure the press does not interfere with attaining national ends. However,
the press and generally the mass media became a positive tool for
helping the state achieve its ends.
Under this theory, the ownership of the press is as important as to how

the press was used. The ownership of the media could be private as well
as public, but they are controlled by the government. The contents of the
media are not allowed to criticise the government or any of its activities.
They echo the government line in their official journal. There was still
as huge problem as to how to control these private media.
The first thing government did initially was to grant permit to few
people who could be described as privileged few. But as this system
began to fail, it came up with a second measure. This measure was to
reduce the number of journeymen trained as apprentice. This method did
not last long before it failed. The third method of control – outright
censorship was adopted. This equally did not stand the test of time. The
fourth method, was trying a person under the law for treason or sedition
for publishing what does not favour the state. This too did not succeed.
This theory operates on a complex system which hinges on degree of

control. These degrees range on:
1. Countries where control of some or all the media is complete or

total.
2. Countries where political criticism by some of the media is
177
possible but where there is censorship.

3. Countries that operate special laws or other discriminatory
legislation which expose media workers and executives to arrest
and persecution.
4. Countries where unofficial methods discourages criticisms or
opposition from the media.
Despite private ownership being allowed, there is rigid control from the
government through repressive laws.
Mention the main concern of Authoritarian Theory.
3.2 Libertarian Theory
The libertarian press occurred in the United States more abruptly than in
some other countries. It began to develop in the 16th century howbeit
slowly. By 18th century, it has been well defined as the principle found
its way into the constitutional frame work of nations. The libertarian
press is the exact opposite of an authoritarian press. This theory believes
in the superiority of individual to the state. It also views human beings
as rational beings, who though are imperfect as individuals but will
collectively arrive at the best decision for the general welfare of society.
Buttressing this point Rivers et al (1980) cited in Raufu (2003) says

“The conviction that human understanding is capable of its power and,
without recourse to super natural assistance of comprehending the
system of the world, and that this new way of understanding the world
will lead to a new way of mastering it”.
The theory holds that men have reason and wisdom to distinguish
between what is right and what is wrong and what is good from what is
bad. To make a decision therefore, it is important that people should
have “unlimited access to the ideas and thoughts of other men. Mills
cited in Bittner (1991) believes that [the collective aggregate of people,
if intelligent and informed, could arrive at sound decision. This is what
the libertarian theory holds and believes in.
The following elements are contained in this theory.
1. The reliance on ability to distinguish between truth and error.

2. The need for a free market place of idea so that reason may work.
3. The function of the press as a check on government
4. Ideas must have equal chance and everyone must have an access
to the channel of communication.
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In conclusion, the press is not an instrument of government in a

libertarian society. Rather, it is a tool of presenting evidence and
arguments on the basis of which people can check on the government
and make up their minds about any policy.
Differentiate between the authoritarian theory and the libertarian theory.
3.3 Social Responsibility Theory
The social responsibility theory came up as a result of the criticism of

the libertarian theory of the press. One of the shortcomings of the
libertarian theory is its inability to prescribe viable standards for the day
to day operations of the mass media and failure to provide a stable
formula “to distinguish between liberty and abuse of liberty”. Egbon
(1995) cited in Daramola (2005). The idea is that as much as you enjoy
freedom, certain responsibilities are expected of you to the society. It is
believed that freedom carries commitment and obligation, and the press,
which enjoys a privileged position under the government, is obliged to
be responsible to society for carrying out certain essential functions of
mass media in contemporary society. (Peterson cited in Daramola,
2005).
The press at a time was becoming too powerful and out of control. This
is because ownership and management was involving huge amounts of
money and the availability of small media units representing different
political viewpoints was fast becoming extinct thereby leading to a
drastic reduction in competition involving media ownership. Press
started to find its way into the hand of only a powerful few. The limited
control which brought about by the libertarian theory allows so much
power by media owners and managers to the extent that the press was
moving away from being a market place of ideas.
This new trend received several attacks and criticism, both verbal and
written. As such there was the need to express the essentials of the new
theory by responsible editors. One key thing to note here is the fact that
though it is held that a press has the right to criticise the government and
institution in the society. It has certain basic responsibilities to maintain
the stability of the society. Even though the press is expected to be
commercially independent of government control, profits achieved at
the expense of public service are taboo. Within the framework of open
and free press, criticism, codes of ethics or government regulation, and
guidelines for responsible action by members of the press lays the social
179
responsibility theory.
These were highlighted by Robert Hutchins commission in Raufu

(2003). Robert Hutchins Commission was set up in 1947 in U.S.A as a
way of calming the wave of criticism directed towards the press. The
report submitted suggested the following.
1. The press should be accountable to the public.

2. It is the duty of the press (print and electronic) to provide a
truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the day’s
events in a context that gives them meanings.
3. The press should serve as “a forum for the exchange of comment
and criticism.”
4. The press should serve as “presentation and clarifications of the
goals and values of the society.”
5. It should give a representative picture of the constituent groups in
the society.
6. It should provide full access to the day’s intelligence and finally
should engage in the gigantic project of raising social conflict
from “the plane of violence to the plane of discussion.”
The theory is more interested in obligation and the right of the public to
know. The press here is supposed to be seen and to see itself as
performing public services of a professional type and being socially
responsible to a mass audience instead of few people.
Discuss the factors responsible for the development of social

responsibility theory.
3.4 Soviet – Communist Theory
In order to understand the Soviet-Communist theory of the press, one

must look at not only the basic soviet political implications as derived
from Marxist doctrine but also at how the soviet interprets the word
“freedom”. The constitution guarantees freedom of speech and free
press. The political life of the soviet is one of unity. Everything about
soviet is unity. This has led to the development of a classless society
which is entrenched into the soviet state. Therefore, freedom to the
soviet society is freedom from oppression from a class – upper, middle
or lower – society (Bittner 1991).
The mass media in the soviet communist theory is an instrument of the

state. According to Schramm in Bittner (1991), “The mass
communication does not have integrity of their own; their integrity, such
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as it is, is that of the state”. “They are ‘kept’ instruments and they follow
humbly and numbly the gyration of the party line and the state
directives”. The media is a part of other instruments of the state. It is
used to provide enlightenment and to prepare the masses for unity and
revolution.
The activities of the press in a Soviet-Communist theory are similar to

what obtains in an authoritarian theory. The press is strictly controlled
and functions as an arm of the state. Its existence is merely to serve the
Communist-Socialist System and to help maintain the sovereignty of the
communist party. There is no opportunity to freely express one’s views
or for the press to criticise the government. To own the press, one must
be a loyalist of the communism or party chieftain who would use the
press only to promote the interest of the party and government in power.
Apart from the government, only loyal or orthodox party members can
use the press. This is because the socialist society is a classless one and
so the press should not be structured along the line of political conflict.
There are other theories of the press, sic: Development Theory and
Democratic Participant Theory.
Explain the similarities between the authoritarian theory and the soviet-
communist theory.
3.5 Development Theory
The development theory is a relatively new communication orientation

which is an offshoot of the debate on new world order that indicates the
need for a profound restructuring of communication pattern. The
emphasis here is on the involvement of grass root in communication
flow and implies that the press must be placed as a tool on the path of a
country’s economic development. The theory came as a means of
addressing the imbalance in development and flow of information in the
third world countries and a solution to the technological challenges
facing them. There are problems that make the development of mass
communication system difficult. The first problem is the absence of
infrastructure, professional skills, the production and cultural resource
and the available audience. The second problem is the dependence on
the developed world for what is missing in the way of technology, skill
and cultural products. Third problem is the devotion of these societies to
economic, political and social development as a primary national task, to
which other institutions should submit. The fourth problem is that
developing countries are aware of the similar identity and interest which
181
gave rise to certain expectations and normative principles which go

against that that seem to apply in either capitalist or communist world.
Mass media as a matter of fact operates in countries classified as
‘developing’ according to principles that are derived from other theories
as authoritarian or libertarian system.
Dennis McQuail (1978) cited in Raufu (2003) enumerated what he

describes as the basic tenets of development theory. These are
(i) Media must accept and carry out positive development tasks in
line with nationally established policies.
(ii) Freedom of the media should be open to economic priorities and
development needed in the society.
(iii) Media should stress link with geographically, culturally and
politically close countries.
(iv) Media should give priority to their contact of national culture and
languages.
(v) In the interest of development, the state has a right to intervene in
or restrict media operation especially through the devices of
censorship, subsidy and direct control.
In addition to this, Peter Golding in Raufu (2003) highlighted four ways

by which African journalists can practice development journalism to a
successful end.
(a) By stressing the general educative function of the news.

(b) By producing stories which display particular social needs hoping
that this would provoke government to take action.
(c) By giving prominence to self-help project hoping that others
would emulate the step.
(d) By emphasising news that could tackle specific and proffer
solution to societal problems e.g. corruption in Nigeria.
The theory has an emphasis on the right to communicate and the need to
use communication to achieve social change and better life.
Briefly highlight the problems that make the development of mass

communication in the Third World countries difficult.
3.6 Democratic Participant Theory
This theory believes that the democratic, commercial, and professional

hegemony in the media system should be discarded to ensure easy
access to the media. The theory emerged as a result of the
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discontentment with the libertarian theory of free press and social

responsibility theory. The discontentment came about because of the
failure to achieve social benefits expected of them. The two theories also
failed to control the increasing rate of commercialisation and
monopolisation of the privately owned media. They were equally unable
to prevent the centralisation and democratisation of public broadcasting
institutions even when they have been founded according to social
responsibility norms.
The theory holds that greater attention should be paid to the needs,
interests of the receiver in a given democratic society. It calls for
pluralisation and decentralisation of the media as against monopolisation
and centralisation. It also suggests horizontal as against a top-down
communication system. It however emphasises its commitment to
feedback in socio-political communication in order to attain complete
communication circuit.
The theory advocates equality between sender and receiver or what has
been described as “association” mode as against the “command” mode
or superiority of the “sender” to the “receiver” in a one-way
communication system. It further stresses that because the mass media
has become important socially, it should not be left in the hand of
professionals.
This theory has generally been described as the press equivalent of

“grassroots’ democracy”.
Discuss briefly the concern of the Democratic Participant Theory.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit the various provisions of the various theories of the press has
been examined. The authoritarian theory puts the press under the control
of the State but the libertarian theory believes the press should be an
open market place of ideas. The social responsibility theory believes that
even though the press should be free, the freedom should be with a
responsibility to the society which it (press) should serve. The Soviet-
Communist theory says that the press is an instrument of the State and
should serve only the State and those loyal to the State should be given
the opportunity to own and use the press. Development Theory accepted
the economic development and that it should add to its main objective
nation building. The democratic participant theory holds that attention
should be given to the needs and interest of the receiver in a democratic
society.
183
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has treated the normative theories – Authoritarian, Libertarian,

Social responsibility and Soviet-Communist as well as the derived
theories – Development and Democratic participants’ theory.
Discuss the similarities and dissimilarities between the following
(a) Authoritarian theory and Soviet-Communist Theory

(b) Libertarian Theory and Social Responsibility Theory

Heinemann Educational Books Plc.
Raufu, A. (2003). Mass Media and Society: Issues and Perspective.

Daramola, I. (2005). Mass Media and Society. Lagos: Rothan Press Ltd.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
UNIT 4 FUNCTIONS OF THE MASS MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Traditional Functions of the Press
3.2 The Libertarian Functions of the Press
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Having considered the various theories of the press as it affect different

societal system, this unit takes a look at the functions of the press in the
society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify the various functions of the press

 list these functions
 explain how the press carryout these functions.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Traditional Functions of the Press
The function of the mass media (the press) varies from one society to
another. The society in this respect includes both the government and
the governed (the people). The governed is not limited to only those in
the urban area but also the rural dwellers.
The traditional functions of the media in any society are:
1. Information
2. Education
3. Entertainment
185
Besides these traditional functions, other functions have equally been

identified as:
(a) Surveillance of the environment

(b) Correlation and co-ordination of facts
(c) Persuasion
(d) Transmission of social heritage (values)
(e) Opinion moulding
These functions underlines why the mass media and the society are
closely knitted together. The function is to both the government and the
people. The 1999 Constitution of Nigeria, Section 22 says:
The press, radio and television and other agencies of the mass media
shall at all times be free to …. Uphold the responsibility and
accountability of the government to the people.
This freedom guaranteed by the constitution allows the press to serve as

a watchdog over the activities of the government and report same to the
people as a way of informing them. The media is expected to function in
a way that it will expose the government with the aim of making it
accountable to the people.
The press while it serves the urban society on the basis of its traditional
functions, the rural society must be served in another dimension. It
should act as the “voice of the voiceless” for the rural society. The press
should bring to the fore those things that need to be known about the
rural society such as their needs, their vision, their aspiration, their
strength, their weaknesses among other things. The media should be at
the forefront of fighting the course of rural dwellers for development
and better society. The press should aim at assisting the community in
the following ways:
1. It should aim at creating a climate for change by inducing new

values, attitude and mode of behaviour that favour and is capable
of aiding modernisation.
2. It should raise the level of aspirations of community dwellers as
an incentive for action.
3. It should liberate and open the minds of the people to make them
prone to participating in decision making process at the larger
society.
4. The mass media can help increase sense of patriotism and nation-
ness.
5. It should make people realise their importance.
6. It should teach the people new skills – literacy, agriculture,
hygiene, among others.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
7. It should assist in changing power in the community by bringing

knowledge to the people altogether.
The above explanation could be regarded as the traditional functions of
the press. However, the libertarian views the functions in another
perspective although still very much related to the traditional functions.
3.2 Libertarian Functions of the Press
The press is very powerful as it can build and at the same time destroy
the society. With the knowledge of this power in mind, the libertarian
theorists put forward six major functions which are associated with the
media. These are: - public enlightenment, servicing the economic
system, servicing the political system, safeguarding good liberties, profit
making and providing entertainment.
1. Public Enlightenment
Public enlightenment is seen as a major function of the mass media. The

mass media are known as important partners in the search for truth.
They are the leader among the various organs in the search for
information and education. They provide people with the needed
information for them to form their own ideas and can stimulate them
through the presentation of other people’s opinion or view. It is the most
pervasive and inexpensive of education.
The media practitioners (journalist) through the print and electronic

media carry out the function of informing the people about events of
their government, economy of their immediate and distant environment.
The powerful effect of information on the people cannot be undermined
and this is why the media must provide proper information which is vital
to clear thinking and ultimately sound judgement.
2. Servicing the Political System
The news media are indispensable in a democratic society. The

realisation of the importance of the mass media makes democratic
government to place heavy responsibility on both the citizen and the
press. For good governance with others, each member of the society
must be aware of the problems facing the state as well as the possible
solution and consequences of actions taken or not taken. For a
government that believes so much in public opinion, the media must be
able to provide the people with the information and ideas needed for
making sound decisions.
3. Safeguarding Civil Liberties
187
This is a product of the libertarian theory which supports individual

autonomy. The libertarian principle believes that each individual should
pursue his own good in his own way. John Stuart Mills, a libertarian,
cited in Daramola (2005) supports this when he wrote “The only
freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing own good in our
own way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or
impede their effort to obtain it”. Each is the proper guarantee of his own
health, whether, mental and spiritual”. The libertarian believes that the
press should not only protect their own freedom but also the freedom of
all citizens.
4. Making Profit
The liberal economists proposed the idea of the “invisible hand” which
means that in the economic place, each individual working for his own
gain generally contributes to the wealth of everybody. In the market
place of knowledge, as each individual freely expresses his opinion or
ideas, he promotes the inevitable emergence of truth. The motive of
making profit indirectly or ultimately guaranteed public benefits which
make the press to be geared towards the wants and interest of the
community. It is only a press that is not attached to the government or
any faction that can actually serve the cause of truth and ultimately, the
right of individuals and the interest of the public. If therefore the press is
to be free to present views and information without fear or favour, it
must be a private, independent business enterprise.
For example in Nigeria, government owned media-print or electronic,

always conceal the truth if at all the story is reported. They are regarded
as mouth piece to the government. They have no reason not to do so
because they get subventions from government and the main aim is not
to actually make profit. Whereas a privately owned commercial press
will serve the interest of the public if it really want to survive and make
profit through continuous patronage of the people.
5. Servicing the Economic System
The function of servicing the economic system becomes relevant to the

press due to the emergence of modern advertising. Advertisement has
been an integral part of the newspaper content right from the “Iwe
Iroyin” by Henry Townsend.
As Nigeria develops and the population continue to increase, the media

through mass production and mass distribution became more relevant in
the economy as it brings products to the notice of the public and telling
them the benefits of such products. The media now reports business
through advertising and making several millions of Naira. The media
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
brings together the buyers and the sellers of goods and services
successfully through advertising. By so doing, they allocate the nation’s
resources, stimulate product variety, and help to make possible price that
are favourable to consumers.
It also helps the economic system, through the provision of

employments to thousands of workers in Nigeria. The effort of the
media has helped to reinforce both the desire for specific goods.
Advertising revenue is a major source of income to private radio and
television stations as well as newspapers and magazines. Some
newspapers like the Guardian have various advert schedules for specific
days of the week. They help to boost the sales of such newspaper and
invariably the revenue.
Advertising in the media are in three or four categories:-
1. Those aimed at inducing the purchase of one type of product.

2. Those aimed at inducing the purchase of a brand;
3. Those aimed at the emotion rather than the intellect,
4. Those directed at the intellect. (Daramola, 2005)
6. Entertainment
This deals with the ability of the media to present messages that
provides relaxation and amusement. It provides relief from boredom,
stimulates our emotions, help fill our leisure time, keeps us company
and exposes us to experiences and events that we could not attend in
person. There are programmes that one watches or listens to without
necessarily staying in a rest position. Some programmes amuse us even
while we are working. They help us to relieve tension and at the same
keep us abreast of happenings around us. Travel guide on Channel
Television for example gives us an informative guide to places we have
never been and may never be while at the same time it relaxes us.
Highlight the ways the press could assist in the development of the rural
community through its functions.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit has taken a holistic look at the functions of the mass media. It
enumerated the traditional function and explained the way the functions
are used in the society. It also pointed out the libertarian function which
ultimately is an embodiment of all the traditional function.
189
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we looked at the functions of the press that are traditional
that they carry out in the society. We also examined the functions of the
press as proffered by the libertarian theory.
With relevant examples, discuss the functions of the press as highlighted

by the libertarian principle or theory.

Heinemann Educational Books PLC.
Daramola, I. (2005). Mass Media and Society. Lagos: Rothan Press Ltd.
Raufu A. (2003). Mass Media and Society: Issues and Perceptive.

Federal Government of Nigeria (2001). Constitution of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Government Press.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
UNIT 5 MEDIA AS THE FOURTH ESTATE OF THE

REALM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Media as the Fourth Estate of the Realm
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 4, we looked at the different functions of the press as well as how

these functions operate within the society. This unit takes a look at the
press functioning as the fourth estate of the realm within the society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the role of the press as the fourth estate of the realm
 describe how this role is achieved
 explain how this role of the fourth estate is hampered.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Media as the Fourth Estate of the Realm
The first three estates of the realm are the three arms of government –
the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. These three arms
function according to the constitutionally provided roles within the
society. The position of the press as the fourth estate is not explicitly
stated in the constitution. It is regarded as the communication arm of
public administration in the society.
The communication system like the other arms of government, wield so

much power as an institution. They are the means through which other
institutions make their power felt in the society. The ability of the media
to spread information to a large number of pimples over a large area at
the same time makes the systems to a source of power. This is why other
191
social institutions especially the institution of governance attempt to use

it for their own end. Information is power; it is a necessary ingredient
for good governance and effective administration. This makes it even
more important.
The position of the media as the fourth estate was further buttressed by
the Section 22 of the 1999 constitution of Nigeria.
It states:
“The press, radio and television and other agencies of the mass media
shall at all times be free to uphold the responsibility and accountability
of the government to the people”.
This section of the constitution of the Nigeria state expresses, though not
explicitly, that the mass media is expected to function as the watchdog
on the government in our society. This role involves mass media and
their operators and it saddles them with the responsibility to monitor and
watch over every activity of the government and its agencies. By so
doing, it will ensure they are accountable to the citizens of this nation.
Just as there are the checks and balances among the three arms of
government, the media and the government also exercise the checks and
balances. The government makes the laws that guide the operation of the
media. The media also scrutinises the activities of the government
including law making by analysing the law and where necessary call for
a review. This they do by blowing government cover so that the society
is able to see the ills and dangers in the policies that have been made.
The media as an unofficial fourth branch of government is designed to
observe and report on the executive, legislature and judiciary; it is
expected to keep the citizen informed about activities of their elected
representative to do this. The media is expected to have an adversarial
relationship with the government where the press followed a different
objective from those in power.
In the discharge of this function and in playing this role, the mass media
contends with several trials and tribulations. The government makes
several laws that aim at repressing the media from performing its role.
Knowing the power that the mass media wield, every government looks
for a subtle way if not outright, to gag them from carrying out their
activities for the fear of revealing the secret of the government.
In addition, ownership of the media has influence on their activities.

Every owner wants to exercise total control of the media. While it may
be difficult to sustain a direct day-to-day influence of proprietor in the
editorial content, the power exercised by these barons can and do
influence the direction of editorials of these media.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
The economy of the country has become crucial to the media in play the
role of the fourth estate appropriately. The scope of the operation of the
mass media as well as professionalism is being lost due to rush for
government patronage by media owner, senior management and
editorial staff. This has led to a lot of unethical practices in the
profession. State correspondents are now appendages to the governor’s
offices in the state. Reduced professional capacity in quality and
quantity has resulted in much dependence of scheduled events and hand-
outs called press releases. There are no more or reduced critical analysis
of issues; investigative journalism, in Nigerian journalism.
Ponderous essays and opinion now fill the pages of newspapers. In-
house productions and documentations have been replaced with talk
shows, phone-in-programmes and video drama on radio and televisions
Ethnicity is another issue that has negatively affected the fourth estate in
Nigeria. This though may not be seen be as severe as the economic and
material context of the media, its effect with respect to public perception
of national issues could be very important as a limiting factor to the role
of the Nigerian press in the democratic process. There is the general
belief that the Nigeria media based of factors of ownership, location,
content and orientations as well as the market served are ethnic in
orientation.
Some commentators are of the opinion that Nigerian media

predominantly express a Yoruba worldview because most newspapers,
magazines, television and radio stations are based in what is called the
Lagos-Ibadan axis. Ayo Olukotun in Oso and Umoru (2011) attest to
this when he said,
The locational concentrations of media institution in South-

West Nigeria as well as the occasionally tendentious
perspectives of media, however, have made it easy for
establishment politician and corrupt office holders struggling
for survival to categorise media as sectional and ethnic.
This makes it easy for the elite to categorise any national issues reported
in the media as sectional and ethnic crisis as a result of the
stigmatisation of the media.
These are issues that the media as the fourth estate face in the country.
Some of this issue are found in other societies as well.
Highlight the factors that influence the role of the press as the fourth
193
estate negatively.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has been able to explain the petition of the press as the fourth
estate of the realm. It has equally highlighted those things that
bedevilled the mass media to perform these functions appropriately. One
thing that is certain here is that the mass media would a strong power in
the society. But has powerful as it is, there are issues that faces it which
weaken the mass media.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit mentioned that the media serve as the watchdog on the society.
It equally explains that there are trials and tribulations that work against
this media in our society. One major one is the loss of professionalism in
the way mass media operates.
Examine the role of the media as the fourth estate of the realm pointing
out those factors that militate against it.

Limited.
Daramola, Y. (2005). “Mass media and Society in Nigeria: Selected

Functional Perspectives.” In Akinfeleye, R.A. (Ed.) Mass Media
and Society A Multi-Perspective Approach. Lagos: University of
Lagos Press.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2001).Constitution of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Government Press.

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MAC 416 MODULE 4
MODULE 3 MEDIA INDUSTRY AND SOCIAL

STRUCTURE–OWNERSHIP AND
CONTROL
Unit 1 Political Economy of Media Ownership

Unit 2 Media and the State-Control of Media
Unit 3 Concept of Press Freedom
Unit 4 Press Censorship
Unit 5 Cultural Imperialism and Media Independence
UNIT 1 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF MEDIA

OWNERSHIP
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Ownership
3.2 Types of Ownership
3.2.1 Government Ownership
3.2.2 Private Ownership
3.2.2.1Multiple Ownership
3.2.2.2Cross- Media Ownership
3.2.2.3Conglomerate Ownership
3.2.3 Corporate Ownership
3.2.4 Party Ownership
3.2.4.1Party Ownership in a Socialist One Party
State
3.2.4.2Party Ownership in a Democratic Multi-
Party State
3.3 Structure of Media Ownership in Nigeria
3.4 Forms of Media Ownership in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous module, we took a look at the mass media, its

relationship with the society, theories that influence its mode of
operation in various societies as well as its functions. This unit takes a
look at the political and the economy of the mass media with respect to
ownership.
195
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define ownership
 list the various types of ownership
 describe how ownership influences the operation as well as
content of media productions.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Ownership
The “Mass Media” has been commonly defined as “modern means of

giving news and opinions to large number of people especially radio and
television”. With respect to this topic, mass media will comprise the
electronic media (radio, television and internet) and the print media
(newspaper, magazine among others). The mass media have been
instruments of information dissemination and of propagating and
sustaining the culture of the society.
In discharging this and other duties, there are some factors that influence
the objective and judicious discharge of these duties. One of these
factors is ownership of the media which results in the control of both the
management and content. The ownership of the media determines a host
of things that goes into their activities. Some of which are negative
influences that result in unprofessional and unethical practices at some
point. Despite these, ownership of the media has to be taken up by some
people. What then is Media Ownership?
By nature, man is generally possessive and has a natural tendency to

desire wealth which has compelled on the human folk to strive to own
properties in which man has vested interests. Ownership deals with
owning something or having control over something. It refers to the
autonomy an individual has over an organisation. It is a state or act of
possessing a thing or object.
Media ownership therefore, is the possession or act of owing of a

medium of communication. It may be as a result of partial or total
financing of a medium by an individual, organisation or a government.
Define media ownership.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
3.2 Types of Ownership
There are different kinds of ownership all over the world. The
ownership pattern in a society depends largely on the ideology of such
society. For example the ownership pattern expected in America will be
largely private ownership because of the libertarian ideology. The
following are the types of ownership that exist:
1. Government Ownership
2. Private Ownership
3. Corporate Ownership
4. Party Ownership
3.2.1 Government Ownership
This is the ownership where government is the major financier whether

it is total or partial of the media organisation. What is paramount here is
that such government must have control of the major shares of the media
institution. The idea of government control over mass communication is
that media exist to serve the government. Truth and public service are
both determined by what government officials decide is good for
society. There is a call for the government to own and operate the media
at one end. This is the case in countries like Cuba, China, and North
Korea.
What this translates to is that the government controls and directs the
contents of such a medium. M.K.O Abiola cited in Raufu (2003) said,
You cannot have accountability of the government to the people via the
mass media organisation in circumstances in which the media are 100
percent government controlled and the effect of such short sightedness
will be the government talking to itself.
When government determines and influence the content of the media

which is usually the case with government ownership, the suppressed
and gagged journalist will find it difficult to tell the leader that he is
crazy should that be the actual case.
Ownership in Nigeria has been an exclusive preserve of the government

except where the president gives such right to the private which will be
out of his own consent and magnanimity. This consent has been granted
to many private individual today.
3.2.2 Private Ownership
197
The magnanimity of the government and the need to open up the media
sector has made the government to license private ownership of the
media (broadcast) which has hitherto been an exclusive preserve of the
government. This ownership have given individuals and group of
persons or corporation who either completely owns or has a larger share
in the financial upkeep of the medium for the purpose of information
dissemination and is able to finance such medium adequately.
These independent individuals or groups or corporations run a single

media-enterprise and nothing more. The president of the country is the
only person who gives his consent before one can own an electronic
media in Nigeria. This however did not start until 1992 when the
government liberalised the ownership of the media. As a result, there are
several private radio and television station in Nigeria today.
Media ownership under the private is divided into three. These are
Multiple Ownership, cross ownership and conglomerate ownership.
3.2.2.1 Multiple Ownership
One of the ownership methods of media is Multiple Ownership. It is

also called chain ownership. This is a situation where one company
owns the same type of medium in more than one market area. For
example Silverbird Television has television stations in different parts of
the country and they are not a network of station but operate under the
same name with programmes and news content varying one from
another. Also the Africa Independent Television has television outfits in
different locations – Lagos and Abuja. They operate differently though
they have programme that are shared.
This type of ownership enjoys some economic advantages in terms of

economic scale. This advantage is enjoyed by the newspaper outfit
mostly. It enjoys the advantage of bulk purchase which reduces the cost
of production. It equally utilises and explore to the optimum skills of the
same set of staff for the production of the media output of various media
in this chain. One other advantage is the fact that output of one
newspaper does affect that of the other.
3.2.2.2 Cross-Media Ownership
This refers to the ownership of a combination of several media. The

inference here is that both broadcast and print media can be owned by
an individual or group at the same time. This can be better described as
a person or group owning a newspaper and broadcast outfit at the same
time. It could be two newspapers and radio or television or the three
together.
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When a person controls a variety of media in the same vicinity, there is

the tendency for that person to control the information source of that
area (society). In a situation where media are specialised, the situation
may confer “authority” status on such media which may or may not be
correct in the actual sense. This could be safely said to be the set back of
this pattern of ownership.
This is not to say that it cannot breed positive impact. Severin and
Tankard (1992) cited in Raufu (2003) mentioned some possible situation
that could arise.
1. Both the newspaper and the broadcast outfit will share news.
2. Economic resources arising from the possible sharing of
buildings, facilities etc put the organisation at advantage.
3. This also fosters cooperation among staff because they see
themselves as one family and work together as one.
3.2.2.3 Conglomerate Ownership
This is when large companies own media along with other business
interest that operates together. The conglomerates involve many
different types of businesses. Example is the Silverbird group. They own
radio stations (Rhythm FM), television stations (Silverbird Television),
they are into cinema management (Silverbird Galleria spread across the
country), and they are also into beauty pageant promotion (Miss
Nigeria). The issue here is that objectivity is usually murdered on things
that affect any part of the business.
On the other hand, the excessive private ownership shown in the

multiple and cross media ownership shown in the multiple and cross
media ownership can make the private individual owner or
conglomerate become influential as to exert negative influence in the
society due to the desire of the owner to make profit not minding what is
produced.
Conglomerate operates in two ways – vertical integration and horizontal

integration.
The Vertical Integration: This is a system business model in which a

company owns different parts of the same industry thereby controlling
both the production and the distribution facilities. See table below:
Vertical Integration: This usually occurs when both the production and distribution
facilities are owned by company. (Mass media is a changing world pp.16)
199
Books Newspapers/ Movies/ Recordings/ Internet
Magazines Television Radio
Library News Talent agencies Talent Website

agencies services/syndicates agencies designers
Publishing Publishers Studio Record labels Web portals

houses
Printers/ Printers/paper Film/video Recording Information

manufacturer manufacturers services
paper mills mills
Book Subscription/ Distributors/ Record clubs Internet

clubs service
delivery services Networks / Networks providers
Bookstores Newsstand Theatre/station Record E-commerce

stores/station sites
The Horizontal Integration: This is another of the conglomerate form.

It occurs when a company buys many different types of businesses. In
this case, a newspaper company does not buy a paper mill but it buys a
radio station or a TV station. Most conglomerate combines both vertical
and horizontal integration. This is not very common in Nigeria.
3.2.3 Corporate Ownership
This is the ownership that allows for a joint venture or partnership

between the government Federal or State and the individual citizens of
the nation. The emphasis here is equal participation of both parties with
regard to the financial involvement so that one side does not dominate
the other.
In the media industry, we do not have this type of ownership in Nigeria

as of the moment. The only time you see such is when government
collude with media owners to suppress the news.
3.2.4 Party Ownership
Party ownership refers to a situation that arises when the power to own
the media is exercise by the political party (ies) that exist in the country
due to the party’s financial control over the funding of the media
organisation. This ownership system appears in two ways.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
1. Party ownership in a socialist one party State.

2. Party ownership in a democratic multi-party State.
3.2.4.1 Party Ownership in a Socialist One-Party State
This is more of less like government ownership because the only

existing party is the ruling party and it is this party that owns the media.
The collapsed U.S.S.R by the reason of its political ideology operates
this system where the media belongs to the party and government at the
same time.
3.2.4.2 Party Ownership in a Democratic Multi-Party State
In this system where there are many political parties each of which
wants to rule, the parties will want to create a channel of communication
that will function as its mouth organ. The setting up of these mass media
organisation by each of these political parties is what is referred to as
multi-party democratic state. The media set up is always an appendage
of that party that created it.
3.3 Structure of Media Ownership in Nigeria
Ownership of the media in Nigeria is a constitutional issue. The

provisions of the constitution have been very clear and explicit about
who can own the media and how media can be owned. Section 39
Subsection 2 of the 1999 explains and stipulates who can own the
different media in Nigeria.
Without prejudice to the generality of Sub-section (1) of this Section,

every person shall be entitled to own, establish and operate any medium
of the dissemination of information, ideas and opinion.
It goes further,
… No person other than the government or of a State or any other

person or body authorised by the President shall own, establish or
operate a television or wireless broadcasting station for any purpose
whatsoever.
Much as the constitution gives individuals the right to own medium of

information dissemination, the clause that follows it emphasises the
importance of the control of the government over certain media. It puts
other media outlets, except the print media, exclusively under the
Federal and State government. It also placed the power to control its
ownership under the president. These media are mainly the broadcast
media – radio and television.
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The Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation is the organisation saddled with

the responsibility of discharging this responsibility on behalf of the
President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Aside approving licenses
for broadcast media organisation, NBC also monitors the activities of
media houses to ensure compliance in terms of programme content so
that it is within the purview of sensibility, responsibility, morality and
nationality. This nature and power of the broadcast media has
necessitated this.
3.4 Forms of Media Ownership in Nigeria
Media Ownership in Nigeria is in three forms:
1. Federal Government Ownership

2. State Government Ownership
1. Federal Government Ownership
The Federal Government became involved in the ownership of the

media as a result of funding. The funding could be total or partial. In the
case of partial funding, the government owns a larger part of the shares
that are used to fund such medium. This ensures that it has a control
over the medium. The Federal Government could either make provision
for the entire fund in establishing and running the medium so that it has
an undivided claim to its ownership or it may provide for the highest
percentage of the needed fund. In the New Nigeria newspaper,
government has a total ownership at it provided for the entire needed
fund. However in the Daily Times, it has a controlling percentage of the
shares. In the broadcast media, the Federal Government control is total
for both the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) and the Federal Radio
Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN). Federal Government is also the sole
owner of Voice of Nigeria (VON).
Federal Government Ownership style could be described as cross

ownership. This is because it owns both the broadcast media (Television
and radio) and print media.
2. State Government Ownership
This is a situation where State government owns and controls medium

of communication. The medium can be owned by individual state or a
conglomerate or group of states. For example in Nigeria, every State has
its own television station or radio station for both. This they use as their
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mouth piece in putting across the State position on diverse issues both
national and state. There is Lagos Television (LTV) for Lagos State,
Kwara Television (KWTV), Borno Television (BRTV) among others.
They also own radio stations. Most States do not own print media outfit.
Kwara State used to have one – Herald but this does not have a national
outlook.
The Sketch that is based in Ibadan is an example of a multi-state owned

media outfit. It is funded by the defunct Western Region comprising of
Ogun, Ondo and Oyo states. Oyo has the highest share and Ogun the
lowest. With the creation of additional States in the South Western
Nigeria, Oyo, Osun, Ondo and Ekiti states. The businesses of the states
include the Oodua Investment.
This form of ownership allows individuals and corporate bodies or a

group of persons to own a medium for the purpose of disseminating
information. This means that the person(s) must have a controlling share
if not outright total control financially over the running of the medium.
For example, The Guardian is funded by late Alex Ibru, late Olu
Aboderin owns 51% share in The Punch, Channels Television is owned
by John Momoh, African Independent Television is owned by Chief
Raymond Dokpesi. There are also radio stations owned by private
individuals across the country.
In general terms, ownership of the media in Nigeria is majorly a

government and private sector idea. The constitution allows the private,
individual or group, to own medium of information dissemination
howbeit with the approval of the regulatory agency that represent the
government.
Identify the various forms of ownership and discuss any two, briefly.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Media ownership and its various types have been dealt with in this
chapter. The definition of media ownership, as well as the various types
of ownership has been treated.
5.0 SUMMARY
This chapter provides the meaning of ownership and media ownership.

It also explains the various types of ownership. It went further to
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mention the form of ownership structure that exists in Nigeria.
Examine types of ownership; highlighting the ones that exist in Nigeria.
Rodman, G. (2006). Mass Media in a Changing World. Boston:

McGraw Hill.
Raufu, A. (2003). Mass Media and the Society Issues and Perspectives.
Watson, J. (2003). Media Communication: An Introduction to Theory

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UNIT 2 MEDIA AND THE STATE – CONTROL OF THE

MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Media Control
3.2 Model of Media Control
3.3 Forms of Media Control
3.4 Types of Media control
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous unit treated the ownership of the media. In this unit
therefore, we want to look at control of the media. The meaning of
control and the various forms of control will be examined.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 define media control

 mention the types of control that exist
 explain the various forms of control.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Media Control
The word control is defined by the Webster’s New International

Dictionary as “application of policies and procedures for directing,
regulating and coordinating production, administration and other
business activities in a way to achieve the objective of the enterprise”.
This definition emphasises the exercise of restraining or directing
influence over something. The mind set is to rule or to subdue whatever
it is.
With regards to Mass media of Communication control, there is the lack

205
of freedom from all manners of interference be it proprietor ally, legal or

economic institution regarding what should be the editorial content of
the media.
In simple terms, Mass media control is “the act of exercising restrains or

direct influence over the media of mass communication with the
intention of dominating it or ruling it. The aim here is to ensure that its
acts according to dictates of the government, proprietor or both.
Define mass media control in your words.
3.2 Model of Media Control
Before discussing the control of mass communication, there is the need

to look at the theoretical model of control. Broadcasting being limited
resources has more regulations than do magazines. Although the content
of magazines is not regulated, magazines are affected by a complex
array of postal regulations. The control of media varies from countries to
countries. This means that the control over the point or broadcast media
in one country can be totally different in another country.
One way we could look at control of mass media is through a model

developed by OsmoWiio. In his model, mass communication is viewed
on a two dimensional, open-closed continuum of the receiver system
(the audience) and the message system (the media). This is illustrated
below:
1.0 Type 1 Type 2
Audience Open + Message closed Audience Open + Message closed
CONTROLLED CONTROLLED
(MASS) (MASS)
COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
Type 3 Type 4
Audience Open +Message closed Audience Open +Message closed
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PRIVATE DIRECTED
COMMUNICATION (MASS)
COMMUNICATION
Closed Message System 1.0 0.0 Open

(Source: Bittner, 1991:318)
The left vertical line represents the audience and the bottom horizontal
line represents the message system. The degree of control is represented
numerically as 0.0 to 1.0 with 1.0 standing for the most open system and
0.0 the most closed system. For example, the most closed system, a
Type 3 private telephone system is actually private communication, not
mass communication. Type 2, uncontrolled mass communication, which
directs its messages to anyone who can hear them, represents the other
end of the model, a completely open mass communication system.
Each medium operates under varying amount of control. An in house

magazine for example is more closed in terms of message and audience
than a metropolitan newspaper.
3.3 Forms of Media Control
There are basically two forms of media control. These are editorial
control and managerial control.
1. Editorial Control: - This is the professional prerogative of the

editor. It describes a situation where editor, as the “gate keeper”,
controls the content of the medium. He chooses between “in and
out” (what goes into the paper) and is consequently responsible
for either relaying or suppressing the truth. The control of news
content starts from the reporter himself. This is because it is not
everything that he sees at his beat that he reports. The editor
determines what goes into the paper and what will not be
published. The editor is held responsible for whatever comes out
of his paper. He must therefore; censor whatever comes out of the
paper.
2. Managerial Control:-This type of control is in the operation of
the media outfit. This is a situation where the proprietor dictates
policies; oversees administration and consequently controls the
media either directly or indirectly through appointment of
personnel in the running of the organisation. He designs the type
of managerial system he wants and appoints those whom he feels
fit the purpose adequately. At this point, professionalism may not
be his main goal and this would affect the administrative style of
the medium and invariably the content of the media with respect
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to hospitality.
Explain the various forms of media control.
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3.4 Types of Media Control
Media control is of three types. These are: - Government Control,

Advertorial Control and Proprietor ally Control.
1. Government Control
Government not only own media in Nigeria but it equally exercise

control over private media howbeit indirectly. Ownership of the media
is provided for in the constitution and it is maintained by constitutional
provision that allows both government and private individuals to own
the print media and put the broadcast under the exclusive preserve of the
government be it State or Federal. An individual is granted concession
to establish any of the broadcast media only by the president of the
nation. The granting of the license is at the mercy of the president but
for now the final advice on whether or not it should be granted is in the
hand of national Broadcasting Commission (NBC).
Government control the kind of news that is reported from their own
media as well as those that comes from foreign media particularly those
that have something to do with them. There is no problem with a
medium that government is the major financial. Where the problem lies
is the media controlled by private individual. Government has come up
with different methods of control. These include:
(i) Imposition of Heavy Taxes: - Any press that chooses to be an anti

government press by being stubborn is an enemy of the
government. Government seek to check antagonistic press so as
to maintain popularity with the citizenry. One of the ways by
which government does this is through the imposition of a heavy
tax on the media outfit. This is believed will bring about the
much desired submission on the part of the media. Economic
hardship is believed to be a way of reducing antagonistic media
and ensure the existing ones become finally.
(ii) Allocation of Newsprint: - This is done by distributing newsprint
to various newspapers by government or indirectly by the media
organisation. Where government imports newsprint, it gives large
quantity to friendly media while a little quantity is given to those
antagonistic to them. In the case where media organisation import
the materials themselves, the government discriminate in the
form of quota of import license allocated to the media houses.
The friendly media house gets high quota while the unfriendly
gets low quota. It may even come in the form of duties imposed
on the importation of these materials including machines and
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other equipments.
While the friendly media get reduced duties and concessions or

waivers, anti government media get heavy duties imposed on
their wares.
(iii) Legal Control: - This is mostly used to restrict the activities of
the press. There are laws that are designed to protect individuals
or group against defamation, a statute to preserve the standard of
decency and morality and to protect the state against the treason
or seditions utterances and publications. The legal restriction
takes various forms.
These are defamation, sedition, state security, obscenity, etc.
a. Defamation: - The law of defamation is of two types. It

comprises of libel which is a written defamation and slander
which is the verbal defamation. It is basically an utterance to a
third party that tends to lower the a living person in the
estimation of a right thinking members of a society or which
make them to shun or avoid that person or disparage his
reputation with regard to this work.
b. Sedition: - this is a political and criminal offence against the state
which is punishable by conviction. It comprises all the practices
whether by word or deed or in writing which are capable of
subverting the government and the law of the state.
Any statement that is capable of inducing discontent and incites
people to unrest and rebellion is prohibited by the law. This
control is meant to ensure stability and orderliness in
government.
c. State Security: - this is a law against the publication or
transmission of any classified matter to an unauthorised person
on behalf of the government. It is an offence to obtain, reproduce
or retain any classified matter that one is not authorised on behalf
of the government to obtain, reproduce or retain.
The main reason here to prevent here in to prevent the people
secretly searching for secret information and communicating such
vital information so that the security of the state does not fall into
the hand of the enemy. If such information is allowed to be
transmitted, it will amount to giving the secret and security of the
state.
d. Obscenity:-this is a law against the publication of obscene
materials. Obscene publication or materials is defined by Elias
(1969) cited in Raufu (2003) as any publication that has
“tendency…..to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open
to such immoral influence and into whose hand a publication of
this sort may fall”. By allowing the publication of obscene
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materials, the government is promoting corruption of public morals.

This is why it is necessary to use legal control on indecent publication.
2. Advertisers Control
That money controls business is saying the obvious and no exaggeration

in the statement. Therefore, for mass media organisation to survive, they
need advertisements which provide the money on which the media
thrive. Advertisers are therefore, an indispensable part of the media. If
one publishes anything that would have negative effect on ones’
advertisers is like cutting the branch on which one stands. As such,
newspapers ensure they satisfy their advertisers to maintain their
patronage. They write favourable news about them and suppress
unfavourable ones.
The method of control under the advertisers can be described as

Economic Control. This is because advertisers may threaten to
withdraw their subscription to such media house to tow their line of
thought. Any attempt to go against this may spell doom for the media
house to which such advertisers had subscribed. Therefore, media
houses often publish stories concerning their advertisers instead of better
stories because if advertisement is withdrawn, a huge monetary loss will
be incurred by the organisation.
3. Proprietor ally Control
In Nigeria, proprietorship of mass media is majorly of two types –

government and private proprietorship. The control is therefore, from
both the government and private angle. The idea here is that “he, who
pays the piper, dictates the tune”.
In Africa mostly, government owned media are more or less dependent

on government for decision making and are seen as praise singers who
projects only the government. It is this way because they depend on
government for a larger part of their finances and they in turn have a
huge influence on the media so that it affects the direction of media
contents.
Private owners create greater problems. Editors in the private media are
not able to push forward their own ideas, thoughts, like, dislike and
professionalism in some cases with the scrutiny of their media owner.
Every private proprietor has a purpose for setting up the business. For
some it could be profit; for some it could be to wield influence; it could
be to enhance popularity or to further their political ambition. The first
thing he will target will be to control and direct the business towards
211
achieving this initial objective which he considers more important than

any other objective.
We could describe this control as aims and objective control. This is
because the activities of the media and its mode of operation are tailored
towards the achievement of the aims and objectives of the owner. If the
aim is profit making, the economic control where advertisers are
protected editorially will be at the fore front. Should it be popularity,
then, there will be more trouble for the media professionals under the
organisation as they will be involved in how best to promote the image
of their proprietor. They usually end up mortgaging their conscience and
professionalism as well as objectivity if they are not ready to quit and
seek for job elsewhere.
Explain the various mode of media control.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Media control varies from one society to another. This is because the
governmental principle of a society determines what obtains with
respect to media practice. The control of the media is necessary to
ensure orderliness and protection of the social institutions in the society.
However, this should not be to hinder the mass media from discharging
its functions.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has examined the definition of control, a model of control and
the forms of control. It also looked at the various types of control.
Explain the legal control of the media with example.

Heinemann Educational Book Nig. Plc.

Lagos: Meek Associate.
Rodman, G. (2006). Mass Media is a Changing World. Boston:

McGraw Hill.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
UNIT 3 CONCEPT OF PRESS FREEDOM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Press Freedom: Meaning
3.2 Features of a Free Press
3.3 Characteristics of a Free Press Society
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous unit examined the control of the mass media. This unit will
look at press freedom. It will attempt a definition of press freedom and
what the criteria are for a free press.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 define press freedom

 identify the criteria for a press freedom
 determine if you have a freedom of the press in your society.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Press Freedom: Definition

Press freedom is an issue that has been well discussed. This concept
established that media practitioners especially journalists reserve the
right to probe, to dig, to pry into the activities within the society for the
purpose of obtaining information, news and opinion and publish same
without hindrance. It presupposes that the gathering and reporting of
news and opinion should operate without any restrictions or constraints.
This means that journalist like every other Nigerian, have the right to
hold opinion and to receive and impart ideas and information without
interference. This is the fundamental human right guaranteed every
individual by the constitution and journalists are no exception to this
213
right. We can find this freedom in the constitution of various countries

of the world – Nigeria, France, USA, Britain, Spain etc though there
could be variation in the implementation of the freedom.
What then is Freedom of the Press or Press Freedom? When General
Yakubu Gowon was the Military Head of State, he set up a committee to
look into the issues and problems associated with press freedom. Based
on their term of reference, the committee defined Press Freedom as:
The freedom to gather information, to publish such

information, protect the sources of information, to
inform, educate and entertain society without direct or
indirect control, to serve as a forum for free expression of
opinion, to circulate freely without let or hindrance to
publish newspaper, periodicals or operate other media
without license or similar restrictions, to resist or respond
to pressure from economic, political or other interest
groups according to its light.
A renown English constitutional lawyer, Blackstone Prenown cited in

Raufu (2003) says “Press Freedom consist of laying no previous
restraints upon publication and in freedom of censure from criminal
matter when published”.
Also Tokunboh Onagoruwa (1998) cited in Raufu (2003) define Press

freedom as:
“The right of the media practitioner to make his or her view known on
any matter without seeking permission or approval from any persons or
authority and without being subjected to any form of harassment,
molestation, intimidation, prosecution or prosecution.”
All the definitions examined above show that the nature of society and
its socio-political structure will determine how that particular society
will define press freedom. If we look back at our discussion on the
theories of mass communication, we would discover that the definition
of freedom in the libertarian society is quite different from what obtains
in soviet-communist. This is because libertarians believe freedom to be
openness –an open market place of idea where everyone expresses his or
her own opinion without being scared of any consequences. The soviet-
communist on the other hand believes that the class structure is the
problem. Therefore, freedom is having a classless society where
everybody is equal. But generally speaking, press freedom can be
defined as:
“an unrestricted access to obtaining information from any desired

sources and to process the information to the society without requiring
any written permission before fear of intimidation, harassment,
molestation, persecution or prosecution”.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
This definition took into cognisance some of the experiences of media

practitioners in the discharge of their civic duty of being the whistle
blower. Many journalists have been subjected to various measures of
intimidation, harassment, persecution and even prosecution. Media
house do suffer proscription from publishing what the state considers a
threat to the authority or state security.
The Forms of Press Freedom
There are several forms that press freedom takes. These include:
(a) Freedom of the press with limited absence of government

restraints on publication.
(b) Press freedom with total absence of government restraints on
publication.
(c) Press freedom with total absence of government restraints on
publication and availability of the enabling condition that makes
access the information possible. An example of this is the
Freedom of Information Bill that is proposed in Nigeria.
With reference to the various definitions above, attempt your own

definition of Press Freedom.
3.2 Features of a Free Press

A free press must possess the following:-
1. It must be financially independent.

2. It must be free from the control of the government be it partial or
total control.
3. It should encourage freedom to express opinion by multiplicity of
voices on any public issues.
4. The press must be seen as partners in the search for truth where
every individual reserves the natural right to search for truth.
What are the features of a free press?
215
3.3 Characteristics of Free Press Society
The following are the characteristics of a free press.
(a) The publication should be free from any paid censorship by any
third party.
(b) The act of publication and distribution should be open to any
person or group without permit or license.
(c) Attack on any government official or political party (different
from attacks on private individuals, treason and breach of
security) should not be punished even after the event.
(d) Media should not be compelled to publish anything.
(e) The publication of ‘error’ is protected by the publication of truth
where opinion and belief are involved.
(f) There should be no restriction on collection of information by
legal means.
(g) There should be no restriction on export or import as well as
sending or receiving of messages across national frontier.
(h) There should be the right of journalist laying claim to some
degree of professional autonomy in their organisation.
State the characteristics of a free press society.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Generally, every society claims to operate freedom of the press but from
observations and from the discussions, few are actually living up to this
billing. This unit has explained to us what press freedom really means. It
has equally pointed out those things we should look out for in a free
press society.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has explained the definition of press freedom, the form it takes
in societies as well as its features. It also discussed those characteristics
of a society with free press.

Discuss with a relevant example the features of a free press.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
Bittner, K. R. (1991). Mass Communication: An Introduction. Ibadan:

Heinemann Educational Book Nigeria Plc.

Limited.
Raufu A. (2003). Mass Media and Society: Issues and Perspectives.

217
UNIT 4 PRESS CENSORSHIP
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Censorship
3.2 Types of Censorship
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we looked at press freedom. This unit will be taking
a look at press censorship. It is one of the several methods used in
silencing the various publications in the media.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define press censorship

 discuss the topic appreciably
 mention the different types of censorship
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Censorship
The concerns of journalism are designed to establish a self-imposed

code of good taste and decency. This code is against and discourages
publication of rumours, obscenity or any other type that would bring
strong feeling of hatred on a particular race, nationality, tribe or other
group of people. This is why it is usually said in media parlance “when
you are in doubt, you leave it out”. This is a form of censorship.
Censorship is an act of examining books, films, letters, publication etc

with the intention of removing anything believed to be offensive
morally, harmful and politically dangerous. When one decides to control
his/her speech with the mind of avoiding a certain consequence, it is a
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
way of censoring the mind. Censorship is really a tool of

authoritarianism and tyranny.
Press censorship therefore is “an undue” interference in the performance

of the professional duties of the media by any person, group of persons
or government with the purpose of suppressing unfavourable thoughts
ideas or opinion”. It is used to suppress criticism from people or group
believed to be opposition to the government but it is this censorship that
is more pronounced and it is the most restrictive. Government usually
seeks to ensure that whatever is published is in their favour and in
accordance with what they have laid down.
Define Censorship and Press Censorship.
3.2 Types of Censorship
Censorship is of different types. These include:-
3.2.1 Government Censorship
The government is generally believed to always resort to censorship in

the face of criticism which cannot be quelled by the withdrawal of
government advertisement and other forms of subtle or indirect pressure
that may have been mounted on the media. This has continued to attract
a lot of serious criticism because of the consequences. Censorship of the
media is more pronounced under the Military administration or
authoritarian government than in a democratic government or libertarian
society.
Government adopts a number of ways in censoring the media. There are
(a) Pre-publication Censorship: - This is a case where government has

to scrutinise all stories to be published before the stories are published.
Stories are first sent to the information office or an agency sanctioned to
do so be they are published. Where this is in operation, there is always a
strict supervision which ensures compliance and that government desires
alone are published.
(b) Out-right Seizure of Publication: There are instances where an
edition of newspaper or magazine is seized. It implies that the day’s
publication is made illegal for public consumptions.
(c) Proscription of News Media:- This deals with the revocation of
registration and scrapping of mass media organisation. This was very
common under the military regimes. In Nigeria, armed soldiers and
219
armoured tanks, in some cases, are used to seal off the media house
before the prescription is announced.
3.2.2 Criminal Censorship
Criminal censorship is used to describe all forms of censorship that

include beating, threats and murder of the media practitioner to suppress
or remove offensive information. There had been several journalists that
have suffered criminal censorship in the past. Dele Giwa was murdered
in cold blood via a parcel bomb delivered to his house by a dispatch
rider on Sunday October 19, 1986. In recent years some journalists were
killed at different times in order to stop them from doing their job. A
journalist was attacked recently for photographs taken at a mortuary in
Lagos when corpses of those who died in the ill-fated Dana Air plane
were being transferred. There are arrests and detention of journalists by
authorities during criminal censorship.
3.2.3 Economic Censorship
This has to do with finances of the media. There could be the threat of
withdrawal of advertisement by advertisers if editors will not think twice
before publishing something that has negative effect on the business.
The censorship could even occur where there is a main body
(organisation) and it is subsidiary (ies). The organisation may decide to
stifle it subsidiary and starve it of fund if it refuses to do the biddings.
This type of censorship is economic.
3.2.4 Self-Censorship
This is the restriction that journalist place on themselves in the

discharge of their duties. Journalists themselves select the stories they
believe will not have negative consequences on the security of their
society. There are times journalists kill some stories not because they
were paid or induced but because they understand the repercussion of
letting such information get to the public. It is foolishness for a
journalist to expose his countries military acquisition to the public after
facility tour when you are aware of foreign presence within your society.
Self censorship practice is the practice of responsible journalism. It is
associated with “gate-keeping” in the process of news gathering and
news production by media organisation self-censorship is required not
only to protect the interest of the state but also that of individuals.
List and explain briefly the various types of censorship.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
4.0 CONCLUSION
The meaning of press censorship and its types have-been discussed. This
unit has exposed us to the fact that governments, mostly the military, use
the censorship of the media to suppress criticisms, which make them
uncomfortable. They therefore, employ every means to ensure they
bottle-up whatever is not in their favour. Rightly to the various ills
suffered by media practitioners have also been discussed.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit looked at censorship, media censorship and the types of media
censorship. Four different types of censorship were mentioned and
discussed in this unit.
Media censorship of the press is both externally imposed and personally

imposed. Discuss.
Bitner, J.R. (1991). Mass Communication: An Introduction. Ibadan:

Heinemann Educational Book Nigeria Plc.

Limited.
Longman (2007). .Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.

England: Pearson Education Limited.

Lagos: Meek Associations.
221
UNIT 5 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM AND MEDIA

INDEPENDENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of cultural imperialism and media
independence
3.2 Cultural hegemony
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cultural imperialism and media independence as the focus of the people,

has effect on the social institutions therein. As such, the various media
within such society exhibit certain things that are taken from the culture
of that environment. Media need to be independent of the cultural
influence within the society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define cultural imperialism and media independent

 explain the meaning of cultural hegemony
3.0 MAIN CONCEPT
3.1 Definition of Cultural Imperialism and Media

Independence
Cultural imperialism refers to the domination of a culture by another

culture. It refers to the way a culture or the way of life of a particular
group influences and changes another culture.
Media independence refers to the freedom and ability of the media to

make decision and report events without having to be influenced by the
culture of the environment. Cultural imperialism is something that is in
place in African media practice especially in Nigeria. This has been a
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concern of media scholars since the 1970s and into the 1990s. The
influx of foreign culture into the country particularly. American culture
has great influence on the Nigerian media. In many countries, traditional
culture has seen displaced and replaced with the American culture. This
influence is made possible by the way things are done in American
media. The quest for freedom of expression all over the world has made
America to be sending out more media materials to other countries, than
what it imports; and along with the productions of media for diverse
audience, all help in ensuring the American influence in other countries’
media.
The dominance of foreign media or their hegemony on the local media

is so great that most media houses write and produce their programmes
in line with this foreign influence. At a time in Nigeria some media
houses where beaming mainly foreign programmes, especially the
entertainment programmes, to their local audience. This dominance
usually discourages unearthing local contents.
This hegemony of dominance in international media relation is being

rejected. Its substitution with notions of indigenisation and
hybridisation, which seems to conceal rather than expose hegemony
inherent in the globalisation project, is now being attempted.
Cultural imperialism issue did not just start. It has been in existence
since after independence. Two factories made scholars to be concerned
about cultural imperialism in Nigeria. First was the evidential
asymmetrical relationship between Nigeria, other African countries and
developed Western countries. The second is an evident erosion of
cultural value and pride in western values. These two factors were the
reasons for the emergence of cultural imperialism debate. While the first
which is on the asymmetrical relationship between Nigeria and other
African countries could be seen as political angle to the debate, the
second on the erosion of values and dependence is on the economic.
A problem that arose in the struggle against cultural imperialism was

that scholars in communication media studies find it difficult to resume
the criticism against cultural imperialism when the return to their
academic enclave, accepted or in some cases sought for appointment
with the state agencies or government itself. Most of them are usually
placed in a position where they directly formulate and/or implement
policies that encourage cultural imperialism in another way. This makes
the theory of cultural imperialism to suffer hugely at all fronts.
The issue of non-government organisation has further aggravated the

problem with critics against cultural imperialism. Scholars in
communication media studies have NGOs consultancy firms and are
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advisors to NGOs. The funding that comes to this organisations, are not
for any other thing, but research on improving or enhancing existing
institutions and to use media to achieve a better short-term outcome in a
particular project. This is mainly administrative research.
Cultural imperialism as it concerns media content and production is

huge and the media face a lot of challenges that make it difficult to fight
this menace to a logical end.
Define cultural imperialism and media independence. What are those

things that make American influence on other country’s media huge?
3.2 Cultural Hegemony
Cultural imperialism is concerned with the attempt to reject the notion

of hegemony or dominance in international media relations and its
institution. Cultural hegemony is high in the developing countries of the
world and their media is equally affected. The indigenous ways of doing
thing are being discarded for the foreign style.
It is possible for people to live happily and fulfilling without having the
faintest idea of what hegemony means. The word is however critical to
the study of culture, communication, history, sociology etc.
Hegemony means “control over something”. Hegemonic control is a

special form of control that is not based on coercion or force but resulted
from successful persuasion or enculturisation. Hegemony is working
when there is a general consensus – the mass of the population accept
the controlling influence and decision making of that part of the society.
Hegemony is won by consent. The media is the most powerful of all the
agencies that exhibit this hegemonic control. Hence, the powers of elite
are able to exert pressure if not control over the media to own it.
The theory of hegemony is attributed to the Italian philosopher Antonio

Gramsci who argued that “a state of hegemony is achieved when a
provisional alliance of certain groups exerts a consensus which makes
the power of the dominant group appear natural and legitimate (legal)”.
Before there can be hegemony, there must be harmony or agreement that
the hegemony acts on. This is why it is said that hegemony can only be
sustained by winning the consent of the dominated ones. If they are in
opposition, it will not work.
Hegemony works most smoothly when there is a substantial degree of

social, economic, political and cultural security in a society. Once the
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security is undermined social division becomes rampant, hegemony is at

a risk. Then, the repressive state apparatus are brought into action.
Hegemony provides the Power Elite with the consent of those that they
ruled. Below is an illustration on hegemony.
Features of Hegemony
Though hegemony differs in times and circumstances, what is common

to them all are the governing influence of ideology – a public expression
of what in personal term is described as values.
Present the features of hegemony in a graphical form.
4.0 CONCLUSION
One thing that is important here is that the influence of a culture on

another culture is in existence and is strong. The control of foreign
culture on other media especially Third World countries and particularly
Nigeria is so enormous. Attempts at fighting against this imperialism are
usually thwarted in various ways. It is good to note that control or
dominance cannot occur without the consent of the dominated, or the
controlled. This is what ensured that there is harmony in the constituent
social element. Hegemony gives the power elite the needed consent of
the rules.
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5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has been able to define cultural imperialism and media
independence. It has also explained cultural imperialism as well as
cultural hegemony. The features of hegemony are presented in a
graphical form for easy understanding.
Cultural imperialism still exists in the Nigerian media. Discuss.
Mohammed, D. M. (2011). “Mass Media, Intellectuals and Cultural

Imperialism discourse in Nigeria.” In Lai, O. & Umaru P. (Eds).
Mass Media and Society in Nigeria. Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd.

McGraw Hill.

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MAC 416 MODULE 4
MODULE 4 MEDIA AS A SOCIAL AGENT
Unit 1 Media as a Social Agent

Unit 2 Media and Political Subject
Unit 3 Media and Social Inequalities: Race, Gender, Class
Unit 4 Media and Audience
Unit 5 Media and New Technology
Unit 6 Globalisation
UNIT 1 MEDIA AS A SOCIAL AGENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mass Media as Messenger of Society
3.2 Mass Media as Agent of Social control
3.3 Mass Media as Agent of Social change
3.4 Mass Media as Means of Social Interaction
3.5 Mass Media as Adjuncts of Industry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit will be examining the roles played by the media in bringing
the elements of the society together. We shall be looking at the roles of
the media as a messenger, as agent of social control, as agent of social
change and as an adjunct of industry.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify the various ways the media play the role of social agent
 state the means or methods used by the media in playing these
roles
 point out how these roles have been effectively played.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Mass Media as Messenger
The role of mass media as the messenger of the society is a universal

phenomenon. This is made possible through the technologies of
electronic communication. Mass media send texts and visuals across the
globe. Today, a swifter and more extensive mass media system is in
operation, more than ever before.
Mass media help to shine light on the social and cultural aspect of the
society. They do this by reporting political, economic, legal, religions
and technological development in the society. For example, Nigerians
got to know about the fraud in the oil sector through the mass media.
The same goes for the conflict between the former Chief Justice of the
Federation, Justice K. Alu and President of the Court of Appeal- Justice
Ayo Salami.
Much controversy is not generated by mass media when playing this

role. It is usually a work of reporting-crime news, Civic meetings,
government events, business trends, etc. However, problems arise when
the mass media become interpreters of events. This is seen as being
subjective or ‘slanting’ the news”.
Explain the role of mass media as a messenger of the society.
3.2 Mass Media as Agent of Social Control
The mass media being the communication arm of the ruling class is a
strong agent of public social control. Mass media help to inculcate in the
pubic the prevailing beliefs and values. The mass media is a powerful
means of maintaining and sustaining the existing order in the society
because it is the major source of socialising the younger generation and
teaching them the customs and beliefs of the culture.
This role contradicts the stand of the liberation theory that sees the press
as liberating people from ignorance and superstition. Some observers
believe that this role is the most dominant because it is so pervasive and
extensive. It can also be regarded as the engineering of consent. This is
because communication functions in any society to mobilise public
opinion and engineer consent necessary for a stable society. Mass media
has been able to replace coercion and force with subtle persuasion. This
way, it has brought about change in the form of social control.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXECERCISE
Explain briefly the role of the mass media in the engineering of consent.
3.3 Mass Media as Agent of Social Change
Social change can be described as the process by which alteration occurs

in the structure and the function of a social system. Social change is a
process because society and its component institution constantly go
through evolutionary changes. This change is one of the most
fundamental phenomena in the human history as man perpetually tries to
gain knowledge about his environment so that he can increase his
control over it.
There are so many reasons why people or societies change; but one
thing that is paramount and important is that individuals themselves
must change if a society or a nation is going to be transformed or grow.
Subsequently, groups must change because individuals live in groups,
work and play in groups.
Society change demands that individuals participate collectively in

group decision making and actions. This is where sharing and exchange
of information and ideas occur. Communication and mass media
facilitate and enhance individual participation in collective decision
making an action. The mass media help in promoting social culturally
viewed behaviour and at the same time discourage anti-social action-
pollution, bribery and corruption among others. It also helps to promote
innovative farming methods, new technologies and chemical inputs-
fertiliser etc in the rural society.
Explain the role of mass media as agent of social change.
3.4 Mass Media as Means of Social Interaction
Mass media are the means of sharing and exchanging information, ideas,
and opinion in a modern society. Mass media is primarily a link to
politics, markets, religious beliefs, etc. The mass media also help to
maintain the status quo in the society because the beliefs, customs, norm
and values of society in which they operate are usually portrayed. In
addition, they also serve as means of challenging established orders in
any society.
The mass media have tremendous power because they have the ability to
spread information, ideas messages etc. to a huge numbers of people.
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Mass media are powerful in modern society as the means through which
the powers of other institutions are felt. Other institutions attempt to use
them to their own ends. As a result, the mass media are equally
influenced by other institutions within the society. The mass media
interact with the social institutions within the society.
In what way do the mass media play the role of means of social
interaction?
3.5 Mass Media as Adjuncts of Industry
Mass media are businesses not minding the size. They are marketing
institutions. According to George Gerbner (1969), cited in Akinfeleye
(2008), “they are the cultural arm of industry.” Notwithstanding the
discussion, mass media do not just perform certain functions but equally
play specialised roles in the society and this has further emphasised their
importance in the society
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has examined the roles the media play in the society. The inter-
relatedness of these roles is inherent in the discussion. Mass media do
not just perform certain functions but they equally play specialised roles
in the society and this has further emphasised their importance in the
society.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have discussed the role of mass media under five different headings
– as messengers of society, as agents of social control and agents of
social change. We also considered the mass media to be agents of social
interaction and adjunct of industry.
Discuss the role of mass media as social agents.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4

Functional Perspective.” In: Akinfeleye, R.A. (Ed.). Mass Media
Lagos Press.

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UNIT 2 MEDIA AND POLITICAL SUBJECT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Politics, Ethics and Reporting
3.2 Goal of Political Reporting
3.3 Reporting Political Issues
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit will look at the way the media handle political issues and
report such issues to the public. When we take into account the roles of
the media in the society, then it is important to look at this aspect.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the relationship between the media and politics

 state the basic goal of political reporting
 discuss the ethical issues arising from political reporting.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Politics, Ethics and Reporting
Over the years, politics has been defined in various ways by different
scholars. Omolayo and Arorolaju (1987), cited in Akinfeleye (2008),
posits that “At whatever level, politics is essentially characterised by the
struggled for power and influence, disagreement, bargaining or
negotiation, reconciliation, resolution and consensus.” Harold Lass, as
well, also in Akinfeleye (2008), simply puts it as “who gets what, when
and how”. In this respect, the main ingredient of politics is power. Lass
believes that politics is basically a struggle for position, influence by
which those who monopolise such positions in the society are able to
make decisions. Having all pervasive consequences to all these, there
was a dissenting opinion. A school of thought holds the view that
politics and government are together and cannot be separated from each
other.
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In all these definitions and explanation, what then is politics? Politics is

the practice which involves the struggle for power and influence,
disagreement, bargaining or negotiation, reconciliation, resolution and
consensus which are done sensibly with the purpose of gaining an
advantage.
Ethical issue is an important aspect of media practice. The media is

easily criticised once the activities go against the ethical provision which
attempt to determine what is right and what is wrong in the discharge of
one’s duty. According to Merril (1982) cited in Akinfeleye (2008) “it is
very much a normative science of conduct with conduct considered
primarily as self determined voluntary conduct”. One thing that one
must be sure of here is that ethics is a voluntary action therefore, notable
communication scholars have described it as self-legislation and self
enforcement .A journalist must be able to control his actions or
decisions before he can talk about ethics. It guides a journalist in
deciding how he would anchor the story by ensuring that the principle of
fairness is strictly upheld. This is what ethics is all about.
Reporting simply to give an account; anyone who gives account is

reporting. In the media, when an account of an event is given, it is
regarded as reporting. This is why the person who provides such
accounts of an event is called a reporter. He is a person who is trained
in the art of information gathering. The event that has been collated
arranged and disseminated is what we called the news.
Explain briefly the meaning of politics, ethics and reporting.
3.2 Goal of Political Reporting
The basic goal of political reporting can be inferred from section 22 of

the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria. This section
explains the duties of the mass media as upholding the fundamental
objectives that we have in Chapter 2 of the constitution alongside
upholding the responsibility and accountability of the government to the
people. The fundamental objectives include the economic, social,
educational, foreign policy, environment, directive on Nigerian culture.
What is important to political reporting is the need for every media

organisation in Nigeria to align itself with the political objectives of the
states. Accordingly, national integration shall be actively engaged whilst
discrimination on ground of place of origin sex, religion, status shall be
linguistic association of ties shall be prohibited.
(Article 15 (ii) of 1999 constitution)
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The media show their unflinching support to realising the political

objectives by educating and enlighten the people about what is going on
in government. The opinion of members of the public is sort and
articulated in the environment of government with the aim of checking
unpopular actions. The media help the people to participate in the day to
day affairs to the society, take an informed decision and to keep a check
on the authority who rule on their behalf. This is achieved by the
treatment of various tropical issues that affect the society on regular
basis.
SELF-ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE
What are the goals of political reporting?
3.3 Reporting Political Issues
Having looked at the meaning of politics, ethics and reporting and

having considered the goal of reporting politics, it is important to look at
reporting political issues in the media. One would understand that
whatever comes out of the media, positive or negative, will have a
powerful influence on the people and the direction of their thought.
Political reporting is the rendering of an account of occurrence in the

policy as it concerns politics and governance. There is something that
should be considered while a political reporter in sourcing for stories or
anchoring stories. This is due to the fact that he realises the power that
he wedges and the influence that his report could have on the society.
There are some questions he needs to first ask himself - which are
fundamental ethical questions, namely:
(i) Does the story promote democracy and justice?

(ii) Does the story promote unity and national cohesion or
integration?
(iii) Does the story enhance the standard of journalism practice?
(Akinfeleye, 2008:180)
Ability to answer these questions appropriately will help both the

reporter and his medium to make the desired or expected impact through
every published story. As an agenda setter, it will help in meaningfully
setting the agenda for the society to discuss on as usually is the case.
Contrary to this, there have been distortions when it comes to political
reporting in Nigeria; Gate keepers (media practitioners) are allowing
themselves to be misinformed by uninformed government functionaries.
This usually happens because media men, sometimes, neglect the ethical
provisions of the profession.
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Another thing that creates problem in the reporting of political issues is

the lack of understanding of political issues, lack of understanding of
political terminologies most of the time; our media writers do display a
lack of understanding of key unavoidable political terminologies in
reporting. They usually fail to examine the words of politician before
publishing such. They display this in the reporting of Honourable
Jagada’s call for the impeachment of former President, Chief Olusegun
Obasanjo in 2001 in the wake of the indictment of the National
Assembly over the looting of the national treasury. His utterance was
given prominence instead of educating him on the system of government
in place in the country at the time. Vote of no confidence is a term used
in a parliamentary system of government.
They equally displayed a lack of the knowledge of the nature and

structure of the country where they operate, which political reporting
equally requires. A political reporter should know that in Nigeria where
Federalism is in place, for example, the clash of centripetal and
centrifugal forces must always occur and when it does, it must not be
misconstrued as dangerous in the polity. As a result of the separation of
power and checks and balances, there will sometimes be conflict
between the various organs of government most especially legislative
arm and the executive arm. This should not be over exaggerated by the
media.
The media in reporting political event must be careful not to raise

unnecessary alarm. The ethics of the profession must be upheld and
strictly followed. Nigerian political writers need to imbibe the needed
skills for political reporting. The lack of the skills may lead to
publishing stories that are not in line with the ethical provisions of the
profession.
What are the things a reporter must consider when reporting political
event?
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has discussed political reporting and the things that are
expected from political reporters. They are expected to be
knowledgeable about the field they are reporting on so that the society is
not misled or misinformed in any way.
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5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has taken a look at the meaning of politics, ethics and
reporting. It also looked at the goals of political reporting as well as
reporting political issues.
Explain the political reporting in the light of the question provided by

Akinfeleye (2008).
Akasoro, O.G. (2011). News Agency of Nigeria as a Channel for

Political Communication in Nigeria. In: Oso, L. & Umaru, P.
(Eds). Mass Media and Society in Nigeria. Lagos: Malthouse
Press Limited.
Popoola, I. S. (2008). Ethical Dimensions of Reporting Politics in

Nigeria. In: Akinfeleye, R. A. (Ed.). Mass Media and Society: A
Multi-Perspective Approach. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.
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UNIT 3 MEDIA AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY - RACE,

GENDER, CLASS
CONTENTS
4.0 Introduction
5.0 Objectives
6.0 Main Content
6.1 Media and Racism
6.2 Media and Gender Differences
6.3 Media and Class Differences
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous unit looked at the media and political subject. This unit
will be looking at the media and social inequality – race, gender and
class.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain how the media handle issues that relate to gender

 enumerate the ways the media treat the issues of class and race
 explain how the public views the activities of the media on the
issues of social inequalities.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Media and Racism
The persuasive power of the press is particularly effective if its reporting

is consistent with the interest of most readers. This is particularly in
relation to the coverage of race and ethnic affairs in most countries.
Ethnic and racial conflicts have been a major conflict in the news. For
example, the various crises in the northern part of Nigeria have had to
involve ethnic groups and races. Immigration and integration are the
high points of social issues and reporting in the media in Nigeria, in
recent years. There is a remarkable alignment of the press with a
particular section of the population, which most times, is the dominant
group. There have been various reports in the media that portray only
237
those issues that affect people who are in control of the media. At one
time, the media has been accused of putting across a Southwest agenda
because most of the media existing in the country are based in the
southwest region of the country.
Ethnic and racial discriminations have not, however, been eradicated in

the media. The minority groups have remained in socio economic
positions that have been regarded as that of an underclass. The news that
affects the major ethnic group is given prominence than those that affect
the minority.
This picture that is full of contradiction put humanitarian value of equal

rights against ethnic and racial dominance in virtually every aspect of
the society. This is also evident in the coverage of ethnic affairs in the
news media including Nigeria. The media have been instrumental in the
reproduction of the ethnic status quo as well as in the perpetration of
racism and ethnicity. We have this scenario in some countries of the
world.
The liberal press takes a more complex position on ethnic affairs; it

advocates discrimination, prejudice and racism; it usually maintains
critical distance from the racist right. It is also a part of the problem of
racism and not solution because it plays a more subtle role in the
reproduction of ethnic inequality.
The news media are not the only elite institutions involved in the
reproduction of racism, but they are the most effective and successful
actor in managing the ethnic consensus and in manufacturing public
consent. In the western world, the report about Africa, mainly, has been
in the negative - crime, unrest, bad governance, corruption, diseases and
death. The good parts are sparingly reported
Briefly explain the media and racism.
3.2 Media and Gender
Female scholars have extensively shown the prevalence of male claim of

superiority in the mass media up till today despite the little gains in the
employment of female journalists and programme markers in the media
and slow acceptance of some major demands of women’s movement.
Most of the things said about the minority hold here, though not as much
as in the previous case, in the case of the position of women in the
media and in the news. Most journalists are men; and women, mostly do
not have access to higher editorial positions. Women are not so often
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quoted as source because they are not so credible and in terms of news,
they are less newsworthy.
Almost all major news topics are male oriented as the social and
political domains they define. Women’s movement may, up to certain
point, be benevolently covered as long as it is not “radical”, and the
male position is not seriously threatened. Women’s engagement in
political protest against nuclear arms, for example, is amusingly
reported so long as it is playful; but it is ignored, attacked, marginalised
as soon as it appears serious.
Sexual intimidation may be covered for spectacular cases, for example

Clinton and Lewinsky; but it is usually taken reluctantly as a daily
problem. The special contributions of women are usually ignored,
especially in a male-dominated domain such as politics and science.
Their little presence in disrepute domains like war or crime is not
usually acknowledged.
Feminism is usually ignored and marginalised because readers are

assumed to be male. Even media practitioners are referred to as
“gentlemen of the press.” It does not mean that only the male are
practitioners in the media industry, it is assumed to be a male domain.
SELF-ASSESEMENT EXERCISE
Highlight the ways the media cover issues relating to gender.
3.3 Media and Class Differences
The working class is hardly covered more than minorities and women.
Most mass media are business corporations. Deeply integrated
commodity status of news has become something important to be
emphasised.
Class conflict is increasingly presented as a thing of the past, if at all.

Classes are recognised as relevant social formations. Workers receive
less coverage as with women and minority. They are seen as being less
active and have passive access to the media. They are considered less
credible source and are less quoted. They have less news value unless
they decide to go violent and embark on strikes. Business news focuses
on business elite and not on the workers. The contribution of workers to
the economy is taken for granted and ignored. They could receive the
blame if there is any recession.
The health hazard, exploitation, etc., for which business owners could be
blamed are ignored and usually not given adequate coverage. Strike
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actions are usually covered as a problem for the public and a threat to
the economy. An example is the January 2012 fuel subsidy strike action
in Nigeria. It was reported by some media as an act to sabotage the
economy of the nation. The economic loss of the days of the strike
lasted were the major focus of media programmes and news report. This
was so because in industrial conflict, only the perspective of the
management is given prominence in interviews, discussion sessions and
style of coverage. Workers are hardly visible except with respect to
negotiation with their leaders.
What are the perceptions of worker to the media as compared with the
management?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Generally, the media coverage of race, women and workers are not of
any prominence. Priority is given to the elite and business owners above
race, women and workers (class). They are generally regarded as not
being so newsworthy and less credible. This makes media attention to be
drawn away from them and they are given less coverage.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has looked at the media and racism, and media and gender
differences. It also examined class system (management versus
workers).
The media has not been fair enough in the coverage given to race,
gender and class. Discuss.
Eitzen, D. S. & Maxine, B. Z. (2006). Social Problem. Boston: Allyn

and Bacon.
Teun, A. & Van, D. ‘Power and the News Media.’ A Paper presented at
University of Amsterdam.
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UNIT 4 MEDIA AND AUDIENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Complexity of Audience Response to Media
3.2 Theories Relating to Audience Perception
3.3 Emancipatory and Repressive Uses of Media
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Audience plays a central role in media study. In this unit, we will briefly
look at some conflicting perspectives on audience response to media
communication, issues of dependency, the use and gratification theory,
emancipatory and repressive use of the media.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify the complex response of audience to media

 explain the theories relating to audience response to the media
 discuss the emancipatory uses of the media.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Complexities of Audience Response to Media
The proof of how and to what extent audience makes use of media is
hard to nail down. However, researchers are basically in the business of
analysing audience use and response with the mind of measuring the
power of the media - what the media is capable of. Do the media have
the power to shape, modify or alter our attitudes? Do they teach us ways
to thinks? Do they create consensus among us? Do they stir in us alarm,
make us more anxious, more security minded? To what extent have the
media been an agent of change?
The trouble in all these questions raised is that our perceptions of

audience response are always difficult to disentangle from the actual
facts of audience. The word audience is constantly used in the media but
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we must admit the difficulty in providing definition for the word. It is

like attempting to define what friends are. They may be many, but the
friendship can be of varying degree.
Denis McQuail in his book Audience Analysis cited in Watson (2003),

posits that the mystery of the simple word is being used to an
increasingly diverse and complex reality. Pertri Alasuuntari cited in
Watson (2003) states that:
there isn’t really such thing as the audience out there, one
must bear in mind that audience is, most of all, a discursive
construct produced by a particular analytical gaze.
Summarily, one can say the audiences exist in the mind’s eye
of those seeking to define it for a particular purpose.
Despite the doubt about “audience” being merely a general term, we

need to acknowledge that there are several people who believe they
know what audiences are, what they ‘do’ with media and how the media
affect them, as well as being able to predict their reactions.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXCERSISE
Why is it difficult to define the word audience?
3.2 Theory Relating to Audience Perception
We will, briefly, look at some of the theories that point out issues
relating to audience.
3.2.1 Uses and Gratification Theory
There is the general view that audience were easily brain washed; that
they always believe what they were told and seemed, somehow, to have
no mind of their own. The uses and gratification theory shifted attention
from the message markers of the mass communication process to the
message receivers’ audience.
The dominant question now relates to whether the audience use the
media to gratify their needs. This approach work on the basis that there
is a multiple response to media messages; that people are capable of
making up their own minds accepting some messages and rejecting
others using the media for a variety of things and using them differently
at different times. An important factor here is the influence upon
members of the audience of the cultural and social origin from which
their needs arise.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
These needs are in four categories namely:
1. Diversion
2. Personal relationships
3. Personal identify
4. Surveillance
1. Diversion- we use the media to get away from routines, to ease

worries or tensions.
2. Personal relationships- media personalities become known to us
as much as we know people in real life. It could be so intimate in
some cases. The people we see in the media, television, somehow
become our friends and neighbours as well as companions. We
want to see them often on programmes, follow their activities,
adopt some of their virtues and some of them even become our
role models.
3. Personal Identity-some of the things we see in television
programmes, for example, become ours. We may share some of
the troubles. We may need to watch some programmes to be able
to relate in issues as unemployment, disappointment, loss of
loved ones, rejections, fallout etc.
4. Surveillance- we use the media to gain information, to keep an
eye on the world, and to clarify what opinion we hold about it. In
an election, we may not want to vote, but we are able to make an
informed choice through access to the media.
3.2.2 Dependency Theory
Observers of audience reaction to the mass media during the 1980s

brooded over the power of the media to create in the mind of the public
a measure of dependency. This made dependency theory to have a
considerable influence since that time; media analysts are constantly
attempting to measure the degree to which audience are depends on the
media for information and possible guidance clarification to be used to
form our concept of the world.
Sandra J. Ball Rokeach and Merlyn Defleur in an article titled ‘A

Dependency Model of Mass Media Effect’ cited in Watson (2003)
highlighted the following role functions in relation to audience
dependency:
1. The resolution of ambiguity or uncertainty but in the direction of

closing down the range of interpretations of situations which
audience are able to make
2. Attitude formation
3. Agenda setting
243
4. Expansion of peoples system to beliefs

5. Clarification of values but through the expression of value
The author argues that the media is capable of activating the audience
but at the same time it is capable of deactivating the audience. They
believe that the lesser the diverse sources of information in the world,
the more likely the media will affect our thoughts, attitudes and how we
behave. They are also of the view that media influence will increase
when there is ‘high degree of structural instability in the society due to
conflict and change. In the analysis of audience and its needs, there are
inevitable conflicts of interest.
SELF-ASSESEMENT EXERCISE
Highlight the role function of the media in relation to audience

dependency.
3.3 Emancipation and Repressive Use of Media
This is connected to ownership and controls as well as audiences

potential to choose and make the best for themselves of that choices.
The uses of the media refer to how the media operate or are permitted to
operate as it concerns their perception of audience. This is in disparity
with its repressive use. Han Magnus Enzensburger believes the nature of
media output conditions the nature of reception. The emancipator mode
is characterised by a decentralisation of programme control. Each
receiver is conceived of as a potential transmitter as well as reviver.
Audience is mobilised as individual members of communities rather
than treated as isolated individuals making up a mass.
Differences between Repressive and Emancipatory Use of Media
REPRESSIVE EMANCIPATORY
1. Centrally controlled Decentralised programmes
programmes
2. Single transmitter, various Each receiver a potential transmitter
receivers
3. Immobilisation or Isolate Interaction for participant through
Individuals feedback
4. Inactive behaviour of Politicking (a Learning Process)
consumer
5. Production by specialist Collective production
6. Control by owners or Societal control through self-
bureaucrats organisation
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
Differentiate between repressive use of media and emancipatory use of

media.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Audience is an important element in the news media. It is not referring

to merely the number of people seated at a theatre; for whom a news
report is meant and who watches a television programme, rather it
encompasses the heterogeneous audience whose satisfaction or
otherwise cannot be really determined. We have seen some of the
factors responsible for some of these actions or responses. Some of them
are due to the needs of these audiences which need to be met.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has considered the complexities of audience response to

media. It considered two theories on audience perception - uses and
gratification and dependency theory. It also looked at emancipation and
repressive use of the media.
Discuss the theories relating to audience perception.

Heinemann Educational Books Nigeria Plc.

245
UNIT 5 MEDIA AND NEW TECHNOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cable Television Technology
3.1.1 Two-Way Cable
3.1.2 Pay Cable
3.1.3 Cable Radio
3.1.4 Fibre Optics
3.1.5 Subscription/Pay TV
3.2 Microwave and Satellite Technology
3.2.1 Microwave Technology
3.2.2 Comsat and Intelsat
3.2.3 Domestic Satellite Systems
3.3 Teletext and Videotext
3.3.1 Teletext
3.3.2 Videotext
3.4 New Design in Television Receiver
3.5 Internet and World Wide Web
3.6 Impact of New Technology on Mass Media
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Technology is transforming the face of everything all over the world.

The mass media is no exception. This unit will examine these
technologies that are part of communication and information
technology. We will look at cable television, microwave and satellite
technology, teletext and videotext, new designs in television receivers
internet and the world wide web as well as the impact all these
technologies have on the mass media.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify the new technologies in mass communication

 list various new technological developments in mass media
 explain the workings of these new technologies
 discuss the impact of these new technologies on the mass media.
246
MAC 416 MODULE 4
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cable Television Technology
Breakthrough in receiving clear and interference free signal from

distance station occurred in the late 1940s. This had previously been on
difficult thing to happen. To achieve this, a large antenna was placed on
a hilltop well above the average terrain. It is from that distance signals
would be carried via shielded wire called cable directly into home
television receivers. This marked the beginning of cable television or
community antenna television. Residents whose televisions are
connected to a community antenna paid a monthly rental fee for the
service. Other people still use their roof top antenna but at the expense
of a good reception of signals. People soon realised that they needed to
be connected to the local cable system. The development of colour
television set made cable television become even more helpful.
There are three components of the cable system as discussed below.
1. Head set: this is the centre of any cable system. It comprises of

both human being and technology. The human side are the
personnel operating the cable system. The technical components
include the receiving antenna system. Also, television production
facilities – camera, light and other studio hardware – are part of
the head end. Therefore, the head end is defined as “the human
and hardware combination responsible for originating,
controlling, and processing signals over the cable system.
2. Distribution system: This is the system that disperses the
programming. The cable itself is the main part of these systems.
It is a coaxial cable. The primary cable or the main transmission
line is called the link cable. The branch offs that follows this –
feeders is called sub-trunks. These are the ones that go into the
apartments.
3. Home Connection: This is done with a drop cable. This coaxial
cable goes directly into the house where it is connected to a home
terminal. The home terminal connects directly to the back of the
television set.
The cable television system has different variations.
3.1.1 Two-Way Cable
This is sometimes called two-way interactive television. It allows

subscribers the opportunity to send feedback to the head end. It helps to
bring a wide variety of services like shopping, banking and education
into the home. There is a feedback loop which allows subscribers to
247
communicate with system’s central computer. The feedback loop is of

different types. There is a single cable used for both transmitting and
receiving from subscribers. Another uses two cables with one bringing
signal to subscribers and the other taking return signal from subscribers
to the head end. The third is a round robin cable loop. It is one cable
with separate drop cables.
3.1.2 Pay Cable
This is the delivery of information and/or services to cable subscribers

by assessing fees beyond the regular rental fee. This is different from
Pay TV or Subscription TV. Pay cable affords one the opportunity to see
first-run programmes. Subscription is required for pay cable. The
subscriber either pays on monthly or per programme basis.
3.1.3 Cable Radio
The radio is another medium carrying cable systems and this wired
concept also applies to it. The principle is similar to that of the
television. Distant station programming is cabled into a local community
and homes connect to it. It could reduce the economic strength of
broadcasters when a community decides to import one or more stations
outside the local market.
3.1.6 Fibre Optics
Fibre optics is thin strands of glass through which light passes. The light
which travels at a very high speed carries the broadcast signals. Its use
has dramatically increased the amount of information that can be carried
on any single cable system.
3.1.7 Subscription/Pay TV
The usual over-the-air television transmission has allowed anyone who

has a receiver at home to receive the programming. What is happening
now is a growing interest in subscription TV or Pay TV. The signal is
scrambled as it leaves the station transmitter and it is descrambled on the
home receiving set with a special device. Subscribers pay a monthly fee
for the descrambler attachment and they can receive programmes on a
first-run. This is fast gaining ground and is becoming the norm in the
Western world.
Cable television marks the beginning of media revolution. Discuss.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
3.2 Microwave and Satellite Technology
Microwave and satellite technology has become the new order in the
communication world. Information is now being relayed via satellite and
they are received almost immediately.
3.2.1 Microwave Technology
Microwave transmission is now being used at a higher frequency to

standard AM, FM and television frequencies. They are very short
electromagnetic waves. The higher the frequency, the farther the
electromagnetic waves will travel in a direct line-of-sight path between
transmitter and receiver. Therefore, microwaves always travel by line-
of-sight transmission. Microwave antenna dots almost every landscape
from roofs of skyscrapers to the top of mountains. Using a high
frequency line-of-sight transmission, they can carry television signals
over a long distance through series of relay antennas that are
approximately 30 miles apart. It has the advantage of low cost and
increased efficiency of transmission over traditional land-line systems.
3.2.2 Comsat and Intelsat
At the time of this development, the world was becoming so interested

in satellite development. The United States Congress by passing the
Communication Satellite Act of 1962 created a quasi-governmental
Communication Satellite Corporation (COMSAT). This became the
early planner of satellite systems on an international scale when it
became the manager of International Satellite Consortium. This
consortium was established under two agreements. The first agreement
was by 14 countries and ratified by 54 countries. It metamorphosed into
International Telecommunication Satellite Organisation (INTELSAT) in
1974 with more than 80 countries as members. It is now presided over
by a Secretary General. Approximately, there are over 100 members
today with Nigeria also involved with the launching of her satellite few
years back. It is equally responsible for more than 95 percent of the
world’s communication traffic.
The satellite uses an improved technology called Beam Separation.

Beam Separation allows the same frequency to be used for transmitting
a signal both to and from the satellite. It creates a more efficient use of
frequency. Further to this, improved antenna systems allow a more
directed “beam” to an earth station thereby removing the power
normally wasted by beaming signals over the ocean areas for example.
249
3.2.3 Domestic Satellite Systems
There are numerous domestic satellite systems that work with global
communication of the INTELSAT satellite. Western union operates a
domestic satellite system called Westar. This satellite system is capable
of carrying different types of information including video, data and
voice. Sending and receiving earth stations operate in major
metropolitan centre along with mobile facilities. The potential of living
smaller antenna systems, such as small satellite dish antennas replacing
larger consumer models and now in use, may change our media habits
and how we use both mass and more personalised communication
system.
Discuss the technology used by satellite in capturing and disseminating

information.
3.3 Teletext and Videotext
This is another of the advancement in the new technology as far as mass

communication is concerned.
3.3.1 Teletext
Teletext is a system where a computer is connected with a television

transmission system and can send data to home receivers equipped with
a special decoder. The home viewers can select standard television
programming, the teletext signal or both. Teletext involves the over-the-
air broadcast of information.
3.3.3 Videotext
This employs the use of wired connection between a central computer

and a home receiver. The wired connection, via telephone or cable
system, permits a two-way relationship between the user and the
transmission system. The user here too can select pages of information.
The difference here is that the user gets information instantly as it is
called up from the data bank.
3.4 New Design in Television Receiver
The development in new technology for mass communication is not

limited to the equipment for the production and transmission of signals
alone. It also includes the receiver gadgets used by the consumers at
home. These gadgets ensure that the signal sent by the station is well
250
MAC 416 MODULE 4
received by consumers and that the images and reception are clear and
appealing. Manufacturers of television receivers have gone ahead to
design different devices using the latest technology. Today, there are
stereo-television, cable-ready television, component television, large-
screen television, high-definition television as well as digital television.
These new designs, interference in signal and poor audio and picture
quality are fast becoming a non-existence. Images on the screen are
becoming clearer.
The technological development in the media is not limited to equipment

alone. Discuss.
3.5 Internet and the World Wide Web
We cannot talk about the internet and the World Wide Web (www)
without talking about the computer. Computer is not a modern invention
but an already existing rudimentary computer called the Abacus.
Computer is enabled through electronics which makes it programmable
so that series of formulas or algorithms could be stored and retrieved.
Today’s computer has three components –
1. The central processing unit (CPU) which processes the algorithms

that crunch the numbers;
2. Random-Access Memory (RAM) which holds the data currently
being worked with;
3. Storage (in the form of a hard drive or another device) which
stores data, including programmes and documents.
We should not go into history of internet development but we must

mention that it is a military invention because it came about from
military funding. It became a civilian affair when government helped to
develop it. Its popularity with civilian is dependent on its being in
expensive and easy to use. It has evolved into a system with these four
basic components: e-mail, information and entertainment service,
electronic commerce and cyberspace communities. The latest
happenings around the world can be seen on the internet almost as it is
happening. Messages and information are exchange between people via
the e-mail. There are enough entertainment and information. One can
read newspapers online without holding any live newspaper. We have
online newspapers and online magazines sites. Business transactions can
be done on the internet and payment made via the internet and the goods
will be delivered appropriately. The world has just become a global
village with the cyberspace community – face book, twitter, BB
messaging, yahoo messenger, Skype, among other applications. It aids
251
the relationship between people who may not see themselves face to
face for several years due to distance and yet they live and relate and are
updated about happenings around them.
The World Wide Web (www) is a software system that simplifies

internet navigation. This was invented in 1989 by Tim Berners Lee and
he made it public in 1993. One of the high points of his innovation is
hypertext links (hyperlinks). These are highlighted word and images
within a web page that allow the user to move from one site to another
by simply pointing and clicking a mouse button. To access a document
on the internet, web surfers don’t need to enter complicated retrieval
command or even know where the document resides. The World Wide
Web is by far the most diversified communication medium, and has
something for every cultural group and for those who would like to
develop an understanding of those groups. The development of the
World Wide Web has made every media organisation develop their own
website through which information they have processed could be
located.
The internet has no restrictive power on the audience. There are issues
or challenges with this unlimited freedom – fraud, spam, sending of
virus, infringement on copyright, child pornography, malicious hacker
attacks and identity theft. Yet, it has helped to transform the media in
terms of development.
Discuss the positive impact of internet development to the society.
3.6 Impact of New Technology on Mass Media
Looking at the fore goings, one cannot but say that the impact of new
technology on the mass media has been tremendously positive. There is
no innovation that does not have its own problem but the positives when
compare with the negatives outweighs the negative.
Technology has taken communication to a new height. Community

relation now exists as if there had been gap between the communities.
Happening around the world are beamed directly into our living room
without any form of interference.
The meaning of mass communication is now being redefined with all

these advancements. Information can be gotten without necessarily
tuning a television set or getting to the comfort of our homes. The rate at
which entertainment is brought to our door steps is alarming. One needs
not get to a cinema before enjoying a full dose of entertainment.
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
Without mincing words, new technological developments have helped

advance the effectiveness and efficiency of the mass media in all
societies of the world.
Explain some impacts of new technology on media development.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The new technological development cuts across both the equipment and
the receiver gadget. This makes it an important element in the mass
media. It has helped to change the face of the mass media in all societies
of the world. The cable television, the microwave technology, the
satellite, internet etc have all helped to ensure that information reach the
end users as at when due with a huge reduction in interference (noise) in
the channel. This is why it is possible to a clear signal – sounds and
pictures – at home.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has discussed the cable and satellite technology, teletext and
videotext. It also looked at new design in television receiver and the
internet and World Wide Web. We equally discussed briefly the impact
of the new technology on mass media.
Discuss the impact of new technology on the mass media in your

country.

Heinemann Educational Books Nigeria Plc.

McGraw Hill.

and Process. New York: McGraw Hill.
253
UNIT 6 GLOBALISATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Issues of Control
3.2 The Struggle for Dominance: Private Sector vs Public
Sector
3.3 Global Imbalances in Information and Cultural Exchange
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A current challenge for globalisation in the media is to adapt to the

indigenous cultures of new markets. There has been advancement in the
growth of the media in recent years especially in the third world
countries. This unit will therefore, be taking a look at key issues
pertaining to the global arena of the media. This unit will be looking at
issues of control and competition for public attention. It will also be
examining the global imbalances in information and cultural exchange.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state the meaning of globalisation

 discuss the issues of control and ownership of media
 explain the demand for public attention
 describe the imbalance in information and cultural exchange.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
Information has proven to be a vital product of the late 20th century and
stands to increase in ‘commodity-value’ in the 21st century. It is
therefore, of great importance and concern to the major player on the
public stage. More important to our interest as major watchers is how
that information is used to shape public perception of reality.
Between the nation-state and big business, an alliance occurs which

explores in relation to the public and private spheres of mass
254
MAC 416 MODULE 4
communication, trends in deregulation and privatisation, and fears of

cultural encirclement of the public by the great corporations.
Though new technology has facilitated the growth of information and

speed of access development globally has been uneven, with core
nations (developed countries) being rich information and peripheral
nations (developing countries) being information-poor or deficient.
3.1 Issues of Control
Communication is power and that power is obtained and held through

control. Whoever controls the means of communication has the potential
power to influence the ways in which the society works. In the study of
mass media, therefore, it should be a constant task to monitor control
and the controllers; most importantly when there are few powerful
advocates for the public domain of communication. Governments work
with corporations; corporations influence government and the media are
most of the time part of corporate portfolio.
The technology of computer, cable, satellite, and video has opened up

wonderful opportunities for information access and transmission;
opportunities which could likely undermine or circumvent the
hierarchical control of media systems. There is no ‘high-way patrol’ in
sight. Robert Machesney being so enthused about this development said,
“We stand on the threshold of an era in which society finally has the
technology to democratise societies in a manner unfathomable only a
few years back.”
He was referring to the control on the media and information held before
the technological advancement. Though there seems not to be a control
but there are still ‘high-way patrols’. He went further to mention that
‘the great barrier to the democratic application of these technologies is
the corporate control of communication and the relative powerlessness
of the public in capitalist societies”. This is because of the profit drive of
these corporate bodies which tries to regulate or subvert the information
that comes to the public.
Media history has exposed the vulnerability of information made public

by mass communication to distortion. What is usually mortgaged in this
ménage of media and myth-making is the truth or at least the path
towards public understanding of the truth. There is disinformation or to
be more precise, distraction in the media dissemination of information.
This is so because certain information has to be distorted or better still
modified to conceal the truth for certain reason. It is based on the control
exerted on the media by owners.
255
There is also what is called myth-information. Views are expressed in

mythologies. The significance of myth is its ability to transform
meaning of history and also the truth. The story (news story or
information) is drained of its historical truth through the restriction or
re-invention of information. The ‘skeleton’ then awaits an ideological
re-creation that is, a preference for image over the truth, of mediated
over live reality. There are times this sort of reinvention comes up. One
of such is during war or disaster. The public gets useful information
(enough to the war effort) but less generously with damaging
information such as data on civilian casualties. Certain information is
concealed from the public to avoid a greater consequence hence the
story needs to be reinvented.
The vulnerability of information in the public domain to vanishing

report is another case. In this case, genuine issues are treated as if they
are of marginal importance by downsizing them or strike them off the
public agenda. Some information is removed from the purview of the
public and is concealed from them. An example was during the sickness
of the late President, Umaru Musa Yar’Adua. The then Minister of
Information, Mr John Ode was asked if the president had travelled
abroad for medical treatment on his ailment. He responded that the
president had travelled for the lesser hajj to Saudi Arabia. He tried to
distort the information that the media had about the president travelling
out for medical attention by concealing the truth from the public. He
maintained the same position despite being bombarded by series of
questions on this issue. A serious issue can be downsized by the media
and it will be taken off the public agenda particularly if it will have
negative effect on the generality of the public.
The media is not alone among those who stir up the pot of myth and
guide us into what to think. Also, the media-culture machines of
government and other elite forces in the society. From looking at the
news value, there is the tendency to personalise issues, sensationalise
events and make presentation spectacular.
Explain briefly the issue of control.
3.2 The Struggle for Dominance: Private Sector Vs Public

Sector
There are other issues connected to the issue of who controls the
dominant means of communication, who speaks for the public and how.
The target, notwithstanding the issue on ground, is consensus – public
interest, public support or public acquiescence. The public could sense
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
the struggle for their support and suspect that this is as much in the
interest of the communicator as in their own interest. There is usually an
uneasiness and move by the thoughtful public against the desire of
governments, of authorities to control the message systems. We always
talk about rights of access and expression. The private sector enterprises
also desire to dominate message system in the name of profit. For this,
we usually demand a regulation that can protect us from such
exploitation.
The struggle has always been between public and private ownerships
and control. In this regard also, it is not a case of categorising ownership
and control – public or private - rather, it is more about the degree and
extent of that control. The point here is the monopolistic tendencies; the
problem, the capacity of agencies representing the public in establishing
and sustaining checks upon those tendencies. With the deregulation and
privatisation of public utilities of various kinds – telecommunication and
broadcasting – the traditional checks and balances – regulatory
requirements – are now threatened and at risk.
The public here is where the audience is located. It is the market place
where consumption of information and stories take place. The private
needs the audience to win consumers. It is only in the public sphere that
certain values and practices can be maintained.
The struggle for dominance is basically on the consent of the audience.

Discuss.
3.3 The Global Imbalances in International and Cultural

Exchange
It is important for us to be constantly aware of the interconnectivity of

issues and the inter-relationship of the local and global media. What is
important for us to see is the uneven distribution of micro-context and
macro-context. Having equal opportunity depends on an equal spread of
information because information is hinged upon which decisions can be
made to the benefit of the individual, the group or the nation. Active
players in a competitive world would be at a disadvantage without the
necessary information. CeesHamelink cited in Watson (2003) gave these
statistics about availability of information. He pointed out that there are
averages of 1,400 free public libraries per country in Europe, while
Africa has average of 18, America and Japan are served by 150 and 120
respectively while in 30 countries there are only 0ne and in 30 other
countries there is no newspaper at all. This information imbalance puts a
great proportion of the world’s population at a serious disadvantage
257
making it susceptible to exploitation and manipulation. Except this

imbalance is rectified, they are destined for a future of continued
deprivation. It is these disparity and deprivation that make rich nation
learn more of what is going on in a poor country and even more, quickly
than the poor country knows about itself. This is done through satellite
which has becomes a spy-in-the-sky which aids the user to detect crucial
detail of a country from an altitude of 150 miles.
There are differences too in the flow of such information. Those

information coming from periphery (developing countries or
information –poor countries) is raw, unprocessed and unmediated while
the information coming from the core (developed countries or
information-rich countries) is packaged and with an attached price. It
sometimes or most times arrives as disinformation. This is seen with
various agencies or services – CIA, KGB, FBI, SSS, among others. The
information flow in their direction is usually imbalance. This imbalance
is not dismissed lightly by the view that ‘eventually the poor will catch
up’. The aim is that by the time the disadvantaged will clearly
understand the message and close the information gap, the advantaged
would have gone another step ahead. The inadequate information
capacities of the disadvantaged nation are a serious obstacle to their own
effort to combat poverty and other deprivations. This is because so much
information on these poor nations is kept in data bank of the
information-rich nations; the disadvantaged nation’s sovereignty is at a
risk.
When a country does not have enough independence to nurture its own
language or languages, its own forms of literary, musical and dramatic
expression, its own historical and artistic heritage, then it is vulnerable
to cultural invasion and the desire for (the need for) cultural self-
determination is put at risk.
Discuss the global imbalance in information based on the data provided

by CeesHamelink.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has taken a look at the area of globalisation in the media. The
control of the content of the media was viewed in relation to what comes
out of the media to the public. There is some information that has to be
concealed for certain reason which could be in the interest of the general
public. At this point, there is usually some kind of distortion in the flow
of information. The information rich countries are usually in possession
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MAC 416 MODULE 4
of in first hand information about the information-poor countries which

puts the sovereignty of the poor nations at risk.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has taken a look at the issues of control and the struggle for
dominance in the media of the control of the audience. We also look at
the global imbalances in international and cultural exchange.
Discuss the concept of globalisation in relation to struggle for

dominance and information imbalances in the media.

McGraw Hill.

and Process. New York: McGraw Hill.
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MAC 416 SOCIOLOGY OF MASS COMMUNICATION

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: MAC 416

COURSE TITLE: SOCIOLOGY OF MASS

Course Team John Babatunde Aremu (Course Developer/Writer)

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

One of the most promising recent developments in Mass

This course is designed to provide students with a broader framework

It considers the social organisation, social impact and social meaning of

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The aim of MAC 416 Sociology of Mass Communication is to examine

The meaning of sociology and society will be examined in this course.

This course will assist students in having an informed thought on topics

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 Evaluate theories and debate about media practice.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

In order to benefit effectively from this course, the student is expected to

The Self-Assessment Exercises in each unit must be handled with all

The major components of this course are:

Module 1 An Overview on Sociology and Mass

Unit 1 Meaning of Sociology

Module 2 Media and Social Influences – Mass Media and Society

Unit 1 The Mass Media

Module 3 Media Industry and Social Structures –

Unit 1 Political Economy of Media Ownership

Module 4 Media as a Social Agent

Unit 1 Media as a Social Agent

Unit 2 Media and Political Subject

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Akinfeleye, R. A. (Ed.) (2005). Mass Media and Society: A Multi-

Annual Review Sociology Journal. (1975). Vol. 5:193 – 217.

Bamisaye, R. (1990). Sociological Foundation of Nigerian Education.

Livesey, C. (2005). AS Sociology for AQA: A Paper Presentation.

Cristobd, A., Landregan, J. Navia, P. & Vial, J. (2006). Political

Dan, Amor (2010). Nigeria: Western media and Cultural Imperialism.

George, Rodman (2006). Mass Media in a Changing World. New York:

Holz, J. R. (1979). Sociology of Mass Communication: Annual Review

Ifedayo, Daramola (2005). Mass Media and Society. Lagos: Rothan

James, Watson (2003). Media Communication: An Introduction to

Livingston, S. (1998). In Liebes, T. & Curran, J. (Eds). Media, Rural

Long, R. Social Problems: Gender inequality.

Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies (2005). The Gender and

Owens-Ibie (1992). “Media/Cultural Imperialism and Nigerian Women:

Tylor, E. D. (1902). Primitive Culture. John Murray.

Van, Dijk Power and the News Media: A University of Amsterdam

THE ASSIGNMENT FILE

Assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

Your assignments are expected to be completed on time and sent to your

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The presentation schedule included in your course material gives you

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

This is shown in the table below:

Assignment 1 – 15 15 Assignments. Best four (4) marks of 15 at

Final Examination 70% of total course marks

Total 100% of course marks