9.

3 Reactive Power and Voltage Control:

Consider the system shown in Figure (9.10). The voltage at bus 2 is related to
the voltage at bus l by the relation.

Bus I Bus 2

ZL:RL+jx'-
P+JQ

V‘ V|={V|| 49 0 v 2 =|v|2 -fl ° ‘J2

Figure (9.10)

v2=v,-:2.
v,.1'=P+jQ
1=.'.’_:.i9=P_"-i_‘2
P_ .

Neglecting the line resistance

. P Q
V2: v1__| VI-XL __Gl-XL

0 ---:~ we a ~ +v,
9
JPXL QXl
V] ‘/|

V2

The voltage level is influenced largely by the reactive power drop Q XL / V1

since the quadrature component P XL / V1 does not materially affect the voltage
profile (both the drops are only small fractions of the bus voltage magnitudes).
9.3.1 Reactive Power System – Typical Equipment
In order to design power system network, including transmission lines, substations,
and distribution lines, it is necessary to use proper equipment suitable for the purpose
intended. The reactive power control and voltage support features are some of the
critical components of the power system design.
In order to supply quality service to customers reliably and economically,
voltage and (or) var control play (s) a leading role. Such a control has to be exercised
at all the power system. i.e. right from the generating point to the consumer
terminals.
Rapid changes in voltage (flicker) can result due to some industrial loads such
as arc furnaces, arc welders, and wood chippers. In addition, events such as planned
line switching, unplanned line trips, planned and unforeseen generator trips and
equipment failure may produce voltage and var variations. Unless proper voltage
support is given at strategic locations in the system, the aforesaid events may result
in loss of stability and possible loss of service to a large number of consumers.
Reactive power is required to excite various types of electrical equipment as well
as transmission network. The reactive power requirement of consumers arises
mostly from the lagging vars needed to supply magnetizing current to transformers
and induction motors.
There are different types of equipment’s and methodologies which are used to
control reactive power, but the most common ones, including:
 Synchronous generators - with AVR
 Synchronous condenser
 Reactors.
 Capacitors.
 Load tap changer (OLTC) – for transformers.

9.3.2 Synchronous generators - with AVR

Industrial and domestic loads, both, require real and reactive power. Hence,
generators have to produce both real and reactive power.
Synchronous generators are able to produce both lagging and leading vars.
Over-excitation of a generator field produces vars while under excited field causes
vars to be absorbed.
To explain that consider the simple equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator
neglecting armature resistance w.r.t armature reactance, shown in figure (9.11).

Figure (9.11)
The values of the active and the reactive power are:

For lagging power factor:

The generator produces reactive power (Q2 > 0): E cos δ > V which implise over
excitation.
At leading power factor :

The generator absorbs reactive power (Q2 < 0): E cos δ < V which implies under-
excitation
At lagging power factors, the limit on var generation is imposed by either rotor
heating (due to maximum excitation current limit) or by stator heating (thermal
MVA loading limit of the stator) consideration. Generators are invariably fitted with
automatic voltage regulators which maintain the thermal voltage at its normal value
by adjustment of excitation.
9.3.2.1 The effect of excitation control: can be explain by considering a
synchronous machine with terminal voltage VT. The direct axis rotor angle with
respect to a synchronously revolving axis is δ. The voltage due to excitation acting
along the quadrature axis is Eq and Eq' is the transient voltage along this axis.
If a load change occurs and the field current, If' is not changed then the various
quantities mentioned change with P, the real power as shown in figure (9.12-a).

Figure (9.12-a)
In case the field current If is changed such that the transient flux linkages along
the q-axis Eq' proportional to ψf' the field flux linkages is maintained constant, the
power transfer could be increased by 30-60% greater than in case (a) and the
quantities are plotted for this case in figure (9.12-b).

Figure (9.12- b)
 If the field current If is changed along with P simultaneously so that V t is
maintained constant then it is possible to increase power delivery by 50-80% more
than case (a). This is shown in figure (9.12-c).

Figure (9.12- c)
There are many types of excitation systems as shown:

9.3.2.2 Voltage Regulation and Power Transfer : can be explain by assuming the
fall of terminal voltage to be linear, then the graphs of machine terminal voltage
with load P can be represented by the relation.
E = E o (1 – K.P)
Where Eo is the non-load terminal voltage and K is a coefficient of regulation. See
figure (9.13)
 Figure (9.13)
Since

Where δ is the angle between E and V. Substituting Pm for ( E0 .V/ X ) and solving
for P

Which is maximum when δ = 90⁰, having the value

Under ideal conditions, where there is perfect control of excitation, K is zero.

If the machine is represented by a certain voltage E behind a certain reactance Xe. It
can be proved for an ideal, voltage-actuated automatic regulator that the maximum
value of the gain is

9.3.2.3 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR):

The generator automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is very important to the
synchronous machine functioning under Steady-state and transitory conditions
since it ensures the generator excitation level, and thus the terminal electric potential
and reactive power production of the generator.
The terminal voltage of the synchronous machine is steady through the infinite
bus bar and the modification in the AVR setting alters excitation and so the reactive
power output of the synchronous machine, in much the equivalent way that the
governor alters the real power output.
Whenever desirable, the calculated synchronous machine terminal potential is
varied by an electric current injection proportional to the reactive power loading;
this assures that the synchronous machine responds to an increment in reactive
power loading by maximizing the excitation, so supplying some measure of reactive
power support for the power system with increased load. Whatever modification in
the AVR configuration will alter both the synchronous machine terminal voltage
and the reactive power output Q. Figure (9.14) shows an AVR schematic diagram.

Figure (9.14)
Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) regulates the generator’s terminal voltage by
controlling the amount of exciter’s current fed to the generator’s field winding.
• The terminal voltage of the generator Vg compared with the desired reference
voltage Vref. to produce the voltage error ∆V. this error is then amplified and
used to alert the exciter output, and consequently the generator control system.
• The regulation process is stabilized using a negative feedback- loop taken
directly from either the amplifier or the exciter.
 • The voltage drop across the compensating impedance ZC due to the generator
current Ig is added to the generator voltage Vg to produce the compensation
voltage
VC = Vg + (RC + jXC ) Ig
Where ZC = RC +j XC is the compensation impedance.
If the load compensation is not employed, ZC = 0, then VC = Vg, and the AVR
subsystem maintains constant generator terminal voltage. The use of the
compensation (ZC ≠ 0) means that the point at which constant voltage is maintained,
is pushed back into the network by distance electricaly equal to the compensation
impedance.
The AVR subsystem also includes a number of limiters whose function is to protect
the AVR, Exciter, and generator from excessive voltages and currents by maintaing
the AVR signals between preset limits. Thus the amplifier is protected against
excessively high input signals, the exciter and the generator against too high field
current, and the generator against too high armature current and power angle.
A power system stabiliser (PSS) is sometimes added to the AVR subsystem to help
damp power swings in the system. PSS is a differentiating element with phase
shifting corrective elements. Its input signals may be proporitional to rotor speed,
generator output trequency or the electrical real power output of the generator.
9.3.3 Synchronous condensers
It's a synchronous machines (generator operating without mechanical loading or a
synchronous motors operating on load with adjustable excitation ,leading power
factor) providing or assimilating reactive power to or from the power system.
Synchronous generator and synchronous motor is physically are the same machines.
A synchronous machine can supply real power to (generator) or consume real power
(motor) from a power system.it can also either consume or supply reactive power to
the system.
1. The distinguishing characteristics of asynchronous generator supplying P is
that Ea is lies ahead of V, while for motor Ea lies behind V.
2. The distinguishing characteristics of a machine supplying reactive power Qis
that E cos δ > V (regardless weather it’s a generator or a motor). The
machine consumed reactive power when E cos δ < V.
 Table (9.1) shows the general characteristics of a synchronous machine.
Table (9.1)

They make available the required reactive power within a short time. The
prime consideration for installing synchronous compensator is its flexibility of
operation under all load conditions. Synchronous condensers are employed in
transmission network: at the receiving end of lengthy transmissions, in crucial
substations and injunction with HVDC converter bases.
9.3.4. Reactors
Inductive reactors absorb reactive power and may be used in circuits, series or
shunt connected, while series connected reactors are used to limit fault currents,
shunt reactors are used for VAR control. Reactors installed at line ends and
intermediate substations can compensate up to 70% of charging power while the
remaining 30% power at no-load can be provided by the under excited operation of
the generator.
The use of shunt connected controllable var compensation to improve the power
transfer capability and stability is an acknowledged fact. From figure (9.15) it can
be seen that the theoretical maximum power transfer takes place at a power angle of
δ12 = 90.

Figure (9.15) Power transfer with intermediate voltage support

With an intermediate, controllable, shunt var compensator, the angle could be
increased, in principle to180⁰ across the line. See figure (9.15).

Figure (9.15) Power transfer with intermediate var compensator

9.3.5 Capacitors
Capacitors produce vars and may be connected in series or shunt in the system.
Series capacitors compensate the line reactance in long overhead lines and thus
improve the stability limit. Shunt capacitors are used for reactive compensation.
Simplicity and low cost are the chief considerations for using shunt capacitor.
Adding a shunt capacitor results in a capacitive current leading the voltage by 90⁰.
Accordingly, this corresponds to addition of a reactive generating source (negative
reactive power). An outcome of this process is power factor correction.
9.3.6 Tap-Changing Transformers
Tap-changing transformers with variable transformation ratio can cause
substantial change in the flow of vars. The tap-changing transformers when used in
radial lines maintain voltage at their secondary terminals or at load terminals within
limits. When used in tie lines, the tap-changer can regulate vars substantially. In case
of weaker tie lines, active power may also change to some extent. Lastly, when used
in networks or loops, circulating vars can be controlled by tap-changing transformer.
Consider a tie line with sending end and receiving end, both having tap-changing
transformer connected to them.
Let Vs and Vr be the voltages at either end at nominal conditions.
Let ts Vs = actual voltage at sending end
And tr Vr = actual voltage at receiving end
where t is the tap changer setting ratio
To ensure that the same overall voltage prevails all over the line minimum ranre of
taps are used so that ts.tr = I
Substituting this condition and solving for ts

9.4 Voltage Regulation and Short Circuit Capacity

Consider the short line voltage regulation

Where Vr is the receiving end voltage and ϕr the angle between Vr and Ir, Ir
being the current in the line. This voltage drop can be obtained alternatively from
the short circuit capacity of the bus. Since R + j X is the line impedance, the voltage
drop is also equal to
 When a three phase fault occurs at the load bus, the short circuit volt amperes
into the bus

It can be shown that the magnitude of voltage regulation given by (I R cos δ + I

X sin δ) or (PR+QX/ V) as the imaginary component gives only phase shift. Hence,
the real part of equation for ∆V above gives the change in voltage magnitude
Hence,
For a small changes in P and Q

Since the real power does not affect the voltage magnitude much

Under short circuit conditions the current is almost lagging by 90° to the voltage
Hence,

Per unit change in voltage magnitude is equal to the rate of change in reactive
power to the short circuit capacity of the bus. It may be noted in this context that for
a system with X » R, the in phase voltage drop would be approximately equal to (I
sin ϕr) X, An in-phase voltage compensator or booster would control the reactive
power flow in the system. The quadrature voltage drop would be approximately
equal to (I sin ϕr). The quadrature voltage compensator would control the active
power flow in the system.
Example 1: Two substations A and B operating at 11 kV 3-phase are connected by
two parallel lines.1 and 2. Each line has a 11/132 kV transformer and a 132/11 kV
substation. Each line has an equivalent impedance of Z! = 0.2 + j0.4 and Z2 = 0.2 +
j0.6 ohms per phase which includes both the transformers and the line, referred to
11 kV side.
(a) If the bus bar A is at 11 kV and is sending 30Mw at 0.8 p.f leading, find the
individual currents into each transformer and the powers at the station A.
(b) If the transformer at A in line 2 is fitted with tappings on the 11 kV side. What
percentage tapping would be required to make each line carry equal reactive
powers? What would be the power sent by line 2 in this case?

(a)
Example 2: A load of (15 + j 10) MVA is supplied with power from a generating
station from a line at 110 kV, 3-phase, 50Hz. The line is of 100km length. The line
is represented by Π model with the parameters
R = 26.4 Ω
X = 33.9 Ω
B = 912 x 10-6 S
Voltage at the generated in 116kv. Determine the power supplied by the generating
station.
Example 3: A load of (66 + j60) MVA at the receiving end is being transmitted via
a single circuit 220KV line having a resistance of 21 ohm and reactance of 34 ohm.
The sending end voltage is maintained at 220kV. The operating conditions of power
consumers require that at this load voltage drop across the line should not exceed
5%. In order to reduce voltage drop standard single phase 660V, 40 kVAR capacitors
are to be switched in series in each phase of the line. Determine the required number
of capacitors, and rated voltage neglect the losses.