Exercises 297

interval estimation of m1  m2 randomization

sample size and statistical significance experimental control
effect size statistical inferences vs.
explained variance nonstatistical generalizations

Symbols
X 1, X 2 n1, n2 s21 , s22 m X 1 X 2 s X 1 X 2 s X 1 X 2
2
s2pooled t df d ô

Questions and Problems

Note: Answers to starred (*) items are presented in Appendix B.

*1. Translate each of the following into words, and then express each in symbols in terms
of a difference between means relative to zero:
(a) mA > mB
(b) mA < mB
(c) mA ¼ mB
(d) mA 6¼ mB

2. A graduate student wishes to compare the high school grade-point averages (GPAs) of
males and females. He identifies 50 brother/sister pairs, obtains the GPA for each in-
dividual, and proceeds to test H0: mmales  mfemales ¼ 0. Are the methods discussed in
this chapter appropriate for such a test? (Explain.)

*3. Consider two large populations of observations, A and B. Suppose you have unlimited
time and resources.
(a) Describe how, through a series of sampling experiments, you could construct a fairly
accurate picture of the sampling distribution of X A  X B for samples of size nA ¼ 5
and nB ¼ 5.
(b) Describe how the results used to construct the sampling distribution could be
used to obtain an estimate of s X A X B .
4. Assume H0: m1  m2 ¼ 0 is true. What are the three defining characteristics of the sam-
pling distribution of differences between means?

*5. The following results are for two samples, one from Population 1 and the other from
Population 2:
from Population 1 : 3; 5; 7; 5
from Population 2 : 8; 9; 6; 5; 12

(a) Compute SS1 and SS2.

(b) Using the results from Problem 5a, compute the pooled variance estimate.
(c) Using the result from Problem 5b, obtain s X 1 X 2 .
(d) Test H0: m1  m2 ¼ 0 against H1: m1  m2 < 0 (a ¼ :05).
(e) Draw final conclusions.
298 Chapter 14 Comparing the Means of Two Populations: Independent Samples

*6. From the data given in Problem 5:

(a) Compute and interpret the effect size, d; evaluate its magnitude in terms of
Cohen’s criteria and in terms of the normal curve.
(b) Calculate and interpret the effect size, ô2 :
*7. For each of the following cases, give the critical value(s) of t:
(a) H1: m1  m2 > 0, n1 ¼ 6, n2 ¼ 12, a ¼ :05
(b) H1: m1  m2 6¼ 0, n1 ¼ 12, n2 ¼ 14, a ¼ :01
(c) H1: m1  m2 < 0, n1 ¼ 14, n2 ¼ 16, a ¼ :05
(d) H1: m1  m2 6¼ 0, n1 ¼ 19, n2 ¼ 18, a ¼ :01
8. Does familiarity with an assessment increase test scores? You hypothesize that it does.
You identify 11 fifth-grade students to take a writing assessment that they had not ex-
perienced before. Six of these students are selected at random and, before taking the
assessment, are provided with a general overview of its rationale, length, question for-
mat, and so on. The remaining five students are not given this overview. The following
are the scores (number of points) for students in each group:
overview provided : 20; 18; 14; 22; 16; 16
no overview provided : 11; 15; 16; 13; 9

(a) Set up H0 and H1.

(b) Perform the test (a ¼ :01).
(c) Draw your final conclusions.

9. An educational psychologist is interested in knowing whether the experience of attend-

ing preschool is related to subsequent sociability. She identifies two groups of first grad-
ers: those who had attended preschool and those who had not. Then each child is
assigned a sociability score on the basis of observations made in the classroom and on
the playground. The following sociability results are obtained:

Attended Preschool Did Not Attend Preschool

n1 ¼ 12; SX1 ¼ 204; SS1 ¼ 192 n2 ¼ 16; SX2 ¼ 248; SS2 ¼ 154

(a) Set up the appropriate statistical hypotheses.

(b) Perform the test (a ¼ :05).
(c) Draw final conclusions.

*10. You are investigating the possible differences between eighth-grade boys and girls
regarding their perceptions of the usefulness and relevance of science for the roles they
see themselves assuming as adults. Your research hypothesis is that boys hold more posi-
tive perceptions in this regard. Using an appropriate instrument, you obtain the following
results (higher scores reflect more positive perceptions):

Male Female

n1 ¼ 26; X 1 ¼ 65:0; s1 ¼ 10:2 n2 ¼ 24; X 2 ¼ 57:5; s2 ¼ 9:7

 Exercises 299

(a) Set up the appropriate statistical hypotheses.

(b) Perform the test (a ¼ :05).
(c) Draw final conclusions.

11. From the data given in Problem 10:

(a) Compute and interpret the effect size, d; evaluate its magnitude in terms of Cohen’s
criteria and in terms of the normal curve.
(b) Calculate and interpret the effect size, ô2 .
12. Parametric statistical tests are tests that are based on one or more assumptions about
the nature of the populations from which the samples are selected. What assumptions
are required in the t test of H0: m1  m2 ¼ 0?

*13. You read the following in a popular magazine: \A group of college women scored signi-
ficantly higher, on average, than a group of college men on a test of emotional intelli-
gence." (Limit your answers to statistical matters covered in this chapter.)
(a) How is the statistically unsophisticated person likely to interpret this statement
(particularly the italicized phrase)?
(b) What does this statement really mean?
(c) Is it possible that the difference between the average woman and the average
man was in fact quite small? If so, how could a significant difference be observed?
(d) What additional statistical information would you want in order to evaluate the
actual difference between these women and men?
*14. A high school social studies teacher decides to conduct action research in her classroom
by investigating the effects of immediate testing on memory. She randomly divides her
class into two groups. Group 1 studies a short essay for 20 minutes, whereas Group 2
studies the essay for 20 minutes and immediately following takes a 10-minute test on the
essay. The results below are from a final exam on the essay, taken one month later:

Group 1 (Studied Only) Group 2 (Studied and Tested)

n1 ¼ 15; SX1 ¼ 300; SS1 ¼ 171 n2 ¼ 15; SX2 ¼ 330; SS2 ¼ 192

(a) Set up the appropriate statistical hypotheses.

(b) Perform the test (a ¼ :05).
(c) Draw final conclusions.
**15.
15. (a) Suppose you constructed a 95% confidence interval for m1  m2 , given the data in
Problem 14. What one value do you already know will reside in that interval?
(Explain.)
(b) Now construct a 95% confidence interval for m1  m2 , given the data in Problem 14.
Any surprises?
(c) Without performing any calculations, comment on whether a 99% confidence inter-
val estimated from the same data would include zero.
(d) Now construct a 99% confidence interval for m1  m2 , given the data in Problem 14.
Any surprises?
300 Chapter 14 Comparing the Means of Two Populations: Independent Samples

16. The director of Academic Support Services wants to test the efficacy of a possible inter-
vention for undergraduate students who are placed on academic probation. She randomly
assigns 28 such students to two groups. During the first week of the semester, students in
Group 1 receive daily instruction on specific strategies for learning and studying. Group 2
students spend the same time engaged in general discussion about the importance of
doing well in college and the support services that are available on campus. At the end of
the semester, the director determines the mean GPA for each group:

Group 1 (Strategy Instruction) Group 2 (General Discussion)

n1 ¼ 14; X 1 ¼ 2:83; s1 ¼ :41 n2 ¼ 14; X 2 ¼ 2:26; s2 ¼ :39

(a) Set up the appropriate statistical hypotheses.

(b) Perform the test (a ¼ :05).
(c) Draw final conclusions.
17. From the data given in Problem 16:
(a) Compute and interpret the effect size, d; evaluate its magnitude in terms of Cohen’s
criteria and in terms of the normal curve.
(b) Calculate and interpret the effect size, ô2 .

18. Compare the investigation described in Problem 9 with that in Problem 14. Suppose a
significant difference had been found in both—in favor of the children who attended
preschool in Problem 9 and in favor of Group 2 in Problem 14.
(a) For which investigation would it be easier to clarify the relationship between
cause and effect? (Explain.)
(b) What are some other possible explanations—other than whether a child attended
preschool—for a significant difference in sociability in Problem 9?
*19. Examine Problems 8, 9, 10, 14, and 16. In which would it be easiest to clarify causal
relationships? (Explain.)

20. Is randomization the same as random sampling? (Explain.)

21. Suppose the following statement were made on the basis of the significant difference re-
ported in Problem 13: \Statistics show that women are higher in emotional intelligence
than men."
(a) Is the statement a statistical or nonstatistical inference? (Explain.)
(b) Describe some of the limits to any statistical inferences based on the study.