DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

2 Marks

1. Define packet switching?

A packet switch is a device with several inputs and outputs leading to and from the hosts
that the switch interconnects.

2. What is a virtual circuit?

A logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers. The connection is
made after both computers do handshaking. After the connection, all packets follow the same
route and arrive in sequence.

3. What are data grams?

In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently from all others. Even when
one packet represents just a place of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it although it
existed alone. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagram.

4. What is meant by switched virtual circuit?

Switched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial-up line in circuit
switching. In this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed and exits only for the
duration of specific exchange.

5. What is meant by Permanent virtual circuit?

Permanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching. In this
method, the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a continuous basis. The circuit
is dedicated to the specific uses.

6. What are the properties in star topology?

 Even though a switch has a fixed number of inputs and outputs, which limits the
number of hosts that can be connected to a single switch , large networks can be
built by interconnecting a number of switches.
 We can connect switches to each other and to hosts using point-to point links,
which typically means that we can build networks of large geographic scope.

7. What is VCI? (Nov 2016)

A Virtual Circuit Identifier that uniquely identifies the connection at this switch, and
which will be carried inside the header of the packets that belongs to this connection

8. What is hop-by-hop flow control?

Each node is ensured of having the buffers it needs to queue the packets that arrive on
that circuit. This basic strategy is usually called hop-by-hop flow control.

9. Define Reliable flooding?

It is the process of making sure that all the nodes participating in the routing protocol get
a copy of the link state information from all the other nodes.

10. What are the different types of AS?

 Stub AS
 Multi homed AS

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 Transit AS

11. Compare circuit switching and virtual circuit based packet Switching, in respect of
queuing and forwarding delays. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
Circuit Switching
 In circuit switching dedicated communication path is available between two stations.
 It is easier to double the capacity of a packet switched network than a circuit network.
 A circuit network is heavily dependent on the number of channel available.
Packet switching
 More security
 Bandwidth used to full potential
 Devices of different speeds can communicate
 Not affected by line failure(redirects signal)

12. Differentiate between connection less operation and connection oriented operation.
(MAY/JUNE 2013)
Connection-oriented communication includes the steps of setting up a call from one computer
to another, transmitting/receiving data, and then releasing the call, just like a voice phone call.  

Connectionless communication is just packet switching where no call establishment and release

occur.  A message is broken into packets, and each packet is transferred separately.

13. What are the different routing techniques available to manage routing table entries?
1. Next hop routing.
2. Network specific routing
3. Host specific routing
4. Default routing

14. What is meant by router?

Router is network node connected to two or more networks that forwards packets from
one network to another.

15. Give the types of routing table?

There are two types of routing table. They are,
Static routing table: The entries are created or update manually by an administrator.
Dynamic routing table: The entries are updated automatically by dynamic routing protocols
such as RIP, OSPF or BGP.

16. Define routing protocol.

Routing protocols is defined as “a combination of rules and procedures, which allows
routers to share whatever they know about the internet or their neighborhood. It also includes
procedures for combining information received from other routers”.

17. Mention the types of routing protocol.

There are two basic categories of routing. They are,
 Intradomain routing, and Interdomain routing

18.Distinguish between Intradomain and Interdomain routing protocol.

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S.no Intradomain Routing Interdomain Routing

1. It is defined as routing inside an AS. It is defined as routing between AS.

2. It is classified as, The path vector is of type interdomain.
1.Distance Vector,
2.Link State
3. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is an
Is an implementation of the distance vector implementation of the path vector protocol.
protocol and OSPF(Open shortest path first)
is an implementation of link state protocol.

19. Define AS.

A group of networks and routers under the authority of single administration is called as
Autonomous System (AS).

20. Define RIP (or) Express the purpose of RIP?

Routing information protocol (RIP) is a simple protocol intradomain routing protocol
used inside and Autonomous System(AS) based distance vector routing algorithm, in which each
router shares, at regular intervals, its knowledge about the entire AS with its neighbors.

21. Mention the advantages of RIP over OSPF.

(i)RIP for IP is easy to implement. In its simplest default configuration, RIP for IP is as
easy as configuring IP addresses and subnet masks for each router interface and then turning on
the router.
(ii)RIP for IP has a large installed base consisting of small and medium-sized IP
internetworks that do not wish to bear the design and configuration burden of OSPF.

22. What is Link state routing (LSR)?

It is a lowest-cost algorithm used in routing. The information on directly connected
neighbors and current link costs are flooded to all routers; each router uses this information to
build a view of the network which is the base to make forwarding decisions.

23. What do you meant by flooding?

Flooding means that a router sends all its link-state information about in neighbors, then
the neighbors forward this information to in neighbors and so on. Thereby, every router receives
the copy of the same information. This process continues until the information has reached all
the nodes in the network.

24. Elaborate OSPF.

Open shortest path first (OSPF) is protocol widely used for intra-AS routing in the
internet. It is the popular intradomain routing protocol based on link state routing that uses
flooding of link-state information and a Dijkstra least-cost path algorithm.

25. Mention the advantages of OSPF.

OSPF has the following advantages
(i) Authentication

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(ii) Support for hierarchy within a single routing domain
(iii) Multiple same-cost paths and
(iv) Integrated support for unicast and multicast routing.

26. Compare distance vector routing with link state routing.

S.No Distance vector routing(DVR) Link state routing(LSR)

.
1. In DVR, each router periodically shares its In LSR, each router shares its
knowledge about the entire network with its knowledge of its neighborhood with
neighbours. all routers in the internetwork.

2. The three important keys are, The three important keys are,
->Knowledge about the whole network. ->Knowledge about the
->Routing only to neighbors neighborhood.
->Information sharing at regular intervals. ->Routing to all routers
->Information sharing when there is
a change.

27. Define the term latency.

The term latency is a measure of how long a single bit takes to propagate from one end of
a link or channel to the other. It is measured strictly in terms of time.

28. Define switches.

Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more
devices linked to the switch.

29. Give the comparison between router and switch.

S.No. Parameter Router Switch

1. Layer Network layer(Layer 3 Data link layer. Network switches
devices) operates at layer 2 of the OSI model.
2. Data transmission Packet Frame(L2 switch)
Packet(L3 switch)
3. Transmission mode Full duplex Full duplex
4. Used in LAN,WAN LAN
5. Speed 1-10 Mbps 10/100 Mbps, 1Gbps
100 Mbps(wired)
6. Used for Connecting two or more Connecting two or more nodes in the
networks same network or different network
7. Address used Uses IP address Used MAC address.

30. A switch can process 2 million packets each second and each packet contains average of
64 bytes, then find out the throughput of the switch.
Solution:
Packet per second(pps)=2million packets=2x10^6
Throughput = pps x (bits per packet)
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= 2 x 10^6 x 64 x 8
= 1024 x 10^6
= 1 Gbps

31. A 640-Gbps switch can handle a steady stream of 64-byte packets then what is pps rate?
Solution:
Packet per second (pps) rate =Through put
Bits per packet
= 640 x 10^9
64 x 8

= 10 x 10^9
8
= 1.25 x 10^9 pps

32. Define an area.

The link-state routing protocols such as OSPF amd IS-IS can be used to partition a
routing domain(AS) into subdomains called areas, to improve scalability, which is a set of
adjacent routers that administratively configured to exchange full routing information with each
other.
33. Define BGP. (NOV/DEC 2014)
The Border Gateway Protocol(BGP) is an interdomain routing protocol based on path
vector routing by which different autonomous system (ASs) exchange reachability information.

34. Mention the names of two interdomain routing protocols.

There have been two major interdomain routing protocols in the history of the Internet.
(i) Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) and
(ii) Border Gateway Protocol(BGP).

35. What is EGP? Mention its drawbacks.

Exterior gateway protocol (EGP) is an interdomain routing protocol of the internet, which
was used by exterior gateway (routers) of autonomous systems to exchange routing information
with other autonomous systems, which had a number of limitations.
EGP was designed when the Internet had a tree like topology, and did not allow for the
topology to become more general and autonomous systems are connected only as parents and
children and not a peers. The replacement for EGP is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

36. Define an IGP.

Interior Gateway Protocol(IGP) is a routing protocol used to exchange routing
information among routers within a single autonomous system.

37. Write the functions of BGP.

BGP provides each AS:
(i) Obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring Ass
(ii) Propagate the reachability information to all routers internal to the AS.
(iii) Determine “good” routes to subnets based on the reachability information and on AS
policy.

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38. Mention the drawbacks of IPV4.
(i) Its provides a very limited number if host and network addresses. For example, if an
organization chooses class C only 256 IP addresses are available to it, it’s a very little number.

(ii) Since the IP address is 32 bits long, the space of the IP address will be exhausted soon. This
space growth won’t match with the user’s growth in the internet.

(iii) The IPv4 doesn’t provide real-time audio and video support, which is needed by the modern
internet applications.

39. List the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4.

The advantages of Next generation IP or IPv6 over IPv4 are,
(i) Larger address space
(ii) Better header format
(iii) New options
(iv) Support for real-time services
(v) Support for resource allocation
(vi) Support for more security
(vii) Auto –configuration
(viii) Enhanced routing functionality, including support for mobile hosts.

40. The extension headers in IPv6 are equivalent to what in IPv4?

The length of the base header is of about 40 bytes in length. The base header can be
followed by six extension headers, in order to give more functionality to the IPv6 datagram.
The extension headers here are equivalent to the options in IPv4.

41. What is multicast?

Multicast is a special form of broadcast in which a single source transmits the packets
and they are delivered to specified subgroup of network hosts(one-to-many).

42. Give the comparison of unicast, multicast and broadcast Routing. (Nov 2016)

S.No. Unicasting Multicasting Broadcasting

1. One source and one One source and a group of One source and all
destination destinations. destinations.
2. Relationship is one-to-one Relationship is one-to-many Relationship is one-to-all

3. Both source and destination The source address is Both source and destination
addresses are unicast unicast address, but the addresses are broadcast
addresses destination address is a addresses
group address
4 In unicasting, the router In multicasting, the router In broadcasting, the router
forwards the received forwards the received packet forwards the received packet
packet through only one of through several of its through all its interfaces.
its interface interfaces.

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43. Expand DVMRP.
Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) is a multicast distance vector
routing uses the source-based least cost trees, but the router never actually makes a routing table.

44. Name the strategies used in multicast DVR protocol.

The multicast DVR algorithm uses a process based on four decision-making strategies.
Each strategy is built on its predecessor.
(i) Flooding,
(ii) Reverse Path Forwarding(RPF),
(iii) Reverse Path Broadcasting(RPB), and
(iv) Reverse Path Multicasting(RPM)

45. What do you meant by PIM?

Protocol independent multicast (PIM) is a multicasting protocol family with two
independent multicast routing protocols such as:
(i) PIM-DM (Dense Mode) and
(ii) PIM-SM (Spare Mode)

Both protocols are unicast-protocol dependent.

46. Define the terms PIM-DM & PIM-SM.

Protocol independent multicast- Dense Mode (PIM-DM) is used in a dense multicast
environment, such as a LAN. It is a source-based tree routing protocol that uses RPF and pruning
and grafting strategies for multicasting.

Protocol independent multicasting-Spare Mode (PIM-SM)

Is used in a spares multicast environment such as a WAN. PIM-SM is group-shared tree routing
protocol that has a rendezvous point (RP) as the source of the tree. PIM-SM is similar to CBT
but uses a simpler procedure.

47. Write down any two differences between circuit switching and packet switching
(Nov/Dec 2014)

Circuit switching
 In circuit switching network dedicated channel has to be established before the call is
made between users
 The channel is reserved between the users till the connection is active

Packet switching
 In packet switching network unlike CS network, it is not required to establish the
connection initially
 The connection/channel is available to use by many users.

48. How does a router differ from a bridge? (May 2015)

A bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to another local area network
that uses the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or Token Ring). You can envision a bridge as
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being a device that decides whether a message from you to someone else is going to the local
area network in your building or to someone on the local area network in the building across the
street.
A router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next network
point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. The router is connected to at
least two networks and decides which way to send each information packet based on its current
understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is located at any gateway
(where one network meets another), including each point-of-presence on the Internet. A router is
often included as part of a network switch.

49. What are the metrics used by routing protocols? (May 2015)
Router metrics can contain any number of values that help the router determine the best route
among multiple routes to a destination. A router metric typically based on information like path
length, bandwidth, load, hop count, path cost, delay, Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU),
reliability and communications cost.

50. Define routing (Nov 2015)

Routing is the process of moving packets across a network from one host to a another. It is
usually performed by the dedicated devices called routers

51. Write the types of connecting devices in internetworking (May 2016)

Hub, Switch, Router, Bridges, Repeater

16 Marks

1. Discuss in detail about Routing algorithms. (Or) Discuss RIP or distance vector algorithm
(May 2015) (Nov 2015) (May 2016)
ROUTING ALGORITHMS PROTOCOL
 RIP-Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF-Link State Routing

Introduction
 Routing protocol is used to routing the information from source host to Destination host.

There are two classes of routing protocols.

 Intradomain routing protocol or intranetwork routing protocol or intranet
 Interdomain routing protocol or internetwork routing protocol or extranet.

Intradomain Routing Protocol

 An intradomain routing protocol routes packets within a defined domain, such as for
routing e-mail or Web browsing within an institutional network.
 Each point-to-point link connects an associated pair of routers and indicates the
corresponding cost of the connection.
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 A database is gathered from each router, including costs of paths in all separate
directions.

 The most widely used intranetworking routing protocols are the two unicast routing
protocols RIP and OSPF.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) – Distance vector

 The routing information protocol (RIP) is a simple intradomain routing protocol.

 RIP is one of the most widely used routing protocols in the Internet infrastructure but is
also appropriate for routing in smaller domains.

 In RIP, routers exchange information about reachable networks and the number of hops
and associated costs required to reach a destination.

Begin RIP Algorithm

1. Apply the Bellman-Ford algorithm in a distributed fashion, including all hosts and
routers.

2. For each router, form an optimum vector of distance indicating the cost of routing and
other necessary parameters, using distance-vector routing.

3. If a cost of routing at any point changes, propagate (spread) the change periodically to the
neighboring routers and hosts of that point.

4. Update tables of routers and hosts periodically.

Distance Vector Routing

 Each node constructs a one-dimensional array (a vector) containing the “distances”

(costs) to all other nodes and distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors.
 The starting assumption for distance-vector routing is that each node knows the cost of
the link to each of its directly connected neighbors.
 In the above diagram, the cost of each link is set to 1.

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 We can represent each node’s knowledge about the distance to all other nodes.

 Initially, each node sets a cost of 1 to its directly connected neighbors and ∞ to all
other nodes.
 Thus, A initially believes that it can reach B in one hop and that D is unreachable.
 The routing table stored at A reflects this set of beliefs and includes the name of the
next hop that A would use to reach any reachable node.
 Initially, then, A’s routing table would look like the below table.

 The next step in distance-vector routing is that every node sends a message to its
directly connected neighbors containing its personal list of distances.
 For example, node F tells node A that it can reach node G at a cost of 1; node A
also knows it can reach node F at a cost of 1.
 So it adds these costs to get the cost of reaching G by means of F. This total cost of 2
is less than the current cost of infinity.
 So node A records that it can reach G at a cost of 2 by going through F.
 At this point, node A can update its routing table with costs and next hops for all
nodes in the network. The result is shown in the below Table.

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 In the absence of any topology changes, it only takes a few exchanges of information
between neighbors before each node has a complete routing table.
 The process of getting consistent routing information to all the nodes is called
convergence.
 The below table shows the final set of costs from each node to all other nodes when
routing has converged.

RIP Packet Format

 Each packet consists of several address distances.

 The header format contains the following specifications for the first address distance.

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Command indicates a request with value 1 or a reply with value 2.

Version number specifies the version: RIP-1 or RIP-2.
Address family identifier shows the type of address, such as an IP address.
IP address provides the IP address in a particular network.
Metric identifies the distance from a router to a specified network.

Issues and Limitations of RIP

 In large networks, a routing table exchanged between routers becomes very large and
difficult to maintain, which may lead to an even slower convergence.

 Another major deficiency is the lack of support for variable-length subnet masks.

2. Discuss OSPF or link state routing (Nov/Dec 2014) or Shortest path algorithm (May 2015)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) – Link State (Nov 2016)

 The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is a better choice of intradomain routing
protocols, especially for TCP/IP applications.

 OSPF is based on Dijikstra's algorithm, using a tree that describes the network topology
to define the shortest path from each router to each destination address.

 Since it keeps track of all paths of a route, OSPF has more overhead than RIP, but
provides more stability and useful options.

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Begin OSPF Protocol

1. Apply Dijikstra's algorithm in a distributed fashion for each host and router.

2. In each host or router, calculate the least-cost path, and propagate it to all nodes, using
link-state routing.

3. Periodically propagate any changes in routing cost to all routers and hosts.
4. Update the routing tables of routers and hosts.

Link-State Routing

 In the link-state routing, routers collaborate by exchanging packets carrying status

information about their adjacent links.

 Link-state routing is designed to resolve the RIP issue; each router sends routing
information to all routers, not only to the neighbors.

 Each router receives all link costs from all routers; it is able to calculate the least-cost
path to each destination of the network.

 The core (main) function of the link-state algorithm is flood routing, which requires no
network topology information.

 Let's review the three important properties of flooding used in link-state routing.

 First, a packet always traverses completely between a source and a destination,

given at least one path between these two nodes.

 Second, at least one copy of the packet arriving at the destination must hold the
minimum delay, since all routers in the network are tried.

 Third, all nodes in the network are visited whether they are directly or indirectly
connected to the source node.

Details of OSPF Operation

 Every router using OSPF is aware of its local link-cost status and periodically sends
updates to all routers.

 After receiving update packets, each router is responsible for informing its sending router
of receipt of the update.

 OSPF can provide a flexible link-cost rule based of type of service (TOS).
 The TOS information allows OSPF to select different routes for IP packets, based on the
value of the TOS field.
Reliable Flooding
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Reliable flooding is the process of making sure that all the nodes participating in the routing
protocol get a copy of the link-state information from all the other nodes. As the term flooding
suggests, the basic idea is for a node to send its link-state information out on all of its directly
connected links; each node that receives this information then forwards it out on all of its links.
This process continues until the information has reached all the nodes in the network.
More precisely, each node creates an update packet, also called a link- state packet (LSP),
which contains the following information:

 The ID of the node that created the LSP

 A list of directly connected neighbors of that node, with the cost of the link to each one
 A sequence number
 A time to live for this packet

In practice, each switch computes its routing table directly from the LSPs it has collected
using a realization of Dijkstra’s algorithm called the forward search algorithm. Specifically, each
switch maintains two lists, known as Tentative and Confirmed. Each of these lists contains a set
of entries of the form (Destination, Cost, NextHop). The algorithm works as follows:

This will become a lot easier to understand when we look at an example. Consider the network
depicted in Figure 3.33. Note that, unlike our previous example, this network has a range of
different edge costs. Table 3.14 traces the steps for building the routing table for node D. We
denote the two outputs of D by using the names of the nodes to which they connect, B and C.
Note the way the algorithm seems to head off on

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The Open Shortest Path First Protocol (OSPF)

One of the most widely used link-state routing protocols is OSPF. The first word,
“Open,” refers to the fact that it is an open, nonproprietary standard, created under the auspices
of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The “SPF” part comes from an alternative name
for linkstate routing. OSPF adds quite a number of features to the basic link-state algorithm
described above, including the following:

 Authentication of routing messages—One feature of distributed routing algorithms is that

they disperse information from one node to many other nodes, and the entire network can
thus be impacted by bad information from one node.
 Additional hierarchy—Hierarchy is one of the fundamental tools used to make systems more
scalable. OSPF introduces another layer of hierarchy into routing by allowing a domain
to be partitioned into areas.

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 Load balancing—OSPF allows multiple routes to the same place to be assigned the same cost
and will cause traffic to be distributed evenly over those routes, thus making better use of
available network capacity.

There are several different types of OSPF messages, but all begin with the same header, as
shown in Figure 3.34. The Version field is currently set to 2, and the Type field may take the
values 1 through 5. The SourceAddr identifies the sender of the message, and the AreaId is a 32-
bit identifier

OSPF Packet Format

All OSPF packets use a 24-byte header as follows:

 Version number indicates the version of OSPF.

 Type is one of the five types of packets for OSPF to choose from: hello, database
description, link-state request, link-state update, and link-state acknowledgment.

 Packet length specifies the length of the OSPF packet.

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 Router ID specifies the packet's source router ID.

 Area ID refers to the area that the source router belongs to.

 Checksum specifies the standard IP checksum of the packet contents.

 Authentication type identifies which authentication method to choose.

 Authentication specifies the authentication method.

 The hello packet specified in the Type field is used to detect each router's active
neighbors. Each router periodically sends out hello packets to its neighbors to
discover its active neighboring routers.

 The database description packets are used for database structure exchange
between two adjacent routers to synchronize their knowledge of network topology.

 The link-state request packet is transmitted to request a specific portion of link-

state database from a neighboring router.

 The link-state update packet transfers the link-state information to all neighboring
routers.

 Finally, the link-state acknowledgment packet acknowledges the update of a link-

state packet.

3. How the link cost can be calculated in routing algorithm (or) Discuss metrics in detail

The ARPANET was the testing ground for a number of different approaches to link-cost
calculation.

1. The original ARPANET routing metric measured the number of packets that were queued
waiting to be transmitted on each link, meaning that a link with 10 packets queued waiting to be
transmitted was assigned a larger cost weight than a link with 5 packets queued for
transmission.

Using queue length as a routing metric did not work well, however, since queue length is an
artificial measure of load

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Stated more precisely, the original ARPANET routing mechanism suffered from the fact that it
did not take either the bandwidth or the latency of the link into consideration.

2. A second version of the ARPANET routing algorithm, sometimes called the new routing
mechanism, took both link bandwidth and latency into consideration and used delay, rather
than just queue length, as a measure of load. This was done as follows.

First, each incoming packet was timestamped with its time of arrival at the router (ArrivalTime);
its departure time from the router (DepartTime) was also recorded. Second, when the link-level
ACK was received from the other side, the node computed the delay for that packet as

Delay = (DepartTime−ArrivalTime)+TransmissionTime+Latency

Although an improvement over the original mechanism, this approach also had a lot of problems.
Under light load, it worked reasonably well, since the two static factors of delay dominated the
cost.Under heavy load, however, a congested link would start to advertise a very high cost. This
caused all the traffic to move off that link, leaving it idle, so then it would advertise a low cost,
thereby attracting back all the traffic, and so on.

3. A third approach, called the “revised ARPANET routing metric,” addressed these problems. The
major changes were to compress the dynamic range of the metric considerably, to account for
the link type, and to smooth the variation of the metric with time.

The smoothing was achieved by several mechanisms. First, the delay measurement was
transformed to link utilization, and this number was averaged with the last reported utilization to
suppress sudden changes.

Second, there was a hard limit on how much the metric could change from one measurement
cycle to the next. By smoothing the changes in the cost, the likelihood that all nodes would
abandon a route at once is greatly reduced.

We end our discussion of routing metrics with a dose of reality. In the majority of real-world
network deployments at the time of writing, metrics change rarely if at all and only under the
control of a network administrator, not automatically as was described above.

4. How switches can be implemented or used in routing (or) Discuss the switch basics concepts

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Figure 3.37 shows a processor with three network interfaces used as a switch. The figure shows a
path that a packet might take from the time it arrives on interface 1 until it is output on interface
2.
We have assumed here that the processor has a mechanism to move data directly from an
interface to its main memory without having to be directly copied by the CPU, a technique called
direct memory access (DMA)

Once the packet is in memory, the CPU examines its header to determine which interface the
packet should be sent out on. It then uses DMA to move the packet out to the appropriate
interface.

Note that Figure 3.37 does not show the packet going to the CPU because the CPU inspects only
the header of the packet; it does not have to read every byte of data in the packet.

The main problem with using a general-purpose processor as a switch is that its performance is
limited by the fact that all packets must pass through a single point of contention:

In the example shown, each packet crosses the I/O bus twice and is written to and read from
main memory once. The upper bound on aggregate throughput of such a device is, thus, either
half the main memory bandwidth or half the I/O bus bandwidth, whichever is less.

Suppose, for example, that a processor can perform all the necessary processing to switch 2
million packets each second. This is sometimes called the packet per second (pps) rate. (This
number is representative of what is achievable on an inexpensive PC.) If the average packet is
short, say, 64 bytes, this would imply

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that is, a throughput of about 1 Gbps—substantially below the range that users are demanding
from their networks today.

5. Discuss how routing areas was separated in the global internet?

Figure 4.1 gives a simple depiction of the state of the Internet in 1990. Since that time, the
Internet’s topology has grown much more complex than this figure suggests.

One of the salient features of this topology is that it consists of enduser sites (e.g., Stanford
University) that connect to service provider networks. In 1990, many providers served a limited
geographic region and were thus known as regional networks. The regional networkswere, in
turn,connected by a nationwide backbone. In 1990, this backbone was funded by the National
Science Foundation (NSF) and was therefore called the NSFNET backbone.

Notice in Figure 4.1 that each provider and end-user is likely to be an administratively
independent entity. This has some significant consequences on routing.

Routing Areas

As a first example of using hierarchy to scale up the routing system, we’ll examine how
link-state routing protocols (such as OSPF and IS-IS) can be used to partition a routing domain
into subdomains called areas

An area is a set of routers that are administratively configured to exchange link-state information
with each other. There is one special area—the backbone area, also known as area 0. An example
of a routing domain divided into areas is shown in Figure 4.2. Routers R1, R2, and R3 are
members of the backbone area. They are also members of at least one nonbackbone area; R1 is
actually a member of both area 1 and area 2. A router that is a member of both the backbone area
and a nonbackbone area is an area border router (ABR). Note that these are distinct from the
routers that are at the edge of an AS, which are referred to as AS border routers for clarity.

All the routers in the area send link-state advertisements to each other and thus develop a
complete, consistent map of the area. However, the link-state advertisements of routers that are
not area border routers do not leave the area in which they originated. This has the effect of
making the flooding and route calculation processes considerably more scalable. For example,
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router R4 in area 3 will never see a link-state advertisement from router R8 in area 1. As a
consequence, it will know nothing about the detailed topology of areas other than its own.

6. Discuss in detail about Interdomain routing. Or Discuss in detail about BGP (Border Gateway
Protocol)
Interdomain Routing Protocols

 An interdomain routing protocol is a procedure for routing packets on networks of

domains.

 Interdomain routing protocols route packets outside of a defined domain.

 Each domain consists of several networks and routers that can be accessed publicly.

 The below figure shows an example of internetworking, in which a packet at router R 1

faces two defined larger service provider domains, A and B. Each service domain is
shown by a number of interconnected circles, each representing a network or a router.

 Obviously, at router R1, finding the best path for a packet to go to which domain is a
challenge.

 The Border Gateway Protocol helps meet this challenge.

Internetworking, in which router packet faces two defined service domains

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Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

 The Border gateway protocol (BGP) is a preferred routing protocol for interdomain
communications and TCP/IP connections.

 BGP allows routers to carry specific policies or constraints that they must meet.

 With BGP, routers exchange more comprehensive information about routes to a certain
destination instead of simply costs and the best link.

 In BGP, two contributing (casual) routers can exchange routing information even if they
are located in two different autonomous systems.

 When an external destination is chosen, a router sends the information to all internal
neighbors.

 All routers decide whether the new route is possible, and the new route is added to the
router's database.

 Thus, the new update message is propagated. One of the most important techniques in
BGP is path-vector routing.

Path-Vector Routing

 RIP and OSPF are not suitable for interdomain routing protocols.

 As discussed earlier, distance vector routing is used to send information to each of a

router's neighbors, and then each router builds up a routing database.

Two problems arise.

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o First, if different routers give different information to an assigned cost, it is
impossible to have stable and loop-free routes.

o Second, an autonomous system can have limitations about which specific

autonomous system should be used.

Each router sends its link cost to all other routers and then starts routing calculations. Two
issues can arise in link-state routing.

o First, different independent systems can use different costs and have different
limitations. The link-state protocol allows a router to make the topology, and its
metrics may be different for each independent system. In this case, it is
impossible to create a reliable routing algorithm.

o Second, when flood routing occurs, the use of an interdomain routing protocol
across the independent system can be unstable.

 The path vector routing protocol, which provides information about how to reach a
network given a certain router and identifies which autonomous system (or domain)
should be visited.

 The path vector routing protocol is different from the distance vector algorithm, in which
each path has information about cost and distance.

 In the path vector routing protocol, these packages of information are not included, and
all visited autonomous systems and all components of domain A in the above figure
reaching the destination network are listed in each routing information package.

 Thus, a router can be programmed to refuse the acceptance of a particular path if the
information about the path is not included in the package it receives

Details of BGP

 BGP was created to find a solution to interdomain routing among autonomous (in-
dependent) systems. BGP has three functional components:

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 Neighbor relationship

 Neighbor maintenance

 Network maintenance

 The neighbor relationship refers to an agreement between two routers in two different
autonomous systems to exchange routing information on a regular basis.

 A router may reject its participation in establishing a neighbor relationship for several
reasons, such as the rule of the domain, overload, or a temporary malfunctioning of
external links.

 Neighbor maintenance is a process of maintaining the neighbor relationship already

established.

 For this reason, two routers send keep-alive messages to each other. The last BGP
process is network maintenance.

 Each router keeps the database of the subnetworks that it can reach and tries to get the
best route for that subnetwork.

BGP Packets

There are four different BGP packets as shown as follows:

 Open packet
 Update packet
 Keep-alive packet and
 Notification packet

 Open packet. This packet requests establishment of a relationship between two routers.

 Update packet. This packet conveys update information about routes.

 Keep-alive packet. Once a relationship between two routers is established, this packet
confirms its neighbor relationship frequently.

 Notification packet. This packet is used when an error occurs.

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Example network

An important job of BGP is to prevent the establishment of looping paths. For example, consider
the network illustrated in Figure 4.6. It differs from Figure 4.5 only in the addition of an extra
link between AS 2 and AS 3, but the effect now is that the graph of autonomous systems has a
loop in it. Suppose AS 1 learns that it can reach network 128.96 through AS 2, so it advertises
this fact to AS 3, who in turn advertises it back to AS 2.

In the absence of any loop prevention mechanism, AS 2 could now decide that AS 3 was
the preferred route for packets destined for 128.96. If AS 2 starts sending packets addressed to
128.96 to AS 3, AS 3 would send them to AS 1; AS 1 would send them back to AS 2; and they
would loop forever. This is prevented by carrying the complete AS path in the routing messages.
In this case, the advertisement for a path to 128.96 received by AS 2 from AS 3 would contain an
AS path of hAS 3, AS 1, AS 2, AS 4i. AS 2 sees itself in this path, and thus concludes that this is
not a useful path for it to use.

In order for this loop prevention technique to work, the AS numbers carried in BGP clearly need
to be unique. For example, AS 2 can only recognize itself in the AS path in the above example if
no other AS identifies itself in the same way. AS numbers have until recently been 16-bit
numbers, and they are assigned by a central authority to assure uniqueness. While 16 bits only
allows about 65,000 autonomous systems, which might not seem like a lot, we note that a stub
AS does not need a unique AS number, and this covers the overwhelming majority of
nonprovider networks

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7. Discuss in detail the various aspects of IPv6 (or) Discuss IPv6 header format (May 2016)

IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)

Introduction
 IPv6 is the next generation Internet Protocol designed as a successor to the IP version 4.
 IPv6 was designed to enable high-performance, scalable Internet.
 This was achieved by overcoming many of the weaknesses of IPv4 protocol and by
adding several new features.

Advantages of IPv6:
Larger address space

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 IPv6 has 128-bit address space, which is 4 times wider in bits in compared to IPv4’s 32-bit
address space.
 So there is a huge increase in the address space.
Better header forma
 IPv6 uses a better header format. In its header format the options are separated from the base
header.
 The options are inserted when needed, between the base header and upper layer data.
 The helps in speeding up the routing process.

New option
 New options have been added in IPv6 to increase the functionality.

Possibility of extension
 IPv6 has been designed in such a way that there is a possibility of extension of protocol if
required.

More security
 IPv6 includes security in the basic specification.
 It includes encryption of packets (ESP: Encapsulated Security Payload) and authentication of
the sender of packets (AH: Authentication Header).
Support to resource allocation
 To implement better support for real time traffic (such as video conference), IPv6 includes
flow label in the specification.
 With flow label mechanism, routers can recognize to which end-to-end flow the packets
belongs.
Plug and play
 IPv6 includes plug and play in the standard specification.
 It therefore must be easier for novice users to connect their machines to the network, it will
be done automatically.

Clearer specification and optimization

 IPv6 follows good practices of IPv4, and rejects minor flaws/obsolete items of IPv4.

IPv6 Addresses
An IPv6 addresses consists of 16 bytes (octets) i.e. it is 128 bits long as shown in the below
figure.

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Hexadecimal colon notation:

 IPv6 uses a special notation called hexadecimal colon notation. In this, the 128 bits are
divided into 8 sections; each one is 2 bytes long.
 2 bytes correspond to 16 bits. So in hexadecimal notation will require four hexadecimal
digits.
 Hence the IPv6 address consists of 32 hex digits and every group of 4 digits is separated
by a colon as shown in the above figure.
 IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses. Only about 15% of the address space is initially allocated,
the remaining 85% being reserved for future use.
 This remainder may be used in the future for expanding the address spaces of existing
address types or for totally new uses.

Abbreviation:
 The IPv6 address, even in hexadecimal format is very long. But in this address there are
many of the zero digits in it.
 In such a case, we can abbreviate the address. The leading zeros of a section (four digits
between two colons) can be omitted.
 Note that only the leading zeros can be dropped but the trailing zeros can not drop. This
is illustrated in the below figure.

Further abbreviation:
 Further abbreviations are possible if there is consecutive section consisting of only zeros.

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 We can remove the zeros completely and replace them with double semicolon as shown
in the below figure.

 It is important to note abbreviation is allowed only once per address. Also note that if
there are two runs of zero sections, then only one of them can be abbreviated.

CIDR Notation:
 IPv6 protocol allows classless addressing and CIDR notation.
 The below figure shows how to define a prefix of 60 bits using CIDR.

Categories of Address:
IPv6 defines three different types of addresses.
Unicast
 A unicast address defines a single computer.
 A packet sent to a unicast address is delivered to that specific computer.

Anycast
 This is a type of address defines a group of computers with addresses which have the
same prefix.
 A packet sent to an anycast address must be delivered to exactly one of the members of
the group which is the closest or the most easily accessible.
Multicast Addresses:
 A multicast address defines a group of computers which may or may not share the same
prefix and may or may not be connected to the same physical network.
 A packet sent to a multicast address must be delivered to each member of the set.
 There are no broadcast addresses in IPv6, because multicast addresses can perform the
same function. The type of address is determined by the leading bits.
 Multicast addresses all start with FF (1111 1111) and all other addresses are unicast
addresses.
 Anycast addresses are assigned from the unicast address space and they do not differ
syntactically from unicast addresses.
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 Anycast addressing is a rather new concept and there is little experience with the
widespread use of anycast addresses.
 Therefore, some restrictions apply to anycast addressing in IPv6 until more experience is
gained.
 An anycast address may not be used as the Source Address of an IPv6 packet and anycast
addresses may not be assigned to hosts but to routers only.

IPv6 Packet Format: (Nov/Dec 2014)

 The IPv6 packet is shown in the below figure. Each packet consists of a base header
which is mandatory followed by the payload.
 The payload is made up of two parts
o Optional extension headers and
o Data from an upper layer

 The base header is 40 byte length whereas the extension header and the data from upper
layer contain upto 65,535 bytes of information.

Base header
In the base header have eight fields. These fields are as follows:

1) Version (VER): It is a 4 bit field which defines the version of IP such as IPv4 or IPv6.
For IPv6 the value of this field is 6.
2) Priority: It is a 4 bit field which defines the priority of the packet which is important in
connection with the traffic congestion.
3) Flow label: It is a 24 bit (3 byte) field which is designed for providing special handling
for a particular flow of data.
4) Payload length: This is a 2 byte length field which is used to define the total length of
the IP datagram excluding the base header.

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5) Next header: It is an 8 bit field which defines the header which follows the base header
in the datagram.
6) Hop limit: This is an 8 bit field which has the same purpose as TTL in IPv4.
7) Source address: It is a 16 byte (128) Internet address which identifies the original
source of datagram.
8) Destination address: This is a 16 byte (128) internet address which identifies the final
destination of datagram. But this field will contain the address of the next router if
source routing is being used.

8. Discuss how multicast addresses communication done in network (or) How addresses can be
separated in multicast communication
MULTICAST
To better support many-to-many and one-to-many communication, IP provides an IP-level
multicast analogous to the link-level multicast provided by multi-access networks like Ethernet.
Now that we are introducing the concept of multicast for IP

The basic IP multicast model is a many-to-many model based on multicast groups, where each
group has its own IP multicast address. The hosts that are members of a group receive copies of
any packets sent to that group’s multicast address.

A host can be in multiple groups, and it can join and leave groups freely by telling its local router
using a protocol Thus, while we think of unicast addresses as being associated with a node or an
interface, multicast addresses are associated with an abstract group, the membership of which
changes dynamically over time.
Further, the original IP multicast service model allows any host to send multicast traffic
to a group; it doesn’t have to be a member of the group, and there may be any number of such
senders to a given group.

Using IP multicast to send the identical packet to each member of the group, a host sends a
single copy of the packet addressed to the group’s multicast address.

IP’s original many-to-many multicast has been supplemented with support for a form of one-to-
many multicast. In this model of one-tomany multicast, called Source-Specific Multicast (SSM),
a receiving host specifies both a multicast group and a specific sending host.

The receiving host would then receive multicasts addressed to the specified group, but only if
they are from the specified sender. Many Internet multicast applications (e.g., radio broadcasts)
fit the SSM model. To contrast it with SSM, IP’s original many-to-many model is sometimes
referred to as Any Source Multicast (ASM).

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A host signals its desire to join or leave a multicast group by communicating with its local router
using a special protocol for just that purpose. In IPv4, that protocol is the Internet Group
Management Protocol (IGMP); in IPv6, it is Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD).

Multicast Addresses
IP has a subrange of its address space reserved for multicast addresses. In IPv4, these
addresses are assigned in the class D address space, and IPv6 also has a portion of its address
space reserved for multicast group addresses. Some sub ranges of the multicast ranges are
reserved for intradomain multicast, so they can be reused independently by different domains.

There are thus 28 bits of possible multicast address in IPv4 when we ignore the prefix shared by
all multicast addresses.

When a host on an Ethernet joins an IP multicast group, it configures its Ethernet interface to
receive any packets with the corresponding Ethernet multicast address. Unfortunately, this
causes the receiving host to receive not only the multicast traffic it desired but also traffic sent to
any of the other 31 IP multicast groups that map to the same Ethernet address, if they are routed
to that Ethernet. Therefore, IP at the receiving host must examine the IP header of any multicast
packet to determine whether the packet really belongs to the desired group.

9. Discuss in detail about multicast routing techniques or Discuss DVMRP (Nov 2014 & 2015 &
2016)

Multicast routing is the process by which the multicast distribution trees are determined or, more
concretely, the process by which the multicast forwarding tables are built. As with unicast
routing, it is not enough that a multicast routing protocol “work”; it must also scale reasonably
well as the network grows, and it must accommodate the autonomy of different routing domains.

DVMRP
Distance-vector routing, can be extended to support multicast The resulting protocol is called
Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol, or DVMRP. DVMRP was the first multicast
routing protocol to see widespread use.

Recall that, in the distance-vector algorithm, each router maintains a table of (Destination, Cost,
NextHop) tuples, and exchanges a list of (Destination, Cost) pairs with its directly connected
neighbors

Extending this algorithm to support multicast is a two-stage process.

 First, we create a broadcast mechanism that allows a packet to be forwarded to all the networks
on the internet.
 Second, we need to refine this mechanism so that it prunes back networks that do not have
hosts that belong to the multicast group

Consequently, DVMRP is one of several multicast routing protocols described as flood-and-

prune protocols.

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Given a unicast routing table, each router knows that the current shortest path to a given
destination goes through NextHop. Thus, whenever it receives a multicast packet from source S,
the router forwards the packet on all outgoing links (except the one on which the packet arrived)
if and only if the packet arrived over the link that is on the shortest path to S (i.e., the packet
came from the NextHop associated with S in the routing table). This strategy effectively floods
packets outward from S but does not loop packets back toward S.

 There are two major shortcomings to this approach. The first is that it truly floods the network;
 The second limitation is that a given packet will be forwarded over a LAN by each of the routers
connected to that LAN

The solution to this second limitation is to eliminate the duplicate broadcast packets that are
generated when more than one router is connected to a given LAN.

One way to do this is to designate one router as the parent router for each link, relative to the
source, where only the parent router is allowed to forward multicast packets from that source
over the LAN.
Notice that this refinement requires that each router keep, for each source, a bit for each of its
incident links indicating whether or not it is the parent for that source/link pair. Keep in mind
that in an internet setting, a source is a network, not a host, since an internet router is only
interested in forwarding packets between networks. The resulting mechanism is sometimes
called Reverse Path Broadcast (RPB) or Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF).

The path is reverse because we are considering the shortest path toward the source when
making our forwarding decisions, as compared to unicast routing, which looks for the shortest
path to a given destination. The RPB mechanism just described implements shortest-path
broadcast.

10. Discuss PIM (Protocol Independent Multicast) multicast routing technique

Protocol Independent Multicast, or PIM, was developed in response to the scaling problems of
earlier multicast routing protocols. In particular, it was recognized that the existing protocols did
not scale well in environments where a relatively small proportion of routers want to receive
traffic for a certain group.

PIM sparse mode (PIM-SM) has become the dominant multicast routing protocol and is the
focus of our discussion here.

In PIM-SM, routers explicitly join the multicast distribution tree using PIM protocol messages
known as Join messages.

PIM-SM assigns to each group a special router known as the rendezvous point (RP). In general, a
number of routers in a domain are configured to be candidate RPs, and PIM-SM defines a set of
procedures by which all the routers in a domain can agree on the router to use as the RP for a
given group.

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A multicast forwarding tree is built as a result of routers sending Join messages to the RP. PIM-
SM allows two types of trees to be constructed: a shared tree, which may be used by all senders,
and a source-specific tree, which may be used only by a specific sending host

When a router sends a Join message toward the RP for a group G, it is sent using normal IP
unicast transmission. This is illustrated in Figure 4.14(a), inwhich router R4 is sending a Join to
the rendezvous point for some group. The initial Join message is “wildcarded”; that is, it applies
to all senders. A Join message clearly must pass through some sequence of routers before
reaching the RP (e.g., R2). Each router along the path looks at the Join and creates a forwarding
table entry for the shared tree, called a (*, G) entry (where * means “all senders”). To create the
forwarding table entry, The shared tree thus constructed is shown as a solid line from the RP to
R4 in Figure 4.14(a).

As more routers send Joins toward the RP, they cause new branches to be added to the tree, as
illustrated in Figure 4.14(b).Note that, in this case, the Join only needs to travel to R2, which can
add the new branch to the tree simply by adding a new outgoing interface to the forwarding table
entry created for this group. R2 need not forward the Join on to the RP. Note also that the end
result of this process is to build a tree whose root is the RP.

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11. List the difference between IPv4 & IPv6 (May 2016)

IPv4 IPv6
The size of an address in IPv4 is 32 bits The size of an address in IPv6 is 128 bits
Address Shortages: Larger address space:

IPv4 supports 4.3×109 (4.3 billion) addresses, which IPv6 supports 3.4×1038 addresses, or
is inadequate to give one (or more if they possess 5×1028(50 octillion) for each of the roughly
more than one device) to every living person. 6.5 billion people alive today.33(*)
IPv4 header has 20 bytes IPv6 header is the double, it has 40 bytes

IPv4 header has many fields (13 fields) IPv6 header has fewer fields, it has 8 fields.
IPv4 is subdivided into classes <A-E>. IPv6 is classless.

IPv6 uses a prefix and an Identifier ID

known as IPv4 network
IPv4 address uses a subnet mask. IPv6 uses a prefix length.
IPv4 has lack of security. IPv6 has a built-in strong security

IPv4 was never designed to be secure - Encryption

- Originally designed for an isolated military - Authentication

network

- Then adapted for a public educational & research

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network
ISP have IPv4 connectivity or have both IPv4 and Many ISP don't have IPv6 connectivity
IPv6
Non equal geographical distribution (>50% USA) No geographic limitation

12. Differentiate ARP and RARP (Nov/Dec 2014)

 ARP is address resolution protocol it is translate ip add to mac add.
 RARP reverse address resolution protocol it is translate mac add to ip add
ARP
ARP -Meaning of ARP ? "Address Resolution Protocol", is used to map ip Network addresses to
the hardware (Media Access Control sub layer) addresses used by the data link protocol. The
ARP protocol operates between the network layer and the data link layer in the Open System
Interconnection (osi) model.

RARP
RARP-RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a protocol by which a physical machine
in a local area network can request to learn its IP address from a gateway server's Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) table or cache. A network administrator creates a table in a local area
network's gateway router that maps the physical machine (or Media Access Control - MAC
address) addresses to corresponding Internet Protocol addresses.

UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

B.E/B.TECH NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2014

2 MARKS
1. Write down any two differences between circuit switching and packet switching. (Q.No
47)
2. Define BGP (Q.No 33)

16 MARKS
1. (i) Differentiate ARP and RARP (8) (Q.No 12)
(ii) Explain OSPF in detail (8) (Q.No 2)

2. (i).What is Internet multicasting? Explain in detail (8) (Q.No 9)

(ii).Show the IPV6 header details and explains them (8) (Q.No 7)
B.E/B.Tech April May 2015
2 MARKS
1. How does a router differ from a bridge? (Q.No 48)
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PREPARED BY: Mr. D. Ramkumar - A.P-CSE
 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
2. What are the metrics used by routing protocols? (Q.No 49)

16 MARKS
1. Explain the shortest path algorithm with suitable illustrations (16) (Q.No 2)
2. Explain the distance vector routing algorithm .Mention the limitations of the same (16) (Q.No
1)

B.E/B.Tech Nov-Dec 2015

2 MARKS
1. Define routing. (Q.NO 50)

16 MARKS
1. Describe distance vector routing (Q.NO 1)
2. Explain multicast routing in detail (Q.NO 9)

B.E/B.Tech April-May 2016

2 MARKS
1. Write the types of connecting devices in internetworking ( Q.NO 51)

16 MARKS
1. With a neat diagram explain Distance vector routing protocol (Q.NO 1)
2. Explain about IPv6? Compare IPv4 and IPv6 (Q.NO 7 & 11)

B.E/B.Tech Nov-Dec 2016

2 MARKS
1. Define VCI. (Q.NO 7)
2. Give the comparison of unicast,multicast and broadcast routing. (Q.NO 42)

16 MARKS
1. Discuss in detail about open source shortest path routing with neat diagram (Q.NO 2)
2. Discuss in detail about any two multicast routing with neat sketches (Q.NO 9)

UNIT 3 - IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Define routing protocol & list its types

2. Distinguish between Intradomain and Interdomain routing protocol.

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PREPARED BY: Mr. D. Ramkumar - A.P-CSE
 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
3. Define AS.
4. Define RIP (or) Express the purpose of RIP?
5. What do you meant by flooding? Or reliable flooding?
6. Elaborate OSPF & list its advantages
7. Compare distance vector routing with link state routing.
8. Define an area.
9. Define BGP.
10. Mention the names of two interdomain routing protocols.
11. What is EGP? Mention its drawbacks.
12. Write the functions of BGP.
13. List the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4. Or difference between IPv4 & IPv6
14. What is multicast?
15. Give the comparison of unicast, multicast and broadcast Routing.
16. Expand DVMRP.
17. Name the strategies used in multicast DVR protocol.
18. What do you meant by PIM?
19. Define the terms PIM-DM & PIM-SM.
20. Define an IGP.
21. Give the comparison between router and switch.
22. Define switches.
23. Give the types of routing table
24. Define metrics
25. Write down any two differences between circuit switching and packet switching.
26. How does a router differ from a bridge?
27. What are the metrics used by routing protocols?
28. Define routing
29. Define VCI
30. Give the comparison of unicast,multicast and broadcast routing

PART- B

1. Discuss in detail about Routing algorithms.

a. Discuss RIP or distance vector algorithm
b. Discuss OSPF or link state routing or shortest path
2. Discuss in detail about Interdomain routing. Or Discuss in detail about BGP (Border
Gateway Protocol)
3. Discuss in detail the various aspects of IPv6 (or) Discuss IPv6 header format
4. a) How the link cost can be calculated in routing algorithm (or) Discuss metrics in detail
b) How switches can be implemented or used in routing (or) Discuss the switch basics
concepts
5. a) Discuss how routing areas was separated in the global internet
b) Discuss how multicast addresses communication done in network (or) How addresses
can be separated in multicast communication
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PREPARED BY: Mr. D. Ramkumar - A.P-CSE
 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
6. List the difference between IPv4 & IPv6
7. a) Discuss in detail about multicast routing techniques or Discuss DVMRP
b) Discuss PIM (Protocol Independent Multicast) multicast routing technique
8. Differentiate ARP and RARP

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PREPARED BY: Mr. D. Ramkumar - A.P-CSE