ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-

AFFILIATED INSTITUTIONS
R - 2013
B.E. CIVIL ENGINEERING
SEMESTER-VII-
SYLLABUS
ELECTIVE – III

EN6501 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT L T P C 3 0 0 3

UNIT I SOURCES AND TYPES (8)

Sources and types of municipal solid wastes-waste generation rates-factors affecting generation,
characteristics-methods of sampling and characterization; Effects of improper disposal of solid wastes-
Public health and environmental effects. Elements of solid waste management –Social and Financial
aspects – Municipal solid waste (M&H) rules – integrated management-Public awareness; Role of
NGO‟s.

UNIT II ON-SITE STORAGE AND PROCESSING (8)

On-site storage methods – Effect of storage, materials used for containers – segregation of solid
wastes – Public health and economic aspects of open storage – waste segregation and storage – case
studies under Indian conditions – source reduction of waste – Reduction, Reuse and Recycling.

UNIT III COLLECTION AND TRANSFER (8)

Methods of Residential and commercial waste collection – Collection vehicles – Manpower– Collection
routes – Analysis of collection systems; Transfer stations – Selection of location, operation &
maintenance; options under Indian conditions – Field problems- solving.

UNIT IV OFF-SITE PROCESSING (12)

Objectives of waste processing – Physical Processing techniques and Equipments; Resource recovery
from solid waste composting and biomethanation; Thermal processing options – case studies under Indian
conditions.

UNIT V DISPOSAL (9)

Land disposal of solid waste; Sanitary landfills – site selection, design and operation of sanitary landfills –
Landfill liners – Management of leachate and landfill gas- Landfill bioreactor– Dumpsite Rehabilitation

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

UNIT-1

SOURCES AND TYPES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES

 Introduction
Arising quality of life, and high rates of resource consumption
patterns have had a unintended and negative impact on the urban environment - generation of
wastes far beyond the handling capacities of urban governments and agencies. Cities are now
grappling with the problems of high volumes of waste, the costs involved, the disposal
technologies and methodologies, and the impact of wastes on the local and global environment.

But these problems have also provided a window of opportunity for

cities to find solutions - involving the community and the private sector; involving innovative
technologies and disposal methods; and involving behaviour changes and awareness raising. These
issues have been amply demonstrated by good practices from many cities around the world.

There is a need for a complete rethinking of "waste" - to analyse if waste is indeed waste. A
rethinking that calls for

WASTE to become WEALTH

REFUSE to become RESOURCE
TRASH to become CASH *

There is a clear need for the current approach ofwaste disposal that is focussed on municipalities
and uses high energy/high technology, to move more towards waste processing and waste
recycling(that involves public-private partnerships, aiming for eventual waste minimization -
driven at the community level, and using low energy/low technology resources. Some of the
defining criteria for future waste minimization programmes will include deeper community
participation, understanding economic benefits/recovery of waste, focusing on life cycles (rather
than end-of-pipe solutions), decentralized administration of waste, minimizing environmental
impacts, reconciling investment costs with long-term goals.

* Quote from V. Suresh, HUDCO, India.

WHAT IS SOLID WASTE?

The term solid waste means: material such as household garbage (includes recycling), food wastes, yard
wastes, and demolition or construction debris. It also includes discarded items like household
appliances, furniture, scrap metal, machinery, car parts and abandoned or junk vehicles.The owners,
operators, and/or occupants of any premises are responsible for the satisfactory and legal disposal of all
solid waste generated or accumulated on the property.

All solid waste must be stored in a safe, sanitary and nuisance free manner. Garbage must be stored in
sturdy, waterproof, animal-proof containers with tight fitting lids; it has to be removed at least every
other week. Accumulating solid waste and storing it outside in plastic bags, trailers or pickup trucks is
not acceptable. It is illegal to dump or bury solid waste on your own property or anywhere else. Solid
waste management is a polite term for garbage management. As long as humans have been living in
settled communities, solid waste, or garbage, has been an issue, and modern societies generate far more
solid waste than early humans ever did.
Municipal solid waste
 "Municipal solid waste" includes commercial and residential wastes generated in a
municipal or notified area in either solid or semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but
including treated bio-medical wastes.

How much waste is produced by a person per day?

Depending on the place a person lives, an individual produces a maximum of 300 to 500 grams waste
per day. It is around 150 gm to 300 gm per person per day in rural areas.

Sources and classification of solid waste

Hazardous wastes

Hazardous wastes may be defined as wastes of industrial, institutional or consumer origin which

because of their physical, chemical or biological characteristics are potentially dangerous to human

and the environment.

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

The functional elements that constitute the system are:

(i) Waste generation: Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at
every stage as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption. The source of
waste generation, as we touched upon earlier in Section 1.1, determines quantity,
composition and waste characteristics (see Unit 2 for details). For example, wastes are
generated from households, commercial areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning and
other municipal services. The most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the
identification of waste.

(ii) Waste storage: Storage is a key functional element because collection of wastes never
takes place at the source or at the time of their generation. The heterogeneous wastes
generated in residential areas must be removed within 8 days due to shortage of storage
space and presence of biodegradable material. Onsite storage is of primary importance due
to aesthetic consideration, public health and economics involved. Some of the options for
storage are plastic containers, conventional dustbins (of households), used oil drums, large
storage bins (for institutions and commercial areas or servicing depots), etc.

(iii) Waste collection: This includes gathering of wastes and hauling them to the location,
where the collection vehicle is emptied, which may be a transfer station (i.e., intermediate
station where wastes from smaller vehicles are transferred to larger ones and also
segregated), a processing plant or a disposal site. Collection depends on the number of
containers, frequency of collection, types of collection services and routes. Typically,
collection is provided under various management arrangements, ranging from municipal
services to franchised services, and under various forms of contracts.

(iv) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves: the transfer of wastes
from smaller collection vehicles, where necessary to overcome the problem of narrow
access lanes, to larger ones at transfer stations; the subsequent transport of the wastes,
usually over long distances, to disposal sites. The factors that contribute to the designing of
a transfer station include the type of transfer operation, capacity, equipment, accessories
and environmental requirements.

(v) Processing: Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical characteristics of
wastes for energy and resource recovery and recycling. The important processing
techniques include compaction, thermal volume reduction, manual separation of waste
components, incineration and composting

(vi) Recovery and recycling: This includes various techniques, equipment and facilities used
to improve both the efficiency of disposal system and recovery of usable material and
energy. Recovery involves the separation of valuable resources from the mixed solid
wastes, delivered at transfer stations or processing plants. It also involves size reduction
and density separation by air classifier, magnetic device for iron and screens for glass. The
selection of any recovery process is a function of economics, i.e., costs of separation versus
the recovered-material products. Certain recovered materials like glass, plastics, paper,
etc., can be recycled as they have economic value.

(vii) Waste disposal: Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they residential wastes,
semi-solid wastes from municipal and industrial treatment plants, incinerator residues,
 composts or other substances that have no further use to the society. Thus, land use
planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection, design and operation of landfill
operations. A modern sanitary landfill is a method of disposing solid waste without creating
a nuisance and hazard to public health. Generally, engineering principles are followed to
confine the wastes to the smallest possible area, reduce them to the lowest particle volume
by compaction at the site and cover them after each day’s operation to reduce exposure to
vermin. One of the most important functional elements of SWM, therefore, relates to the
final use of the reclaimed land.

Figure 1.1 Typical SWM System: Functional Elements

1.2.3 Factors affecting SWM system

Many factors influence the decision-making process in the implementation of a SWM system (Phelps,
et al., 1995). Some of the factors that need to be considered in developing a SWM system are listed
below:

(i) Quantities and characteristics of wastes: The quantities of wastes generated generally
depend on the income level of a family, as higher income category tends to generate larger
quantity of wastes, compared to low-income category. The quantity ranges from about 0.25
to about 2.3 kg per person per day, indicating a strong correlation between waste
production and per capita income. One of the measures of waste composition (and
characteristics) is density, which ranges from 150 kg/m3 to 600 kg/m3. Proportion of paper
and packaging materials in the waste largely account for the differences. When this
proportion is high, the density is low and vice versa. The wastes of high density reflect a
relatively high proportion of organic matter and moisture and lower levels of recycling.

(ii) Climate and seasonal variations: There are regions in extreme north (> 70 N Latitude) and
 south (> 60 S Latitude), where temperatures are very low for much of the year. In cold
climates, drifting snow and frozen ground interfere with landfill operations, and therefore,
trenches must be dug in summer and cover material stockpiled for winter use. Tropical
climates, on the other hand, are subject to sharp seasonal variations from wet to dry season,
which cause significant changes in the moisture content of solid waste, varying from less
than high temperatures and humidity cause solid wastes to decompose far more rapidly than
they do in colder climates. The frequency of waste collection in high temperature and humid
climates should, therefore, be higher than that in cold climates. In sub-tropical or desert
climate, there is no significant variation in moisture content of wastes (due to low rainfall) and
low production of leachate from sanitary landfill. High winds and wind blown sand and dust,
however, cause special problems at landfill sites. While temperature inversions can cause
airborne pollutants to be trapped near ground level, landfill sites can affect groundwater by
altering the thermal properties of the soil.

(iii) Physical characteristics of an urban area: In urban areas (i.e., towns and cities), where
the layout of streets and houses is such that access by vehicles is possible and door-to-
door collection of solid wastes is the accepted norm either by large compaction vehicle or
smaller vehicle. The picture is, however, quite different in the inner and older city areas
where narrow lanes make service by vehicles difficult and often impossible. Added to this is
the problem of urban sprawl in the outskirts (of the cities) where population is growing at an
alarming rate. Access ways are narrow, unpaved and tortuous, and therefore, not
accessible to collection vehicles. Problems of solid waste storage and collection are most
acute in such areas.

(iv) Financial and foreign exchange constraints: Solid waste management accounts for
sizeable proportions of the budgets of municipal corporations. This is allocated for capital
resources, which go towards the purchase of equipments, vehicles, and fuel and labour
costs. Typically, 10% to 40% of the revenues of municipalities are allocated to solid waste
management. In regions where wage rates are low, the aim is to optimise vehicle
productivity. The unfavourable financial situation of some countries hinders purchase of
equipment and vehicles, and this situation is further worsened by the acute shortage of
foreign exchange. This means that the balance between the degree of mechanisation and
the size of the labour force becomes a critical issue in arriving at the most cost-effective
solution.
(v) Cultural constraints: In some regions, long-standing traditions preclude the intrusion of
waste collection on the precincts of households, and therefore, influence the collection
system. In others, where the tradition of caste persists, recruits to the labour force for street
cleaning and handling of waste must be drawn from certain sections of the population, while
others will not consent to placing storage bins in their immediate vicinity. Social norms of a
community more often than not over-ride what many may consider rational solutions. Waste
management should, therefore, be sensitive to such local patterns of living and consider
these factors in planning, design and operation.
(vi) Management and technical resources: Solid waste management, to be successful,
requires a wide spectrum of workforce in keeping with the demands of the system. The best
system for a region is one which makes full use of indigenous crafts and professional skills
and/or ensures that training programmes are in place to provide a self-sustaining supply of
trained workforce.

1.3 SWM: THE INDIAN SCENARIO

The problem of municipal solid waste management has acquired alarming
dimensions in India especially over the last decade, before which waste management was hardly
considered an issue of concern as the waste could be easily disposed of in an environmentally safe
manner. However, with time, due to changing lifestyles of people coupled with unplanned
developmental activities, urbanisation and industrialisation, the waste quantity and characteristics have
changed, and as a result, managing solid wastes has become torturous .
The physical and chemical characteristics of Indian city refuse, nonetheless,
show that about 80% of it is compostable and ideal for biogas generation due to adequate nutrients
(NPK), moisture content of 50-55% and a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 25-40:1. Therefore, the
development of appropriate technologies for utilisation of wastes is essential to minimise adverse
health and environmental consequences.

Against this backdrop, let us discuss below the quantum of wastes generated in India, their
composition, disposal methods, recycling aspects, and health and environment impacts:

(i) Waste quantum: The per capita waste generation rate is about 500 g/day. This along with
increased population has contributed to higher total waste generation quantum, as shown in Table 1.3,
adding to the problems of municipalities:

Table 1.3
Waste Generation Per capita waste Total urban municipal waste
Statistics Year generated (g/day)  generated (Mt/year) 
1971 375 14.9
1981 430 25.1
1991 460 43.5
2000 500 48.8
2010 600 ~70.2

During the last decade, garbage was generated in India at nearly twice the rate of the population
growth. Estimates of the solid wastes generated in Indian towns
and cities (299 Class I cities with >100,000 in population and 345 Class II towns) range from 52,000
tonnes to 85,000 tonnes of city garbage every day (while Delhi alone produces 4500-5000 tonnes of
municipal solid waste per day). Out of this, only 2,832 tonnes get various types of treatment. In
addition, studies in 9 major metropolitan centres in India indicate that the quantum of wastes generated
ranges from 1000 tonnes per day in Patna to 5800 tonnes per day in Mumbai, out of which 80-85% is
collected, and the rest is left unattended.
Table 1.4 presents the details about the garbage generated and cleared, and the annual municipal
budget in nine major Indian cities:

Table 1.4
Urban Waste Situation in Garbage Garbage Annual
Nine Major Indian Cities Generated Cleared (Tonnes Municipal
Major Cities (Tonnes per Day) per Day) Budget
(Rs. in
crores)*
Delhi 3880 2420 1016.28
Kolkata 3500 3150 250.00
Mumbai 5800 5000 2436.00
Bangalore 2130 1800 237.00
Chennai 2675 2140 145.00
Lucknow 1500 1000 48.00
Patna 1000 300 15.00
Ahmedabad 1500 1200 270.00
 Surat 1250 1000 170.00

Source: Integrated Modeling of Solid Waste in India (March, 1999) CREED Working Paper Series no 26
* 1 crore = 10 million

(ii) Waste composition: Studies reveal that the percentage of the organic matter has remained almost
static at 41% in the past 3 decades, but the recyclables have increased from 9.56% to 17.18% as
shown in Table 1.5 below:

Table 1.5
Physico-chemical Characteristics of Municipal Percentage on wet weight basis
Solid Waste Component
1995 1971-73
(23 (450 cities)
cities)

Paper 4.14 5.78

Plastics 0.69 3.90
Metals 0.50 1.90
Glass 0.40 2.10
Rags 3.83 3.50
Ash and fine earth 49.20 40.30
Total compostable matter 41.24 41.80
Source: Integrated Modeling of Solid Waste in India (March, 1999) CREED Working Paper Series no 26 and CPCB, 1999. Status of Solid
Waste Generation, Collection and Disposal in Metropolis (cups/46,1999-2000)

Garbage in Indian cities is estimated to contain about 45-75% biodegradable waste (as against 25% of
US city-garbage) with 50-55% moisture; 35-45% being fruits, vegetable and food biomass; and 8-15%
non-organic materials like plastic, metal, glass, stones, etc.

Among various recyclables, plastics have had a quantum jump from 0.69% to 3.9%, i.e., more than a
five-fold increase within last twenty years. Plastics due to their unique properties of flexibility, high
impact strength, resistance to corrosion and rigidity have replaced valuable natural resources like wood
and metals, resulting in a ten-fold increase during the last decade. Of the current consumption of 1.9
million tonnes of plastics, 15% are from the packaging sector, as packaging materials reach the waste
bin as a post-consumer waste. Much of this does not have a recycling value, and hence its disposal
without any treatment.
Refuse from Indian cities also contains high organic and low combustible matter, if the studies carried
out in six cities are of any indication.

Table 1.6
Composition of Urban Paper Metals Glass Textiles Plastic* Ash Organics Others**
Solid Waste in Indian and
Cities (Percentage by
weight) City
Dust
Chennai 5.90 0.70 - 7.07 - 16.35 56.24 13.74
Delhi 5.88 0.59 0.31 3.56 1.46 22.95 57.71 7.52
Kolkata 0.14 0.66 0.24 0.28 1.54 33.58 46.58 16.98
Bangalore 1.50 0.10 0.20 3.10 0.90 12.00 75.00 7.20
Ahmedabad 5.15 0.80 0.93 4.08 0.69 29.01 48.95 10.39
Mumbai 3.20 0.13 0.52 3.26 - 15.45 59.37 18.07
Source: CPCB, 1999. Status of Solid Waste Generation, Collection and Disposal in Metropolis (cups/46,1999-2000)
 As a result, leachate containing heavy metals finds its way to the underground water, rendering it unfit
for drinking. The landfill gas escapes into the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse emissions, which
otherwise could be used as thermal fuel. Solid waste management can be an income generating
activity with cost benefits (the non-use of materials that would otherwise be required for the two
activities, e.g., in the case of power generation, the use of wastes instead of conventional fuels).
However, since the Indian city refuse has a low calorific value with high moisture content and quantity
of non-combustibles, it is not suitable for incineration, and currently none of the municipal corporations
in India runs a full-scale incineration plant. The potential for power generation from urban municipal
wastes is tremendous, estimated to generate up to 1000 MW of electricity.

(iii) Recycling: This involves collection of recyclables from various sources, which ultimately
reach recycling units. It is estimated that about 40-80% of plastic waste gets recycled in India, as
compared to 10-15% in the developed nations of the world. However, due to lack of suitable
government policies, incentives, subsidies, regulations, standards, etc., related to recycling, this
industry is still far behind its western counterparts in terms of technology and quality of
manufactured goods. Nevertheless, recycling in India is a highly organised and profit-making
venture, though informal in nature.

(iv) Health impacts: Due to the absence of standards and norms for handling municipal wastes, municipal
workers suffer occupational health hazards of waste handling. At the dumpsites in the city of Mumbai, for
example, 95 workers were examined and it was found that about 80% of them had eye problems, 73%
respiratory ailments, 51% gastrointestinal ailments and 27% skin lesions. Also, municipal workers and rag
pickers who operate informally for long hours rummaging through waste also suffer from similar
occupational health diseases ranging from respiratory illnesses (from ingesting particulates and bio-aerosols),
infections (direct contact with contaminated material), puncture wounds (leading to tetanus, hepatitis and
HIV infection) to headaches and nausea, etc. Studies among the 180 rag pickers at open dumps of Kolkata
city reveal that average quarterly incidence of diarrhoea was 85%, fever 72% and cough and cold 63%.

(v) Environmental impacts: In addition to occupational health, injury issues and environmental health
also need to be mentioned in the context of waste management. Contaminated leachate and surface
run-off from land disposal facilities affects ground and surface water quality. Volatile organic
compounds and dioxins in air-emissions are attributed to increasing cancer incidence and
psychological stress for those living near incinerators or land disposal facilities. Drain clogging due to
uncollected wastes leading to stagnant waters and subsequent mosquito vector breeding are a few of
the environmental health issues, which affect the waste workers as well as the public. The pneumonic
plague that broke out in November 1994 in India (Surat, Gujarat) is a typical example of solid waste
mismanagement.

WHAT IS INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT?

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is a comprehensive waste prevention, recycling,
composting, and disposal program. An effective ISWM system considers how to prevent, recycle, and
manage solid waste in ways that most effectively protect human health and the environment.  It
involves evaluating local needs and conditions, and then selecting and combining the most appropriate
waste management activities for those conditions. The major ISWM activities are waste prevention,
recycling and composting, and combustion and disposal in properly designed, constructed, and managed
landfills.
LEGAL FRAME WORK OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA.

National level rules and acts:

1.Environmental Protection Act1986

2.Municipal Solid Waste Rules 2000
3.Biomedical Waste Rules 1998.
4.Plastic Rules 1999
5.Environmental Impact Assessment Notification Of 2006
6.Harzardous Waste Rules 1989
7.Battery Rules 2001.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT BY CORPORATION OF CHENNAI

The CoC is undertaking MSWM for the seven zones (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9). The management of
solid waste as stated in schedule II of the MSWM & Handling Rules (MoEF, 2000) has listed
collection of MSW with emphasis on segregation at source and door to door collection. The
initiatives include the following.

a. Source Segregation – It is introduced with a view to setting aside of biodegradable and

recyclable materials from the waste stream before these are collected with the other MSW, to
facilitate reuse, recycling and composting. Initially source segregation was introduced in a few
zones by January 2004, and the facility was further extended to other zones. It was initiated with a
public awareness campaign on source segregation of MSW during 2003. Corporation workers, zonal
officers, revenue officers technical staff, teachers and school children were involved in this program.
Non Governmental Organisations (NGO’s) and members of local welfare associations (Civic
Exnora) started their own campaign and helped in distributing the pamphlets prepared by the CoC.
The awareness program comprised of public rallies, meetings, distribution of pamphlets, street plays
and advertisements..

b. Door to door collection – Door to door collection is introduced to replace the street bin

collection system with a view to reduce the environmental effects. Tricycles fitted with

bells were used for MSW collection from doorsteps. The scheme was introduced in

June 2003 and expanded throughout the city during January 2004.

c. Abolition of open storage – It is partially achieved by the removal of community bins

from the streets. The number of street bins were reduced from 14,000 to 1,300 during

November 2004. Due to the lack of financial resources, non co-operation of the

population and inaccessible area/narrow lanes it is difficult to achieve 100% abolition

of open storage.

d. Daily sweeping of the street –Corporation employees are engaged in sweeping the

streets at least once in a day using brooms, brushes, rotomould wheeled bins, wheel

barrow and long brooms. The major constraints in implementing daily street

sweepings are shortage of sanitary workers, public holidays and lack of financial

support.

e. Transportation in covered vehicles - CoC has initiated the transportation of MSW in

vehicles covered with fishnets to avoid spillage. Difficulties in using the covered

vehicles for transportations are financial resource, insufficient number of vehicles and

attitude of workers.
f. Wastes processing by energy recovery or composting - Ward level composting units

were introduced in 106 places to reduce the transportation cost of MSW and the

amount of waste reaching dumpsite. The segregated waste is collected and the organic

fraction is subjected to composting in ward level composting units, whereas the non-

recyclable fraction is transported to the dumpsites for disposal. There were proposals

to recover energy from the waste and composting of organic fractions in centralized

mechanical composting units. These projects are yet to be implemented.

g. Sanitary landfilling - According to Environmental Resource Management suggestions

(ERM 1996), the open dump sites are in operation for the past 20 years and their

lifetime is expected to last up to 2011, which can be extended to a further period by

upgrading the existing sites. Based on the recent investigations CoC has initiated the

upgradation process of Kodungaiyur dumpsite. The approach is a phase wise

conversion of open dumpsite into a sanitary landfill as per the recommendation of the

National Productivity Council (NPC, 2005). It is difficult to fulfill the requirements of all the above
aspects in developing countries like India, due to practical problems such as lack skilled personal for
MSWM, administrative difficulties and public coordination.
Waste Quantification and Characterization

Waste Quantification
As waste generation is a factor of population, lifestyles and level of urbanization, the quantification
process has been linked with population multiplied by the waste generation factor of the urban area.
The factor of waste generation in turn has been calculated by monitoring ‘total waste generation’ to the
population of the city at a given time (totalwaste generation/ population).Accordingly waste generation
factor between 0.2-0.6 kg/capita/day has been recommended for Indian cities.

Ascertain Sample Design Sample Waste

Idenitification of Size for Each Questionaire Quantification
Waste Generators Generator •Must contain factors Survey
Category releavent to waste •Waste Quantity from
•House Holds •Representative quantification such as units surveyed
•Commercial units Sample for each type size of family, etc •Waste Generation
•Institutions of generator Factor
•Markets
•Hotels and
Restaurants
•etc.

PRINCIPLES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Municipal Solid Waste Management involves the application of principle of Integrated Solid
Waste Management(ISWM) to municipal waste. ISWM is the application of suitable techniques,
technologies and management programs covering all types of solid wastes from all sources to
achieve the twin objectives of (a) waste reduction and (b) effective management of waste still
produced after waste reduction.

(a) Waste Reduction

It is now well recognised that sustainable development can only be achieved if society in
general, and industry in particular, produces ‘more with less’ i.e. more goods and services with less use
of the world’s resources (raw materials and energy) and less pollution and waste. Production as well as
product changes have been introduced in many countries, using internal recycling of materials or on-
site energy recovery, as part of solid waste minimisation schemes.

(b) Effective Management of Solid Waste

Effective solid management systems are needed to ensure better human health and
safety. They must be safe for workers and safeguard public health by preventing the spread of disease.
In addition to these prerequisites, an effective system of solid waste management must be both
environmentally and economically sustainable.
 •Environmentally sustainable: It must reduce, as much as possible, the environmental impacts
of waste management.
•Economically sustainable: It must operate at a cost acceptable to community.

Clearly it is difficult to minimise the two variables, cost and environmental

impact,simultaneously. There will always be a trade off . The balance that needs to be struck is to
reduce the overall environmental impacts of the waste management system as far as possible,
within an acceptable level of cost.
An economically and environmentally sustainable solid waste management system is effective
if it follows an integrated approach i.e. it deals with all types of solid waste materials and all
sources of solid waste .A multi-material, multi-source management approach is usually effective in
environmental and economic terms than a material specific and source specific approach. Specific
wastes should be dealt within such a system but in separate streams

An effective waste management system includes one or more of the following options:

(a)Waste collection and transportation.

(b)Resource recovery through sorting and recycling i.e. recovery of materials (such as paper, glass,
metals) etc. through separation.

(c)Resource recovery through waste processing i.e. recovery of materials (such as compost) or
recovery of energy through biological, thermal or other processes.

(d)Waste transformation (without recovery of resources) i.e. reduction of volume, toxicity or other
physical/chemical properties of waste to make it suitable for final disposal.

(e)Disposal on land i.e. environmentally safe and sustainable disposal in landfills

HIERARCHY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

Current thinking on the best methods to deal with waste is centered on a broadly accepted
‘hierarchy of waste management’ (arrangement in order of rank) which gives a priority listing of
the waste management options available. The hierarchy gives important general guidelines on the
relative desirability of the different management options. The hierarchy usually adopted is (a)
waste minimization/reduction at source ,
(b) recycling,
(c) waste processing (with Recovery of resources i.e. materials
(products) and energy),
(d) waste transformation (without recovery of resources) and
(e) disposal on land (land filling)
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling techniques use statistical methods to predict total waste stream quantity and
composition by analyzing small volumes. Each technique attempts to obtain a representative,
random sample of the waste stream. For full-scale characterization, the physical techniques
should be performed at least four times over the course of a year, to take into account seasonal
variation. Likewise, for each sampling point, care should be taken to ensure that results are not
skewed by seasonal events. For example, the week after Christmas, the percentage of paper from
wrapping is much higher than normal.

• QUARTERING TECHNIQUE:

This technique can be used to sample a truck load or a group of truck loads of waste. When
sampling a community, it is useful to choose a group of refuse trucks from various
neighborhoods. By sampling a representative grouping of trucks, the community as a whole can
be characterized better. For each truck, unload an agreed upon quantity of waste in a cleared
area at the disposal site or transfer station. Mix the various collections of waste thoroughly with a
front end loader. Rake the sample into quarters and mix again thoroughly. Continue quartering
the sample and mixing until a representative sample weighing greater than 200 pounds is
generated. The sample should then be weighed and separated into its components. Each
recyclable category should be weighed and compared with the total.

QUATERTRING QUATERING THE QUATER

SOLIDWASTE
 • BLOCK TECHNIQUE:

The block technique can be used instead of the quartering technique when mixing a group of
samples might be difficult. Using this technique, the load samples of refuse are dumped in a clear
area, but rather than mixing the loads, the sampling team chooses what it deems to be a
representative sample from the loads. The representative sample is then separated and
characterized. The accuracy of this technique is highly dependent on the ability of the sampling
team to define a representative sample.

• GRID TECHNIQUE:
In this technique, the floor of a transfer station or a cleared area of a landfill is divided into
equal size squares, with each square assigned a number and letter code for identification. Waste
is unloaded onto the grid and mixed with approximately equal quantities of waste placed in each
square. Waste characteristics are then determined for a set number of grid squares and
compared with the weight or volume of the entire load.

A 1B

GRID

Waste stream assessment (WSA)

Waste stream assessment (WSA) is a means to determine the basic aspects of quantity (i.e., the
amount of waste generated in the community, both in terms of weight and volume), composition
(i.e., the different components of waste stream) and sources of wastes. The information relating
to these basic aspects of wastes is vital for making decisions about the SWM system, finance and
regulations. Put differently, an assessment of waste stream is essential in the analyses of short
 and long term problems within the local waste management system. It also helps in targeting
waste management activities and setting goals for different elements of a waste management
plan.

WASTE CHARACTERISTICS

In order to identify the exact characteristics of municipal wastes, it is necessary that we

analyse them using physical and chemical are important for the selection and operation of
equipment and for the analysis and design of disposal facilities.
The required information and data include the following:

(i)Density:

Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a critical factor in the design of a
SWM system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection and transport
vehicles, etc. To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill demands compaction of wastes to
optimum density. Any normal compaction equipment can achieve reduction in volume of wastes
by 75%, which increases an initial density of 100 kg/m3to 400 kg/m3
. In other words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four times the weight of waste in its
compacted state than when it is uncompacted. A high initial density of waste precludes the
achievement of a high compaction ratio and the compaction ratio achieved is no greater than
1.5:1. Significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste moves from source to
disposal, due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by the weather, vibration in the
collection vehicle and decomposition.

Note that:the effect of increasing the moisture content of the waste is detrimental in the sense that
dry density decreases at higher moisture levels;soil-cover plays an important role in containing
the waste; there is an upper limit to the density, and the conservative estimate of in-place density
for waste in a sanitary landfill is about 600 kg/m3.

(ii) Moisture content:

Moisturecontent is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet weight -dry weight) to the
total weight of the wet waste. Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes, and thereby, the cost
of collection and transport. In addition, moisture content is a critical determinant in the
economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration, because wet waste consumes energy for
evaporation of water and in raising the temperature of water vapour. In the main, wastes should
be insulated from rainfall or other extraneous water. We can calculate the moisture percentage,
using the formula given below:
Moisturecontent(%)=Wetweight-Dryweight/Wetweightx100

A typical range of moisture content is 20 to 40%, representing the extremes of wastes in an arid
climate and in the wet season of a region of high precipitation. However, values greater than 40%
are not uncommon.

(iii)Size:
 Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste stream is important because of its
significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredders. Generally,the results of size
distribution analysis are expressed in the manner used for soil particle analysis. That is to say,
they are expressed as a plot of particle size (mm) against percentage, less than a given value.The
physical properties that are essential to analyse wastes disposed at landfills are:

(iv) Field capacity:

The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture which can be retained in a waste
sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical measure because water in excess of field
capacity will form leachate, and leachate can be a major problem in landfills. Field capacity varies
with the degree of applied pressure and the state of decomposition of the wastes

(v) Permeability of compacted wastes:

The hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes is an important physical property because it
governs the movement of liquids and gases in a landfill. Permeability depends on the other
properties of the solid material include pore size distribution,surface area and porosity.Porosity:
It represents the amount of voids per unit overall volume of material .The porosity of MSW
varies typically from 0.40 to 0.67 depending on the compaction and composition of the waste
.
Porosity of solid waste n= e/ (1+e) Where e is void ratio of solid waste
(vi). Compressibility of MSW:
Degreeof physical changes of the suspended solids or filter cake when subjected to pressure.

ΔHT =ΔHi +ΔHc +ΔHα

[ΔHT= total settlement; ΔHi=immediate settlement; ΔHc = consolidation settlement; ΔHα=
secondary compression or creep.]

C’α = ΔH/ [H0 X (Log (t2/t1))] = Cα/ (1+e0)

[Cα, C’α= Secondary compression index and Modified secondary Compression index; and t1,
t2=Starting and ending time of secondary settlement respectively.

Chemical characteristics
Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds and their characteristics is
essential for the proper understanding of the behaviour of waste, as it moves through the
waste management system. The products of decomposition and heating values are two
examples of chemical characteristics. If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, or are used for any
other purpose, we must know their chemical characteristics, including the following:
(i)Lipids:
This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease, and the principal sources of lipids are
garbage, cooking oils and fats. Lipids have high heating values, about 38,000 kJ/kg (kilojoules per
kilogram), which makes waste with high lipid content suitable for energy recovery. Since lipids
become liquid at temperatures slightly above ambient, they add to the liquid content during
waste decomposition. Though they are biodegradable, the rate of biodegradation is relatively
slow because lipids have a low solubility in water.

(ii)Carbohydrates:
 These are found primarily in food and yard wastes, which encompass sugar and polymer of
sugars (e.g., starch, cellulose, etc.) with general formula (CH2O)x. Carbohydrates are readily
biodegraded to products such as carbon dioxide, water and methane. Decomposing
carbohydrates attract flies and rats, and therefore, should not be left exposed for long duration.
(iii)Proteins:
These are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and consist of an
organic acid with a substituted amine group (NH2). They are mainly found in food and garden
wastes. The partial decomposition of these compounds can result in the production of amines
that have unpleasant odours.

(iv)Natural fibres:
These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes and include the natural compounds,
cellulose and lignin, that are resistant to biodegradation. (Note that paper is almost 100%
cellulose, cotton over 95% and wood products over 40%.) Because they are a highly combustible
solid waste, having a high proportion of paper and wood products, they are suitable for
incineration. Calorific values of oven-dried paper products are in the range of 12,000 -18,000
kJ/kg and of wood about 20,000 kJ/kg, i.e., about half that for fuel oil, which is 44,200 kJ/kg.
(v)Synthetic organic material (Plastics):
Accounting for 1 –10%, plastics have become a significant component of solid waste in recent years.
They are highly resistant to biodegradation and, therefore, are objectionable and of special
concern in SWM. Hence the increasing attention being paid to the recycling of plastics to reduce
the proportion of this waste component at disposal sites. Plastics have a high heating value,
about 32,000 kJ/kg, which makes them very suitable for incineration. But, you must note that
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), when burnt, produces dioxin and acid gas. The latter increases
corrosion in the combustion system and is responsible for acid rain.
(vi)Non-combustibles:
This class includes glass, ceramics, metals, dust and ashes, and accounts for 12 –25% of dry solids.
(vii)Heating value:
An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for incineration requires a
determination of its heating value, expressed as kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg). The heating
value is determined experimentally using the Bomb calorimeter test, in which the heat
generated, at a constant temperature of 25C from the combustion of a dry sample is measured.
Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water (100C), the combustion water
remains in the liquid state. However, during combustion, the temperature of the combustion
gases reaches above 100C, and the resultant water is in the vapour form.

viii)Ultimate analysis:
This refers to an analysis of waste to determine the proportion of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, and the analysis is done to make mass balance calculation for a
chemical or thermal process. Besides, it is necessary to determine ash fraction because of its
potentially harmful environmental effects, brought about by the presence of toxic metals
such as cadmium, chromium, mercury, nickel, lead, tin and zinc. Note that other metals (e.g.,
iron, magnesium, etc.) may also be present but they are non-toxic.
 Municipal Solid Waste: A Typical Ultimate Analysis

E ELEMENT Range (%dry weight)

C CARBON 25-30

H HYDROGEN 2.5-6.0

 OXYGEN 15-30

Ni NITROGEN 0.25-1.2

S SULPHUR 0.02-0.12

A ASH 12-30

ix) Proximate analysis:

This is important in evaluating the combustion properties of wastes or a waste or

refuse derived fuel. The fractions of interest are: moisture content, which adds weight to
the waste without increasing its heating value, and the evaporation of water reduces the
heat released from the fuel; ash, which adds weight without generating any heat during
combustion; volatile matter, i.e., that portion of the waste that is converted to gases
before and during combustion; fixed carbon, which represents the carbon remaining on
the surface grates as charcoal. A waste or fuel with a high proportion of fixed carbon
requires a longer retention time on the furnace grates to achieve complete combustion
than a waste or fuel with a low proportion of fixed carbon

Public Awareness and education for SWM

Raising awareness about municipal solid waste management is an essential component of effective waste
management. It is important for key stakeholders to be aware of a city’s waste management activities
and have a strong understanding of the benefits of proper solid waste management. Although, many
challenges arise when raising awareness about solid waste management, a variety of communication
techniques can be used to address them.
Raising awareness about a city’s municipal solid waste management activities and the benefits of proper
solid waste management can result in increases in:

 Use of city waste collection services by the public and private sectors.
 Funding for waste management from local elected officials.
 Adoption and enforcement of local waste management policies.
 Support for local-level activities from national or provincial governments.
 Public participation in awareness programs which results in segregation at point source and
reduction of waste.

Each of these outcomes can contribute to waste management authority’s efforts to reduce the impacts of
waste management on health, economy, environment, and society.

Challenges to Raising Awareness about Solid Waste

There are many barriers to raising awareness about a city’s waste management activities and the benefits
for proper solid waste management. These barriers, which vary by stakeholder type, include:

 Lack of funds and capacity.

 Embedded cultural practices, behavioral norms, and beliefs (e.g., the belief that waste has no
value, which is a challenge for effective source separation and recycling programs).
 Lack of familiarity with the economic opportunities associated with waste management.
 Capacity limitations of waste management agencies (e.g., lack of technical and financial resources
for outreach).
 Unsupportive legal and regulatory frameworks.
 Lack of time or interest from key stakeholders.
 Public awareness about environment is meant to help social groups and individuals to acquire a
basic understanding of environment and its associated problems. Educationists and environmental
specialists have repeatedly pointed out that any solution to the environmental crisis will require
environmental awareness and understanding to be deeply rooted in the education system at all
levels.
 (a) Environmental awareness at primary school level to impart elementary knowledge about
environmental issues and problems.
  (b) Relevance of real-life situations of environment at secondary school level for understanding of
environmental problems.
 (c) Management of natural resources at senior secondary school level to develop skills to tackle the
management problems of natural resources.
 (d) Environmental issues and sustainable development at college and university levels for
experimentation and solution to environmental problems and methods for conservation of natural
resources.

PUBLIC AWARENESS METHODS

Environmental Awareness through Adult Education:

 The aim of adult education should be to create a collective action in solving the environmental
problems. The new types of complex environmental problems require understanding and hence a
new approach to adult education. A new approach should be relevant with regard to being able to
fulfill established environmental objectives. For effective adult education, functionaries have to
build rapport with the support organizations.

They require to do the following:

 (i) Build capacities in technical, social and institutional aspects of environmental management in
village.
 (ii) Reorient teachers and instructors with regard to natural resources management.
 (iii) Find ways to sustain people’s interest on environmental issues and identify systems for
conveying knowledge and skill.
 (iv) Educating people for environment presupposes a policy for environmental training. This
policy should be comprehensively covering a number of elements.

These may include:

(a) Identifying training objectives;

(b) Determining environmental training practices;

(c) Matching training programmes to local demand for environmental knowledge and skills;
(d) Identifying the best modes and methods of training; and

(e) Ensuring the financing of training activities.

(v) The participation of rural women in environmental awareness programmes is very essential. The
reason being, she spends a great part of her life in arranging fuel, fodder, water for her family, and
actively involved in sustainable use of common resources. Thus, women’s involvement in decision
making, especially for natural resources management and development activities should constitute an
essential case for building a solid framework for environmental awareness programmes.

For general information, following may form the subject contents for educating adults to
become environmentally literate:

(1) Every house in the village should have a soak pit and water should not be allowed to spread in
front of the houses.

(2) The water of wells, ponds and rivers should not be polluted by bathing animals or dumping
garbage in them.

(3) Environmental issues may be linked with health, explaining things like stagnant water breeds
mosquitoes for malaria etc.

(4) Water conservation techniques should be taught.

(5) Tree plantation should be encouraged in and around villages.

(6) Pesticides and fertilizers should be used in appropriate quantities to avoid their bad effects on the
soil.

(7) Bio-gas plant should be encouraged to minimise the use of wood fuel.

(8) Solar energy should be encouraged for light and cooking purposes.

(9) The flourmills, brick kilns or other small-scale industries should be established away from
residential areas to avoid noise and air pollution.

(10) Training in handling of waste materials and methods of recycling should be taught.
(11) Lessons on environmental hazards and disaster should be taught.

There is an urgent need to safeguard the environment to save the future generation. It requires
understanding the immediate and real needs of UDCs by initiating a local process through adult
education programmes. It means environmental awareness by promoting low-cost resources
conservation, regeneration of eco-system of villages and stimulation of environmentally sound
surroundings.

Environment Awareness through Mass-Media:

 Mass-media can play a vital role in creating peoples’ awareness about environment and
conservation of natural resources. It can serve this purpose by means of its multi-channel regional
and network service comprising programmes such as talks, interviews, plays and documentaries
etc.
 The electronic media can identify and bring to a halt forces affecting the natural and even the man-
made environment. It matters much how the public mind can be mobilized to reduce pollution and
promote environmental quality.
 For instance, the prevention of wastage of oil, gas, coal and other sources of energy is not the
solitary goal. The goal should be to focus certain relative aspects leading to environmental
protection through conservation emphasizing the protection of good earth. What we need is
canvassing different methodologies of oil conservation since the electronic media are a potential
mobilizer of public opinion. It is genuinely expected that the twin media play quite a significant
role in influencing mass-awareness against the excessive use of energy.
 Media research and media planning in the field of environmental protection and conservation of
natural resources can be accelerated keeping in view the attitude of the people. These could steer
campaign objectives, measure the effectiveness of advertising campaign, provide the information
most relevant to the efficient use of media and transmit programmes on conservation of resources
and maintenance of environmental quality.

Establishment of Eco-Clubs:

 National Green Corps, a movement of eco-friendly children, has been spreading awareness about
environmental protection among children. Under this programme, more than 70,000 eco-clubs are
setup all over India covering about 150 schools district wise. Young students not only learn about
environment but participate in field activities in and around their schools.
Establishment of Greenbelts:

 Under this programme, tree plantation is done along public utilities such as roads, railways, canals
and private housing complexes, especially in July under the Van Mahotsava programme (mass tree
plantation festival) in India.

Campaign through State Transport:

Under this programme, state transport department propagates the environment awareness
message through slogans and pictures displayed in their buses
 TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

UNIT-1
1.What are the types of solid waste ?(2013)
2. Define Municipal Solid Waste.(Nov2009)
3. What is garbage and trash?(nov 2013)
4.What are the sources of solid waste?
5.What are Hazardous wastes? (nov 2012)
6.Classification of solid waste based on their types. (NOV2014)
7.Give the composition of Municipal solid waste. (april 2009,2011,NOV2014)
8.What are the factors affecting the generation of solid waste? (nov 2013,june2014)
9.What are the various methods of sampling? (may 2006)
10.Write the functional elements of MSW Management (may2006,2010)
11.What are the 4’R’s in waste hierarchy?
12.What are the physical charachteristics of MSW ?(JUNE2014)
13.What are the improper methods of solid waste disposal?(2013)
14.how to quantify the solid waste?
15.define proximate and ultimate analysis.
16.what is WSA?

PART-B
1. Enumerate in detail the sampling techniques for characterization of solid waste.
(nov2013,NOV2014)
2. Explain the environmental legislations acts on management and handling of solid waste in detail.
(2013,june2014)
3. Enumerate the methods to determine the generation rates of solid waste and explain the factors
affecting the generation rate.(nov2012,2013).
4.Describe the effects and improper disposal of solid waste on human health and environment
(2012).
5.explain the various sources & types of solid wastes in detail (2013,april2011,june2014)
6.enumerate the classification of solid waste based on its composition and charachteristics
(2010,2013).
7.Describe the functional elements of an effective solid waste management(nov2014)