h

ja
Chapter 1: Introduction to z-

ira
Transform

a
lia ik
1.1 z-Transform

b
1.2 Properties

tra m
1.2.1 Linearity

us . A
1.2.2 Shifting
1.2.3 Time Reversal
1.2.4 Multiplication by Exponential Sequence
,A E
1.2.5 Differentiation in the z-domain
1.2.6 Discrete Convolution
or
1.3 Inverse z-transform
SW ss

1.3.1 Relationship between the z-transform and the

Laplace Transform
U ofe

1.4 Frequency Response Estimation

1.5 Pole-Zero Description of Discrete-Time Systems
Pr

1.6 A Second-Order Resonant System

1.7 Problem Sheet B1
N
Chapter 1: Introduction to z-Transform [1,3]

h
ja
θ

ira
Analogue Domain t = nT Discrete-time Domain
(Continuous-time Domain)
- x(t)

a
x[n]
d

lia ik
Laplace z-transform
i

b
Transform fa
g
X(s) θ = ω a T = 2π X(z)

tra m
i
ω-analogue fs
s=jω z=ejθ

us . A
t
frequency -π≤θ≤π
a
X(ω) X(ejθ)
θ -digital frequency
l
,A E
or
f jω Im(z)
z-Plane
rStable S-Plane
SW ss

eRegion θ=π θ
σ θ = -π
U ofe

q Re(z)
u
e |z|=1(unit circle)
Pr

stable
n region
N

c
y
 h
„ The primary role of the Laplace transform

ja
in engineering is transient and stability

ira
analysis of causal LTI system described by

a
differential equations.

lia ik
b
tra m
„ The primary roles of the z-transform are

us . A
the study of system characteristics and
,A E
derivation of computational structures for
or
implementing discrete-time systems on
SW ss

computers. The-transform is also used solve

difference equations.
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
1.1 z-Transform

ja
ira
„ The z-transform of a discrete-time signal

a
∞
z = rejθ, θ = digital frequency
X ( z) = ∑ x[n]z −n

lia ik
where z is a complex variable

b
n = −∞

tra m
us . A
two-sided
,A E transform
or
„ In causal systems, x[n] may be zero when n < 0
SW ss

∞
X ( z ) = ∑ x[n]z −n
U ofe

one-sided transform
n =0
Pr
N
„ Clearly, the z-transform is a power series with an

h
infinite number of terms and so may not converge for

ja
ira
all values of z.

a
lia ik
„ The region where the z-transform converges is

b
known as the region of convergence (ROC) and in

tra m
this region the values of X(z) are finite

us . A
The step sequence: x[n] = ⎧
1 0≤n≤∞
⎨
,A E
⎩0 n<0
or
∞
X ( z ) = ∑1 ⋅ z − n = 1 + z −1 + z − 2 + ...
SW ss
U ofe

n =0

This is a geometric series with a common ratio of z-1.

Pr

The series converges if |z-1| < 1 or equivalently if |z| > 1

N
 z

h
−1 −2 1
X ( z) = 1 + z + z + ... = =

ja
−1
1− z z −1

ira
„ In this case, the z-transform is valid everywhere

a
outside a circle of unit radius whose centre is at the

lia ik
origin (see below)

b
tra m
us . A
|z|=1 is a circle |z|=1 Im(z)
,A E
of unit radius
referred to as
or
the ‘unit circle’ region of
Re(z)
SW ss

convergence
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
ja
|z| > 1 then X(z) converges and |z| < 1 then it diverges

a ira
−1 −2 1
Let z = 2 ⇒ X ( z ) = 1 + 2 + 2 + ... = =2

lia ik
−1
1− 2

b
tra m
Let z = 0.5 ⇒ X ( z ) = 1 + ( )
1 −1
+( )
1 −1

us . A
2 2 +K = 1+ 2 + 4 +K
,A E
So the Region Of Convergence (ROC) is seen to be bounded
or
⎧ z ⎫
by the circle |z| = 1, the radius of the pole of X ( z ) ⎨= ⎬
SW ss

⎩ z − 1⎭
U ofe
Pr
N
The delta sequence δ[n]:

h
ja
∞
Z {δ [n]} = ∑ δ [n]z −n = 1

ira
n =0

a
The geometric sequence: x[n] = an

lia ik
b
∞

tra m
1 z a
X ( z) = ∑ a z n −n
= = for <1
a z−a

us . A
n =0
1− z
,A E z
or equivalently, |z| > |a|.
or
SW ss

when a = 1, x[n] = 1 for n ≥ 0 ie. x[n] = u[n]

U ofe

z
X ( z) = ROC: |z|>1
Pr

z −1
N
The complex exponential sequence: x[n] = ejnθ

h
ja
ira
− jθ
−
{ }
∞
1 z z z e
z e jθn = ∑ e jθn z − n = = = ×

a
jθ jθ jθ − jθ
n =0 e z − e z − e z − e
1−

lia ik
z

b
tra m
z ( z − e − jθ ) z ( z − e − jθ )
= = 2

us . A
( z − e )( z − e ) z − (e jθ + e − jθ ) z + 1
jθ − jθ

z ( z − cos θ + j sin θ )
,A E
=
z 2 − 2 z cos θ + 1
or
SW ss

jθnz ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ

Z {e } = 2 + j 2
U ofe

z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1
z ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ
Z {cos θn + j sin θn} = 2
Pr

+ j 2
z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1
N
 z ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ

h
jθn
Z {e } = 2 + j 2

ja
z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1

ira
z ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ
Z {cosθn + j sin θn} = 2 + j 2

a
z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1

lia ik
b
Exploiting the linearity property

tra m
„

us . A
z ( z − cos θ )
∴
,A E
Z {cos nθ } = 2
z − 2 z cos θ + 1
or
SW ss

z sin θ
Z {sin nθ } = 2
U ofe

z − 2 z cos θ + 1
Pr
N
1.2 Properties

h
ja
1.2.1 Linearity ax[n] + by[n]←⎯→
Z
aX ( z ) + bY ( z )

a ira
1.2.2 Shifting Property (Delay Theorem):

lia ik
b
x[n − k ]←⎯→
Z
z − k X (z )

tra m
us . A
A very important property of the z-transform is the
delay theorem.
,A E
Z {x[n − 1]} = z X ( z )
−1
or
Z {x[n − 2]} = z − 2 X ( z )
SW ss
U ofe

x[n] x[n-1] x[n] x[n-1]

z-1 ≡ T
X(z) z-1X(z)
Pr

One sample delay

N

Unit delay
 h
1.2.3 Time reversal:

ja
ira
x[− n]←
⎛1⎞
⎯→ X ⎜ ⎟
z
or ( )
X z −1

a
⎝z⎠

lia ik
b
tra m
Example: Find the z-transform of x[n] = -u[n].

us . A
,A E −1
z z z z
u[n]←⎯→ ; u[− n]←⎯→ −1
1
=
or

z −1 z −1 1− z
SW ss
U ofe

ROC: |z| < 1

Pr
N
 1.2.4 Multiplication by exponential

h
ja
sequence:

ira
a x[n]←
n
⎯→ X (a z )
z −1

a
lia ik
b
As a special case if x[n] is multiplied by ejnθ

tra m
us . A
z
e jθn
x[n]←⎯→ X (e z )
− jθ
,A E
or

1.2.5 Differentiation in the z-domain:

SW ss
U ofe

z d
nx[n ]←⎯→ − z X (z )
dz
Pr
N
 1.2.6 Discrete Convolution:

h
ja
If y[n] = x[n] * h[n] then Y(z) = X(z) . H(z)

a ira
⎧ ∞ ⎫

lia ik
Z {x[n]* h[n] } = Z ⎨ ∑ u [k ]x[k ]⋅ u[n − k ]h[n − k ]⎬

b
⎩k = −∞ ⎭

tra m
∞
⎧ ∞ ⎫ −n
= ∑ ⎨ ∑ u[k ]x [k ]⋅ u[n − k ]h [n − k ]⎬ z

us . A
n = 0 ⎩k = −∞
,A E ⎭
∞
⎧∞ −n ⎫
= ∑ u [k ] x [k ] ⎨∑ u [n − k ]h [n − k ] z ⎬ Let
or
m = n−k
⎩ n =0 ⎭
SW ss

k = −∞
∞
⎧ ∞ −m−k ⎫
= ∑ u [k ] x [k ] ⎨ ∑ u [m]h[m] z
U ofe

⎬
k = −∞ ⎩m = − k ⎭
Pr
N
 ∞
⎧ ∞
−m ⎫

h
= ∑ u [k ] x [k ] z ⎨ ∑ u [m]h [m] z ⎬
−k

ja
k = −∞ ⎩m = − k ⎭

ira
∞
⎧ ∞
−m ⎫
= ∑ x[k ] z ⎨∑ h[m] z ⎬
−k

a
lia ik
k =0 ⎩m = 0 ⎭

b
X ( z) H ( z)

tra m
= X ( z) ⋅ H ( z)

us . A
,A E
x[n] y[n]
or
h[n]
SW ss

X(z) H(z) Y(z)

U ofe

y[n] = x[n] * h[n]

Pr

Y(z) = X(z) ⋅ H(z)

N
 h
Example :

ja
ira
„ Concept of the transfer function

a
lia ik
y[n] = a 0 x[n] + a1 x[n − 1] + a 2 x[n − 2] + b1 y[n − 1] + b2 y[n − 2]

b
tra m
Take the z-transform of both sides:

us . A
Y ( z ) = a0 X (z ) + a1 X ( z )z −1 + a2 X ( z )z −2 + b1Y ( z )z −1 + b2Y ( z )z −2
,A E
[ ] [ ]
or
Y ( z ) 1 − b1 z −1 − b2 z − 2 = X (z ) a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z − 2
SW ss

Y ( z ) a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z − 2
H (z ) = =
U ofe

X ( z ) 1 − b1 z −1 − b2 z − 2
Pr
N
Example :

h
ja
„ Find the difference-equation of the following transfer

ira
function
5z + 2
H ( z) = 2

a
z + 3z + 2

lia ik
b
First rewrite H(z) as a ratio of polynomials in z-1

tra m
us . A
Y ( z) 5 z −1 + 2 z −2
= H ( z) =
X ( z)
,A E 1 + 3 z −1 + 2 z − 2
Y ( z ) + 3Y ( z )z −1 + 2Y ( z )z − 2 = 5 X ( z )z −1 + 2 X ( z )z − 2
or
SW ss

Take inverse z-transform

U ofe

y[n] + 3 y[n − 1] + 2 y[n − 2] = 5 x[n − 1] + 2 x[n − 2]

Pr

⇒ y[n ] = 5 x[n − 1] + 2 x[n − 2] − 3 y[n − 1] − 2 y[n − 2]

N
 h
Example : If x[n] = u[n] – u[n-10], find X(z)?

ja
ira
9
1 − z −10
X ( z ) = ∑ (1) z − n =

a
n =0 1 − z −1

lia ik
b
Example: If y[n] = -αnu[-n-1], find Y(z)?

tra m
us . A
∞
Y ( z) = ∑ − α n
[− − ] −n
,A E u n 1 z
n = −∞
or
n k
⎛α ⎞
−1
⎛z⎞∞
= − ∑ ⎜ ⎟ = −∑ ⎜ ⎟
SW ss

n = −∞ ⎝ z ⎠ k =1 ⎝ α ⎠
U ofe

∞ k
⎛z⎞
= 1− ∑ ⎜ ⎟
Pr

k =0 ⎝ α ⎠
N
 h
u[n+1] u[-(n+1)]

ja
a ira
lia ik
n -1 n

b
-1

tra m
z
The sum converges provided < 1 ie. |z| < |α|

us . A
α
,A E
1
or
Y ( z) = 1 − | z |<| α |
1 − zα −1
SW ss

z
U ofe

= | z |<| α |
z −α
Pr
N
 h
„ Depict the ROC and pole and zero locations in

ja
the z-plane

a ira
lia ik
Im(z)

b
tra m
us . A
,A E
α Re(z)
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
1.2.6 Discrete Convolution

h
ja
Compute the convolution y[n] of the digital signals

ira
„

given by

a
x1[n] = [1, -2, 1];

lia ik
b
x2[n] = 1 for 0 ≤ n ≤ 5,

tra m
x2[n] = 0 elsewhere

us . A
y[n] = x1[n] * x2[n] ⇒ Y(z) = X1(z) ⋅X2(z)
,A E
X1(z) = 1 –2z-1 + z-2
or
X2(z) = 1 + z-1 + z-2 + z-3 + z-4 +z-5
SW ss

Y(z) = X1(z) ⋅ X2(z)

U ofe

= 1-z-1 – z-6 + z-7

Inverse z-transform
Pr

y[n] = [1, -1, 0,0,0,0,-1,1]

N
Example :

h
ja
Determine the system function H(z) of the system

ira
„

shown below:

a
y[n]

lia ik
x[n] +

b
tra m
y[n] = x[n] + ay[n-1] T

us . A
,A E ay[n-1] a
or
Y(z)
Y(z) = X(z) + az-1Y(z) X(z)
SW ss

+
U ofe

z-1
Y ( z) 1
H ( z) = =
X ( z ) 1 − az −1
Pr

az-1Y(z) a
N
 Pr
U ofe
N
SW ss
or
,A E
us . A
tra m
b
lia ik
a ira
ja
h
 Pr
U ofe
N
SW ss
or
,A E
us . A
tra m
b
lia ik
a ira
ja
h
 Basic z-Transforms

h
ja
ira
Signal Transform ROC

δ[n]

a
1 all z

lia ik
u[n] 1 |z| > 1

b
1 − z −1

tra m
αn u[n] 1 |z| > |α|
1 − αz −1

us . A
nαn u[n] αz −1 |z| > |α|
,A E (1 − αz −1 ) 2
cos(nθ) u[n] 1 − z −1 cosθ |z|>1
1 − z −1 2 cosθ + z − 2
or
sin(nθ) u[n] z −1 sin θ |z| > 1
SW ss

1 − z −1 2 cosθ + z − 2
rncos(nθ) u[n] 1 − z −1 r cosθ |z| > r
U ofe

1 − z −1 2r cosθ + r 2 z − 2
rnsin(nθ) u[n] 1 − z −1 r sin θ
Pr

|z|>r
1 − z −1 2r cosθ + r 2 z − 2
N
 z-Transform Properties

h
ja
ira
signal Transform

a
X[n] X(z)

lia ik
b
ax[n] + by[n] aX(z) + bY(z)

tra m
X[n-k] z-kX(z)

us . A
anx[n] ⎛z⎞
X⎜ ⎟
,A E
⎝a⎠
or
x[-n] ⎛1⎞
X⎜ ⎟
SW ss

⎝z⎠
x[n]*y[n] X(z)⋅Y(z)
U ofe

nx[n] d
− z X (z)
Pr

dz
N
 h
ja
ira
−N
1− z
Note: S N = 1 + z + z

a
−1 −2 − ( N −1)
+ ... + z =

lia ik
1 − z −1

b
tra m
1
If N →∞ S ∞ = , |z-1| < 1

us . A
−1
1− z
,A E
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
ja
1.3 Inverse z-Transform

ira
The inverse z-transform-Partial fraction

a
„

lia ik
b
The inverse z-transform allows us to recover the

tra m
discrete-time sequence.

us . A
,A E
x[n] = Z-1[X(z)]
or
SW ss

where X(z) is the z-transform of x[n].

U ofe
Pr
N
Example :

h
ja
Find x[n] for the following:

ira
z −1
X ( z) =

a
1 − 0.25 z −1 − 0.375 z −2

lia ik
z z ⎡ A B ⎤

b
= 2 = = z⎢ +
⎣ z − 0.75 z + 0.5 ⎥⎦

tra m
z − 0.25 z − 0.375 ( z − 0.75)( z + 0.5)

us . A
⎡ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜5⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟z ⎜ ⎟z ⎥
= z⎢ ⎝ ⎠ + ⎝ 5⎠ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎝5⎠ − ⎝5⎠ ⎥
,A E
⎢ z − 0.75 z + 0.5 ⎥ ⎢ z − 0.75 z + 0.5 ⎥
or
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
SW ss

4 −1 ⎡ z ⎤ 4 −1 ⎡ z ⎤
U ofe

x[n] = z ⎢ − z ⎢
5 ⎣ z − 0.75 ⎦ 5 ⎣ z + 0.5 ⎥⎦
⎥
Pr

4
[ ]
= (0.75) n − ( −0.5) n , n > 0
N

5
 h
1.3 Inverse z-Transform

ja
a ira
„ Power series Method

lia ik
b
tra m
„ Residue Method - evaluating the

us . A
contour integral
,A E
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 1.3.1 Relationship between the z-

h
ja
transform and Laplace transform.

a ira
If we let z = esT, then z = e(σ +jω)T (T is the sampling period)

lia ik
b
z = eσ T⋅ ejωT = eσ T⋅ ejθ -π ≤ θ ≤ π

tra m
us . A
Thus |z| = eσ T and
,A E
or

f
SW ss

∠z = ωT = 2π = θ (θ = digital frequency)
fs
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
As ω varies from -∞ to ∞ the s-plane is

ja
„

mapped to the z-plane as shown in Figure

ira
2.10.

a
lia ik
b
The entire jω axis in the s-plane is mapped

tra m
„

us . A
onto the unit circle. The left-hand s-plane is
,A E
mapped to the inside of the unit circle and
or
the right-hand s-plane maps to the outside of
SW ss

the unit circle.

U ofe
Pr
N
 h
ja
ira
(Half the z-plane
jω

a
sampling

lia ik
s-plane frequency)

b
tra m
θ=π θ=0

us . A
,A E σ θ = -π
If θ = π
or
Unit circle
SW ss

|z|=1
U ofe

Figure 2.10. Mapping of the s-plane to the z-plane.

Pr
N
 h
In terms of frequency response, the jω axis is

ja
„

the most important in the s-plane. In this

ira
case σ = 0 and the frequency points in the s-

a
lia ik
plane are related to points on the z-plane unit

b
tra m
circle by z = eσT.ejωT = 1 ejθ

us . A
,A E
jθ
z=e
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
1.4 Frequency Response Estimation

h
ja
There are many instances when it is necessary to

ira
„

evaluate the frequency response of discrete-time

a
systems. The frequency response of a system can be

lia ik
b
readily obtained from its z-transforms.

tra m
us . A
„ For example, if we set z = ejθ, that is evaluate the z-
,A E
transform around the unit circle, we obtain the
Fourier Transform of the system.
or
SW ss

H (θ ) = H ( z ) | z = e jθ , - π < θ < π
U ofe

Fourier transform of the discrete-time system

Pr
N
Example :

h
ja
ira
1
H ( z) = , 1 < a < 0 say a = 0.6

a
−1
1 − az

lia ik
b
Find H(θ). {H(θ)-the frequency response}

tra m
„

us . A
,A E H (θ ) = H ( z ) | z =e jθ −π ≤θ ≤ π
or
Fourier transform of the discrete-time system.
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
H (θ ) = H ( z ) | z =e jθ =
1 1
=

ja
1 − ae − jθ
(1 − a cosθ ) + ja sin θ

ira
1 1

a
H (θ ) = =

lia ik
(1 − a cos θ )2 + (a sin θ )2 1 − 2a cos θ + a 2

b
tra m
|H(θ)| 1

us . A
1 1− a
,A E 1+ a

θ
or

-π π
SW ss

digital frequency
U ofe

-fs/2 0 fs/2
f (analogue
frequency)
Pr

θ = ωT; θ = 2π f/fs:; θ = π ⇒ f = fs/2

N

fs= sampling frequency

 h
1.5 Pole-Zero Description of

ja
Discrete-Time Systems

a ira
„ The zeros of a z-transform H(z) are the values of z

lia ik
for which H(z)=0. The poles of a z-transform are

b
tra m
the values of z for which H(z)=∞ . If H(z) is a

us . A
rational function , then
,A E
Y ( z ) a0 + a1 z −1 + ... + aM z − M
H ( z) = =
or
X ( z ) 1 + b1 z −1 + ...... + bL z − L
SW ss

( z − z1 )( z − z 2 ).......( z − z M )
= a0
U ofe

( z − p1 )( z − p2 )......( z − pL )
Pr
N
 h
ja
„ The complex quantities (or may be real) z1, z2, z3 ….

ira
are called zeros of H(z) and the complex quantities

a
(or may be real) p1, p2, p3 … are called the poles of

lia ik
b
H(z). We thus see that H(z) is completely

tra m
determined , except for the constant a0, by the

us . A
values of poles and zeros
,A E
or
„ The information contained in the z-transform can be
SW ss

conveniently displayed as a poles-zero diagram (see

U ofe

figure in the next slide)

Pr
N
 Im(z)

h
ja
0.75

ira
|z|=1 0.5

a
lia ik
-1

b
-0.5
Re(z)

tra m
us . A
,A E
In the diagram, ‘X’ marks the position of a pole and ‘O’
or
denotes the position of a zero.
SW ss
U ofe

The poles are located at z = 0.5 ± 0.5j and z = 0.75, a

single zero is at z = -1.
Pr
N
 h
An important feature of the pole-zero

ja
„

diagram is the unit circle |z|=1. The pole-zero

ira
diagram provides an insight into the

a
lia ik
properties of a given discrete-time system.

b
tra m
From the locations of the poles d zeros we

us . A
„

can infer the frequency response of the

,A E
system as well as its degree of stability.
or
SW ss

„ For a stable system, all the poles must lie

U ofe

inside the unit circle. Zeros may lie inside, on,

or outside the unit circle.
Pr
N
Example :

h
ja
„ Determine the transfer function H(z) of a discrete-

ira
time system with the pole-zero diagram shown

a
below: Im(z)

lia ik
b
tra m
0.5
|z| =1

us . A
0.5
,A E -1
-0.5 Re(z)
or
SW ss

K ( z − j1) ( z + j1)
H ( z) =
U ofe

( z − 0.5 − 0.5 j ) ( z − 0.5 + 0.5 j )

Pr

K (1 + z − 2 )
=
N

1 − z −1 − 0.5 z − 2
Example :

h
ja
ira
Determine the pole-zero plot:

a
lia ik
b
Im(z)
z

tra m
H ( z) =
z−a

us . A
,A E
or
Re(z)
SW ss
U ofe

|z|=a
Pr
N
Example :

h
ja
Determine the pole-zero plot :

ira
zM − aM ( z − z1 )( z − z 2 ).........( z − M )

a
H ( z ) = M −1 =

lia ik
z ( z − a) z M −1

b
tra m
The zero z = a cancels the pole at z = a. Thus, H(z)

us . A
has M-1 zeros and M-1 poles as shown in the diagram
below for M = 8.
,A E Im(z)
or

z= a
SW ss
U ofe

Re(z)
Pr

8 poles
N

|z|=a
 Consider a system, H(z) with two complex conjugate

h
„

ja
poles in the z-plane :

a ira
Im(z)

lia ik
p1 = re jθ
Poles

b
p2 = re − jθ

tra m
r p1

us . A
θ z1 = 0 ( zero)
θ
,A E Re(z)
or

|z|=1
SW ss

p2
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
„ A typical transfer function might be:

ja
ira
z ⎡ A B ⎤

a
H ( z) = = z⎢ +
(z − re )(z − re ) − jθ ⎥

lia ik
jθ − jθ jθ
⎣ z − re z − re ⎦

b
⎡ ⎤

tra m
1 1
⎢ 2 jr sin θ 2 jr sin θ ⎥

us . A
= z⎢ jθ
− − jθ
⎥
,A E ⎢ z − re z − re ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
or
SW ss

⎡ ⎤
U ofe

1 1 1
H ( z) = −
j (2r sin θ ) ⎢⎣1 − re jθ z −1 1 − re − jθ z −1 ⎥⎦
Pr
N
 [( ) − (re ) ]

h
1

ja
n n
h( n) = re jθ − jθ

j 2r sin θ

ira
rn
[ ]

a
= e jθn − e − jθn

lia ik
j 2r sin θ

b
tra m
[ ]
us . A
1
h( n) = r n −1 sin nθ θ = frequency of
sin θ
,A E oscillation
or
SW ss

This is the impulse response of the 2nd order

system with complex poles
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
ja
„ We note that the impulse response will decay

ira
away to zero provided r is less than one. [ r < 1]

a
lia ik
Recall that r is also the distance from the origin in

b
„

tra m
the z-plane to the poles p1 or p2, so that system

us . A
will be stable if the poles in the z-plane lie inside
,A E
the unit circle.
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
Example :

ja
Exponential decay
sinewave (r<1)

ira
Poles inside
unit circle Stable system

a
lia ik
θ
-θ

b
tra m
us . A
rn
,A E h( n) =
1
sin θ
[
r n −1 sin nθ ]
Poles on the
or
unit circle
1
SW ss

θ
U ofe

-1
Pr

r=1
N
 h
ja
Exponential increasing

ira
Poles outside unit (r>1)
θ circle

a
-θ
h(n) =
1
[
r n −1 sin nθ ]

lia ik
sin θ

b
rn

tra m
us . A
one real Pole inside the
unit circle rn, θ = 0
,A E
or

n
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
Note :

ja
ira
„ A system that is both stable and casual must

a
have all its poles inside that unit circle within

lia ik
the z-plane.

b
tra m
us . A
„ We cannot have a pole outside the unit circle,
since the inverse transform of a pole located
,A E
outside the circle will contribute either a right
or
sided increasing exponential term, which is
SW ss

not stable, or a left-sided decaying

U ofe

exponential term that is not causal.

Pr
N
 1.6 A second order Resonant System

h
ja
(Complex Poles)

a ira
x[n] y[n]

lia ik
+ r θ0

b
-b1

tra m
z -1

us . A
-b2
,A E z -1
p1 = re jθ 0 = r cos θ 0 + jr sin θ 0
or

p2 = re − jθ 0 = r cos θ 0 − jr sin θ 0
SW ss
U ofe

1 z2
H ( z) = −1 −2
= 2 (A)
1 + b1 z + b2 z z + b1 z + b2
Pr
N
 h
„ All pole system has poles only (without counting the

ja
zeros at the origin)

ira
z2 z2 z2

a
H ( z) = 2 = =

lia ik
z + b1 z + b2 ( z − p1 )( z − p2 ) ( z − re jθ 0 )( z − re − jθ 0 )
−1

b
tra m
z2 z2
H ( z) = = (B)

us . A
jθ 0 − jθ 0
z − r (e
2
+ e )z + r 2
z 2 − 2r cos θ 0 z + r 2
,A E
Comparing (A) and (B), we obtain
or

2π f 0
b1 = −2r cos θ 0 b2 = r 2
∴ − b1
SW ss

Cosθ 0 = θ0 =
2 b2 fs
U ofe

θ0 = resonant frequency
Pr
N
 h
„ We can derive H(θ) and the magnitude from

ja
ira
1
H ( z) =
1 + b1 z −1 + b2 z −2

a
lia ik
b
b1 b2 = r2

tra m
b2 = r 2

us . A
-0.94 0.5
,A E b1 = −2r cos(θ 0 )
-1.16 0.7
⎡ − b1 ⎤
or
-1.34 0.9 θ 0 = cos ⎢−1
⎥
⎢⎣ 2 b2 ⎥⎦
SW ss

-1.41 0.99
U ofe
Pr
N
 −π
Pr
U ofe
N

−
π
4
SW ss
or
,A E
dB

I
us . A
θ0 =
tra m
π

b
4

lia ik
a
IV

ira
π
θ

ja
h
 h
ja
Magnitude response

ira
50
I
II

a
40 III
IV

lia ik
b
30

tra m
20

us . A
dB

10
,A E
or
0
SW ss

-10
U ofe

-20
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
theta
Pr
N
Example :

h
ja
sketch the magnitude response for the system having

ira
„

the transfer function

a
lia ik
1 + z −1
H ( z) =

b
π π
−j

tra m
j
(1 − 0.9e 4 z −1 ) (1 − 0.9e 4
z −1 )

us . A
π
−j
The system has a zero at z = -1 & poles at z = 0.9e
,A E 4
or

∴ θ = π and large at
SW ss

Magnitude response will be zero at

θ0= ± π /4 because the poles are close to the unit circle.
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
ja
ira
|H(θ)|

a
lia ik
b
tra m
Magnitude 0.9
Response π/4
θ=π

us . A
-π/4 π/4
-π
,A E π θ θ
θ=0
or
θ = -π
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 Example :

h
ja
Sketch the approximate magnitude response from

ira
„

the pole-zero map given below:

a
lia ik
dB

b
Im(z)

tra m
us . A
+ 0.8
,A E Re(z)
- 0.8
-π -π/2 π/2 π
or
0
|z|= 1 θ
SW ss

fs/2
-fs/2
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
Example :

ja
ira
„ Sketch an approximate magnitude response from the

a
pole-zero map given below:

lia ik
b
Im(z)

tra m
|H(θ)| in dB

us . A
,A E + 0.5
1 Re(z)
or
- 0.5

|z|=1 -π -π/2 0 π/2 π θ

SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 Summary of Part B Chapter 1

h
ja
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you should know:

a ira
„ The properties of z transforms and their application.

lia ik
b
„ Discrete convolution in the time and z domains.

tra m
us . A
„ How to find the inverse z transform, given a transfer function.

„
,A E
The difference between a z transform and a Laplace transform and
or
when to use each.
SW ss

„ Estimation of frequency response from a transfer function

U ofe

„ Hand-calculate magnitude and phase responses for simple transfer

Pr

functions and plot them.

N
 h
The pole-zero description of a discrete time system.

ja
„

ira
„ Given a pole-zero diagram, transfer function or difference

a
equation, how to find any of the other representations and discuss

lia ik
the system’s stability with reference to the pole-zero diagram.

b
tra m
How to derive the resonance frequency equation for a second-

us . A
„

order resonance system (a complex pole pair).

,A E
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 Pr
U ofe
N
SW ss
or
,A E Examples

us . A
tra m
b
lia ik
a ira
ja
h
A digital filter structure is shown below. Determine the Transfer function H(z).

h
ja
ira
X(z) a0 Y(z)
+

a
lia ik
Z-1 -b1

b
+

tra m
us . A
Z-1
a0 b2
,A E +
or
SW ss

Y (z) a 0 + a 0 z −1
= H (z) = ;
U ofe

X (z) 1 + b1 z −1 − b 2 z −2
Pr
N
Sketch an approximate magnitude response from the pole-zero map given below:

h
ja
Im(z)

ira
x

a
0.5

lia ik
-1 1
Re(z)
-0.5 x

b
tra m
us . A
|H(θ)|
,A E
or
SW ss

-π -π/2 0 π/2 π θ
U ofe
Pr
N
Question 5(b)

h
Determine the magnitude response of the following filter and show that it has an all-pass

ja
characteristic.
a − z −1

ira
H ( z) = a <1 [4 marks]
(1 − a z −1 )

a
− jθ jθ
− −

lia ik
1 a e a e
H ( z ) = (1 + z − 2 ) H (θ ) = → H *
(θ ) =

b
− jθ
2 1 − ae 1 − ae jθ

tra m
a 2 + 1 − ae jθ − ae − jθ
H (θ ).H (θ ) = H (θ ) = =1
* 2

us . A
jθ − jθ
1 + a − ae − ae
2

,A E⇒ All - Pass filter

or
H (θ )
SW ss

1
U ofe

π θ
Pr

-π
N
A first-order digital filter is described by the system function :

h
ja
1 − a 1 + b z −1

ira
H ( z) =
1 + b 1 − a z −1

a
lia ik
b
Draw a canonic realisation of the transfer function H(z).

tra m
X(z)

us . A
Y(z)
+ +
,A E 1-a/1-b Z-1
a b
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
Question 3

h
ja
Sketch roughly the magnitude response corresponding to the pole-zero pattern given below:

a ira
lia ik
b
tra m
us . A
,A E
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
Sketch an approximate magnitude response from the pole-zero map given below:

ja
ira
Im(z)

a
0.5 x

lia ik
-1 0.5 1
Re(z)
x

b
-0.5

tra m
us . A
Mag

,A E
or
θ
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
The difference equation of a digtal filter is given by y(n) = x(n)-x(n-8)- y(n-2 )

ja
Find the transfer function for the above filter.

a ira
lia ik
b
tra m
Y ( z ) = X ( z ) − X ( z ) z −8 − Y ( z ) z −2

us . A
Y ( z) 1
= (1 − z −8 ).
X ( z) 1 + z −2
,A E
or
SW ss
U ofe
Pr
N
 h
A first-order digital filter has a transfer function given by

ja
1 + z −1

ira
H ( z) = k
1 − a z −1

a
Determine the impulse response of the above digital filter H(z) and show that the filter is

lia ik
stable if a < 1.

b
⎡ 1 z −1
⎤

tra m
H ( z) = k ⎢ + −1 ⎥

us . A
−1
,A E ⎣1 − az 1 − az ⎦
[
h(n) = k a nu(n) + a n−1u(n − 1) ]
or
if a< 1, then h(n) decays to zero.
SW ss

Therefore, stable system.

U ofe
Pr
N