Journal of Critical Reviews

ISSN- 2394-5125 Vol 7, Issue 7, 2020

NANOVACCINATION: EVOLUTION AND REVIEW

S. Karthikeyan1, M. Laxmi Deepak Bhatlu2, K. Sukanya3, Neethu Jayan4
1Department of Chemical Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher education, Coimbatore, India.
[email protected]
2Department of Chemical Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher education, Coimbatore, India.
3Department of Chemical Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher education, Coimbatore, India.
4Department of Chemical Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher education, Coimbatore, India.

Received: 05.02.2020 Revised: 12.03.2020 Accepted: 30.04.2020

Abstract
Vaccination is often associated with the prevention of diseases, (i.e.) it prevents future malfunctions in our body. The root causes of most
of the malfunctions are the microbes or pathogens which enter our body directly or indirectly. Thus, a war between these antigens and
our cell system is broken out and to an extent, the immune system in our body helps in defeating the antigens, but certain antigens are
capable enough to overcome the immunity of our body. These are generally auto-immune and also genetically inherited diseases. One big
question that arises is do we have a solution that can monitor the activities of cells, tissues, and organs. Thus, we need an artificial
mechanism that, like blood cells circulates in the bloodstream. This is the situation; where the idea of programmable nanobots comes
into the picture wherein these nanometer-sized artificial systems circulate in the bloodstream and monitors Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).
Work functions of organs and entry of foreign bodies. So, any abnormalities in our body can be detected by the biosensors in the
nanobots at the point of entry itself and the tracking system monitors it from outside. The early remedy can prevent the microbes to
develop its activity to a vulnerable stage. It also helps in preparing the genes that malfunction due to mutation, chromosomal aberration,
etc. Hence, we name this idea as NANOVACCINATION, i.e. prevention at the nano level.
Keywords: Nanobots, Nanovaccination, Biosensors, Tracking System, Nanobiosensors.

© 2020 by Advance Scientific Research. This is an open-access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.07.177

INTRODUCTION instability of the bio-materials [5]. Hence, the interest of

“Prevention is better than cure”. In olden days due to lack of researchers increased in the development of minimal
advancements in the methods of diagnosing and treatment of components using vaccines. Recombinant protein-based vaccines
diseases, their huge damage to the lives of living beings. The or even proteins with minimal fragments carrying immunological
sudden death or disease of hundreds of people or animals made information such as peptide epitopes. The biochemical
the doctors panic. They did not know the cause of the diseases composition including antigen and immune-stimulator
and their ways of spreading at the initial stages. After the huge (adjuvant) mostly determines the vaccine efficiency. Recently a
loss, according to the analyses, they discovered the methods of vaccine’s ability to induce the desired immune responses is
treatment. The lost lives cannot be brought back after the majorly determined by the morphological properties and particle
discovery of the treatment. So there emerges a need for size of the system of antigens/adjuvants [5]. Hence, in recent
preventing diseases. Nanotechnology is the creation of very small years the nanovaccines development has been growing
particles, devices or systems. Nanomaterials are designed and extensively [1 – 5]. Nano materials are defined as structures in
applied for diagnostics, therapeutics for the benefit of human between the size of 1–100 nm dimension, have started to be
health and as biomedical tools for research. Nanotechnology is generally used for developing the vaccines. The polymers-based,
gaining importance in medicine due to its small size and targeted lipids-based, peptides-based or inorganic constituents-based
effects. Nanoparticles are one in hundredth to one in ten materials are among the nanomaterials [5].
thousandth times than the hair of human beings. Due to their tiny
nature and large surface area, nanoparticles can interact readily NANOVACCINES
with bio-molecular receptors present on the cell surface or with A nano vaccine is based on nano-sized particles whose
the cellular organelles. composition can be proteic, lipidic, metallic, polymeric, or based
on graphene [11] served as antigen delivery vehicles. Surface
VACCINATION-A KIND OF PREVENTION modification or encapsulation typically functionalizes with the
The vaccination for human beings one of the most antigen. The conjugating antigen to the nano particles mediates
revolutionizing discoveries in the healthcare sector. The Covalent or physical interactions. The initial learnings in vaccine
vaccination initiated before a few centuries in, when the Chinese formulation with particles or micelles of compounds [11] were
applied for smallpox epidemics after that Edward Jenner and reported by Ramon [6,7]. Micelles made with substances such as
Louis Pasteur are considered as the fathers of vaccination [5]. lecithin and diphtheria and tetanus toxins are discussed in these
Until the 18th century smallpox caused about 10% of fatalities, reports. Since then there are various organic and inorganic
the introduction of vaccines from Penicillium notatum by nanoparticles have been developed for vaccine formulating
Alexander Flemming brought in the targeted effectiveness of processes. Since the antigens or DNA segments fall in the 1–
these vaccines. Improvements in vaccine preparation have 10 nm range with the dia of the nano particles from 2 to 103 nm
revolutionized the vaccination strategy based on the active or [11][8]. Immune responses are induced by the high susception of
inactive pathogen in the vaccine [5]. The risk of infection risk was the nano particles captured by mammalian cells. Recently
the important problem of the classical vaccines, in the case of preparation of nano particles with unique physicochemical
immune-lacking individuals, impurities associated with the properties expresses the signs of progress. Preparing nano
laboratory production of disease-causing microbes, and the

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 NANOVACCINATION: EVOLUTION AND REVIEW

particles with appropriate bio- properties and other use of nanobots [15]. With minimally invasive surgeries, the use
morphological properties [9]. of nanobots advances bio-medical intervention [16], will give a
The following mechanisms explain the enhanced efficacy of hand to needy patients of everlasting check of deviation in health
nanovaccines based on the solubility of antigens: (1) uptake of parameters and detection of early symptoms could ease the
antigen increased by cells with antigen-presence (APCs), (2) treatment processes. For acquisitions, patient data in continuous
stimulation of APCs cytokine secretion or lymphocytes (e.g., mode, devices that can be implanted in medicine have been used.
initiation of inflammation response), (3) improved stability of Patient monitoring diagnostic reports can help in preparing for
antigens, (4) decrement in the degradation of antigen, and (5) neuro-surgery [17] in early-stage to treat tumors, and controlling
initiating humoral responses against the nano particle action as blood pressure for reducing the risk of cardiac diseases. A similar
antigens [10][11]. approach is completely useful in monitoring diabetic patients.
Nanobots will be used in the prevention of dental caries.
NANOVACCINES IN IMMUNOTHERAPY Meticulously designed dental-robots can identify and destroy
In immuno-therapeutic research, NPs shifted its focus in the disease-causing bacteria present in the plaques allowing the
medical field. For epidemics, tumors, or the initiation of tolerance unscathed species of oral micro-flora to improve in a healthy
in autoimmune diseases optimal selections to carry adjuvants for environment. Dental robots are also providing a check the
vaccines are the nano-sized systems [12]. The nanosystem-cells halitosis [18]. With everyday care using dental robots can result
interactions, i.e., the circulating time, distribution in tissues, and in the prevention of dental caries and gingival disease. Nanobots
interaction with and uptake by cells are influenced by the architecture for transmission of data, approach for
physical properties of particles [12]. The fine-tuning analysis of manufacturing, and control using telemetric tools were
parameters to the formulation according to the desired presented. The methods used by mobile phones play a vital role
characteristics cannot be precluded from the rational design of to bring the usage of medical nanobot treatments into public
nanovaccines. The significance should be placed on the selection lives. In the meanwhile, manufacturing technologies may bring in
of proper assays, evaluating particles-assays interactions in the advancement in a progressive manner, and the usage of
starting stages of the nano systems relies on established computational nano-mechatronics and virtual reality may also
laboratory models to inquire immunity profiles of the cellular- bring in in the process of creating transducers and actuators
compatibilities and the interactive-mechanisms [12]. At last, the pertinent to design of nanobotic equipment, along with Radio
NPs and the immune-interactions should be inquired in complex Frequency Identification Device and advances in nano-
zoonotic models in preclinical mode, where the vaccine will biotechnology applied to medical nanobotics. Recent and novel
encounter a complete immune system, and not only isolated manufacturing methodologies are encouraging innovative works
components. New materials development and NPs preparation and patents which may help in creating and employing nanobots
methods, the antigens delivery and immune-modulatory effectively for bio-medical challenges. They created a 3-D
molecules to modulate the immune response of the APCs and simulator is a rational tool for exploring novel technologies,
improve the clinical outcome [12,13]. In the coming future, based nanomanufacturing technologies and mobility of nanobot
on the practical design of each system, we envision the considerations consisting of actuation and transmission of data,
development of multiple NPs for immunotherapy [12]. gives a hand to designers for defining the suitable molecular and
machine build qualities. The combined use of nano photonic and
A prototypic severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) vaccine nanotube-based techniques can still improve the speed of
has been designed and produced by the students: a self- increasing actual levels of Complementary Metal Oxide
assembling poly-peptide nano particle that displays repetitively a Semiconductors resolution ranging down to 45nm configuration
SARS B-cell epitope from the C-terminal heptad repeat of the [19].
virus’ spike protein. A promising vaccine design platform is
represented by These peptide nano particles, in particular for NANOBOTS in MEDICAL APPLICATIONS
diseases that are characterized by neutralizing epitopes with The creative innovation of placing autonomous self-powered
coiled-coil conformation for SARS-CoViD-Ebola or other nanobots inside our bodies might look a bit different, but the
enveloped viruses [13]. human body teems with such nano devices. For example, trillion
unicellular micro-organisms swim through our colon which is ten
NANOBOTS - A SOLUTION TO PREVENT FUTURE DISEASES times greater than tissues. Bacteria displaces by whipping the
flagellum, which is driven by a nano meter level biological ionic
nano motor energized by differences between the outside and
the inside of the bacteria [20]. Human bodies can maintain
several greater than a trillion-mobile nano-bio device called
fibroblasts and white cells such as neutrophils and lymphocytes,
each measuring 10 microns. The beneficial natural nanobots are
moving inside of bodies of humans, healing injured tissues,
attacking incoming microorganisms, and gathering up alien
particles and transporting them to various exits of human bodies
and sent out [19].

Nanobots for Diabetic Patients

Fig.1: Nanobots Circulating in the Blood Diabetic patients must take the uncomfortable procedure of
giving many blood samples a day to monitor their levels of blood
Nano-robotics is the recent approach for the challenge of glucose. As a solution, the parameters of glucose in the blood
automating the nanotechnologically assembled devices for monitored constantly using nanobots. The medical practitioners
medical purposes. The challenge in these cases places its use this acquired data to optimize the treatment of patients
emphasis on nanobotic molecular manipulation control design including their nutritional ingestion. This is the safe process done
and to possess the rigidness of the optimized model [14]. Bio- with the help of nanobots for acquiring data and monitoring
based robots can be diverted by microbes and novel bio-machine patients.
to perform novel functions. Biobots are less patented compared
to common mechanical nanobots. So there exists a scope for
extending the research in the medical field for the multipurpose

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 NANOVACCINATION: EVOLUTION AND REVIEW

Quantum Dots for sequencing DNA effective with a simple delivery due to the slower delivery of the
QDs are nanoscale crystals and produce luminescence using UV antigen. The use of nanoparticles thus increases immunogenicity
light stimulated for a particular region of DNA. The wavelength due to the non-presence of inflammatory adjuvants [35]. The use
or color of the light depends on the size of the crystals. Latex of needle-free nasal vaccination with a composite of
beads designed with these nano scales QDs are used to prepare nanoemulsion and hepatitis B antigen was found to be
DNA sequencing [21]. comfortable instead of the irritating and inflammatory alum
adjuvant [35]. Refrigeration was not required for this since
Nano Cantilever Beams nanoemulsion was effective for 30 days at 26°C, and for 45 days
Nano scale cantilevers are beams built using different at 42°C [35], there is no refrigeration required for storing it and
lithographs covered with molecules capable of sticking to bio delivering to the nook and corner of the third world nations. Due
markers of tumor cells for sending signals of tumors [21]. to the high costs, low availability and cold storage requirement
for the vaccines, biodegradable and biocompatible polymers are
Nanoshells used to create nano particles prepared for vaccine release
Nanoshells with silico-metallic layers can produce thermal systems to increase immune responses [36].
energies that could get rid of tumor cells but not the healthy cells
by applying infra-red energy. [23]. For instance, gold contained The water in oil in water (W/O/W) emulsion is the method used
nano shells are used for light to heat conversion. in the preparation of antigen-trapped nanoparticles [37]. By the
process of homogenization or sonication, an aqueous solution of
CURRENT DEVELOPMENT OF ANTICANCER NANOMACHINES the antigen with a polymer in an organic solvent, a primary
AND NANOROBOTS emulsion (W/O) is formed [35]. The significant factor is the
In the previous decade, nanomaterials with antitumor properties variable ratio between the aqueous phases. The challenges
were coming up with complex nano-structures and property present in this technology that need to be addressed, with follow
relationships mimicking natural processes. It is commendable up using clinical studies are the repetition of the manufacturing
when a single nano particle having increased medicine carrying of water-soluble nano size (40-50 nm) formulation, combination,
ability and comparatively higher light to heat converting ability. and finding of immunity responses [38]. Trapping efficiency, rate
However, the bio- mechanisms provide an active block to of delivery reaction and other characteristics such as the study of
invading organisms including a nano particle. This problem can surface appearance, distribution of pores, and distribution of
be eliminated by engineering and fabricating innovative nano particle sizes influence the formulation and can be completed by
machines which are more reliable in modern drug delivery using a suitable combination of various polymers. Most of the
systems. They do the functions of storing, delivering, and nano vaccines are non-invasive, released by the nasal or oral
releasing drugs when induced by the stimuli [45][23]. The route, diffusion patches or micro needle arrays, thus allowing
aptamer is used for bio-recognition reactions and reacts pain-less with little destruction [35]. This is merit over multi-
especially with the tumor cell receptors. While illuminating in the injection, multi-dose delivery classical vaccines [39]. Mainly
near-infrared radiation, the iron oxide encourages apoptosis and based on the phytosanitary properties of the vaccine, regulatory
programmed death of cells. The high fluorescent and toxic fewer policies are framed. Other significant factors are unchanged
carbon nanodots (C-dots) are conjugated with semiconductive stability during production, transportation and storing. Though
iron oxide nanoparticles (hematite, Fe2O3) [45][24]. Nitrogen- nano particles are removed faster from the body, microparticles
doped C-dots have high quantum yield and synchronize with agglomerate in important parts of the body cause toxicity. To
photosensitivity with the semiconductive iron oxide speed up toxicological screening, researchers made a
nanoparticles. The nanocomposite (C-dots@Fe2O3) is the nano combination of the fast assay [43]. But, due to over a prolonged
converter [45][25]. Another example of the design of light- cleared period, with nanovaccines, this may induce toxicity.
powered nanomachine is the so-called “nanoimpeller”. The Hence, to study the efficacy evaluation of the nano vaccines is
design allows the nanoimpeller to be taken up by cancer cells in always essential [44-49].
dark conditions. The drug is released by the nano impeller from
the silica pores into the tumor cell when the sample is irradiated CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOKS
[45][26]. The nano machine operation is regulated by the The discovery and evolution of vaccines formulations from the
difference of radiation intensity, excitation and contact time. classical vaccines in the medical field have been considered as a
They could automatically initiate tasks like medicine release, masterstroke in human history. Vaccines have been in the
finding and killing tumor cells precisely. The nano scale evolution from the use of disease-causing microbes taken from
fabrication of nanobots has a self-controlled power supply, bio- infected peoples or fauna to the use of inactive microbes
sensors, nano motors, etc. for managing the laminar flow consisting of recombinant proteins. Nanotechnology played an
viscosity and scattered motion [27]. Their substructures include important role in the evolution of nano vaccines; which offers
drug carry, a mobile tail and other nano scale parts as supra- properties that may render high effectiveness and safety in
molecular structures. The nano motor might be powered by a gas vaccines [11]. Though we are at the early stage of the design and
pumping system which converts the pressure of gas into fabrication of nano vaccines and very little nano vaccines are in
rotational energy. The nanobots require molecular computing for the pre-clinical phases but these novel vaccines have a high
the synchronized working of their parts and appropriately ability for the prevention of most diseases. At last, we hope the
monitor the performance. The injected nanobots in the blood production of vaccines with high efficacy and safety in the future
move to the tumor cells and stick on it for releasing killing drugs with further research in this field.
only to the tumors [45]. This accurate focusing permits the use of Medical nanobots start opportunities to bring in improvement
small amounts of medicines and conforms to their release to the the tumor therapy by new generation nano materials and nano
tumor cells only. The alternate direction is there for the creation machines. The fast progression in the creation of nanobotics
of synthetic bio-nanobotics for tumor treatments. The bio- technology undoubtedly would produce high-powered tools
engineered microbes are used in gene therapies as transporting treatment of different soft tumor tissues. The medical nanobots
devices for different components [28-30]. The tumor splitting are expected to bring in new wellness and a sigh of relief to
microbes’ novel approaches in anticancer treatments [31]. cancer patients. This brings the possibility in the future, the
nanomachines or nanobots can provide the progress of
NANOVACCINES: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES customized personal medical care, and establishing an era in the
Trapping of invading bodies has been mostly used as it requires screening and prevention of diseases.
simple delivery, protects the antigen from destruction and is

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