Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr.

Akeel Ali Wannas

1 Chapter 1 : Introdution

Lectures 2

Topics

1.5 Definitions

1.6 Longitudinal Stability Derivatives

----------------- ------------------------ ------------------- -------------------- -----------

1.5. Definitions

One of the difficulties encountered by students of flight mechanics relates to sign

conventions, physical units, and nomenclature involving multiple subscripting. The
conventions used in the following material will follow closely to the guidelines
established jointly by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and
AIAA. These conventions are used in a large part by industry and researchers in
the United States.

1.5.1. Dynamic pressure: Velocity may be expressed as either true, Vt, or

equivalent, Ve; the relationship to each other is from the dynamic pressure
expression

1 1
𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉𝑡2 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑒2
2 2

Where

𝜌 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑎 − 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

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 Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑇𝐴𝑆)

𝑉𝑒 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝐸𝐴𝑆)

𝜌𝑜
𝑉𝑡 = √ 𝑉𝑒
𝜌

1.5.2. Control Systems

In addition to conventional control systems such as ailerons, elevators, and rudders,

external control of the forces and moments acting on the vehicle can also occur
from a variety of other physical devices including 1) thrust vectoring by a jet
engine's exhaust, 2) speedbrakes/spoilers mounted on the fuselage or wing, 3)
horizontal tail mounted forward of the wing (canard surface), 4) vee tail to replace
horizontal and vertical tail(s) aft of the main wing lifting surface, 5) vertical fin on
the underside of the fuselage for direct side-force control, and 6) variable wing
camber.

thrust vectoring by a jet engine's exhaust

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

speedbrakes/spoilers mounted on the fuselage or wing

horizontal tail mounted forward of the wing (canard surface)

vee tail

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

vertical fin on the underside of the fuselage for direct side-force control

variable wing camber

For the most part, the material described in this lectures will assume a conventional
control system. The conventional controls shown in Fig. 1.16 include the aileron
(mounted on the wing trailing edge), the elevator (mounted on the horizontal tail),
and the rudder (mounted on the vertical tail). These control surfaces produce their
aerodynamic force and moment inputs due to a change in camber of a lifting
surface.

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Figure (1.16) Coordinate sign convention.

Longitudinal control deflection 𝛿𝑒 is shown in Fig. 1.16 as positive with the

trailing edge down. If the longitudinal control were behind the aircraft e.g., one
would expect the resulting pitch moment 𝑀 about the c.g. to be negative in sign.
The rate of change of pitching moment with elevator deflection is described by the
sensitivity term of Δ𝑀𝛿 = 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝛿𝑒 The two force sensitivity terms, Δ𝑋𝛿 and Δ𝑍𝛿 ,
are important in dynamics but are overshadowed by the importance of Δ𝑀𝛿 .

Lateral control deflection 𝛿𝑎 is shown as positive with right-hand aileron

trailing edge up and left-hand aileron trailing edge down. It will be assumed that
the deflection pattern is antisymmetric, which results in wing span loads producing
a rolling moment, i.e., positive aileron control tends to lower the right-hand wing
in the direction of increasing roll (bank) angle 𝜙. Although lateral control produces
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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

yawing moments and side forces on the airframe, the dominant term is the rate of
change of rolling moment with aileron deflection, described by the sensitivity term
Δ𝐿𝛿 = 𝜕𝐿/𝜕𝛿𝑎 .

Directional control deflection 𝛿𝑟 , is shown in Fig. 1.16 as positive with the

rudder's trailing edge rotating to the left and will normally produce a positive side
force with a corresponding negative yawing moment about the c.g. The prime
influence of rudder control is the production of a yawing moment as described by
the sensitivity term Δ𝑉𝛿 = 𝜕𝑁/𝜕𝛿𝑟 . This stability derivative, in addition to the
associated rolling moment and side-force sensitivities, will vary in value (and sign)
depending on airplane angle of attack.

1.5.3. Dimensionless Aerodynamic Coefficients

The dimensional stability derivatives to be used in the equations of motion

have as a basis the dimensionless coefficients defined as follows:

𝑋
𝐶𝑋 = ;
𝑄𝑆

𝑌
𝐶𝑌 = ;
𝑄𝑆

𝑍
𝐶𝑍 = ;
𝑄𝑆

𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐿
𝐶𝑙 = ;
𝑄𝑆𝑏

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑀
𝐶𝑚 = ;
𝑄𝑆𝑏

𝑦𝑎𝑤 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑁
𝐶𝑛 = ;
𝑄𝑆𝑏

Where
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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

𝑄 = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 0.5𝑝(𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ) = 0.5 𝛾𝑝𝑀2

𝜌 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

𝑝 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡

𝑦 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠, 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 1.4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑆 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛

𝑐 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑

Two other dimensionless force coefficients, which are commonly used in

aerodynamic and performance analyses, are the airplane lift and drag coefficients.
The use of L as a subscript for lift force should not be confused with the notation
of L to indicate a rolling moment,

𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐶𝐿 = ; 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑄𝑆

𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐶𝐷 = ; 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑄𝑆

1.5.4. Center of Gravity (CG) is the point where the weight of the aircraft is
balanced.
1.5.5. Neutral Point (NP) is the point where the aerodynamic forces generated
𝑥
by the wing and tail are balanced ( ) .
𝑐 𝑁𝑃

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 Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

1.5.6. The Maneuver Point, MP is defined as the CG position at which, under

steady, pull-up maneuver. (in which the velocity and angle of attack (𝛼) are
held constant)

To investigate static stability and control for accelerated flight, use is made of a
pull-up. Of interest is the elevator angle required to make an n-g turn or pull-up.
There is a cg position where the elevator angle per g goes to zero, making the
airplane too easy to maneuver. This cg position is called the maneuver point. There
is another maneuver point associated with the stick force required to make an n-g
pull-up.

𝑥
Static Margin when Placing CG 5% - 15% of MAC ( ) in front of NP creates
𝑐 𝑐𝑔

longitudinal (pitch) stability.

A lower margin produces less stability and greater elevator authority, while a
higher margin creates more stability and less elevator authority. Too much static
margin results in elevator stall at take-off and landing.

MAC: Mean aerodynamic chord.

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

𝑆(2𝐵+𝐴)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑝, 𝐶 = 3(𝐴+𝐵)
2(𝐴−𝐵)(0.5𝐴+𝐵)
𝑀𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴 − ( 3(𝐴+𝐵)
)
𝐴−𝑀𝐴𝐶
𝑀𝐴𝐶 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑑 = 𝑌 ( )
𝐴−𝐵
2𝑌(𝐴+𝐵)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑊𝐴 =
2
2𝑌𝑌(𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵)
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑇𝐴 =
2
4𝑌
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝐴𝑅𝑤 = (𝐴+𝐵)
4𝑌𝑌
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝐴𝑅𝑡 = (𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵)
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑚, 𝑇𝑎𝑟𝑚 = 𝐷 − 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐶 + 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝐴𝐶
𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 𝑊𝐴 ∗ 𝑀𝐴𝐶
As de
𝑁𝑃(%𝑀𝐴𝐶) = 0.25 + (𝑁𝑠 ∗ 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑟 ∗ ( ) ∗ (1 − da))
Aw
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝐺 (%𝑀𝐴𝐶) = 𝑁𝑃 − 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
where:

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

𝑁𝑃: neutral-point
𝐴𝐶 : aerodynamic center of the wing, typically 0.25
𝑁𝑠: tail efficiency typically 0.7 (0.9 for a T-tail)
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑟 : tail volume coefficient
As : lift curve slope of tail
Aw : lift curve slope of wing
de
: change in tail downwash angle versus change in wing angle-of-attack, typically
da
0.5 to 0.33

____________________________________________________________

(𝚫𝒙/𝒄)ac = location of the wing-body aerodynamic center (a.c.) relative to the

c.g. and normalized with respect to the wing reference chord length

The term contributing to the 𝑀𝛼 derivative may be estimated directly from

the airframe's dimensionless static stability derivative. Because the complete
aircraft lift from 𝛼 acts at an 𝑥 location along the fuselage axis of symmetry
described as the neutral point, the static stability derivative can be expressed
relative to the complete airframe lift-curve slope as

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 Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 2 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝐶𝐿 Δ𝑥

=( ) [( ) − ( ) ] = ( ) ( )
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼 𝑎⁄𝑐 𝑐 𝑛𝑝 𝑐 𝑐𝑔 𝜕𝛼 𝑎⁄𝑐 𝑐 𝑛𝑝

where it is assumed in above Eq. that l) both c.g. and neutral point locations are
relative to the leading edge of the reference chord and 2) the body-axis coordinate
system.

Δ𝑥
longitudinally stable aircraft corresponds to ( ) having a negative sign, which
𝑐 𝑛𝑝

implies that the c.g. is forward of the neutral point. In this case, a positive angle-
of-attack perturbation results in a restorative (stable) pitching moment about the
c.g. from the lift change that acts at the neutral point. A related term, the static
margin, is described as

Δ𝑥
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = − ( )
𝑐 𝑛𝑝

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