25

CHAPTER 2
POLITICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIA
After the downfall of the Guptā Empire in the middle of sixth century

CE, several independent states rose to power in southern and northern India.

The prominent kingdoms in the north were- the Huṇas in the north-west, the

later Guptas of Magadha, the Maitrakas of Vallabhī, and Maukhris of Kanauj.

Main dynasties of Southern India were-the Pallavas of Kāñchi, the Chālukyas

of Bādāmī and the Pāṇḍayas of Madurai. In such circumstances, Pushyabhūti1

established the Vardhana kingdom in Thanesvara. The most famous and

powerful ruler of this dynasty was Harshavardhana (606-647 CE). After the

decline of Vardhana dynasty, many Rajput kingdoms were established in the

northern India from 647-1192 CE. This period is known as the Rajput Age in

the history of India. Feudalism was a peculiar feature of Early Medieval India.

This feudal system developed to the highest peak during the Rajput Age. From

seventh century to twelfth century CE, three prominent dynasties rose to power

in south India i.e. the Chālukyas of Vatāpi, the Rāsrakūas and the Cholas. The

Pāla dynasty of Bengal also played a very important role in the northern India.
In fact, the political history of India during 7-12th century CE saw

multiplicity of powers, which were rooted to their respective regions. The

hallmark of politics of this period lies in the emergence and development of

local and regional powers. The conventional narrative of the political history of

this period is replete with exaggerated careers and achievements of numerous

heroes based on the eulogies an account that rarely offers an intelligible

understanding of the political processes and activities. Royal inscriptions

1 Radha Kumud Mookerji, Harsha, p. 10.

26

usually begin with a praśasti-like eulogy of the entire ruling house2. Many

rulers of these dynasties of different kingdom of this period were great patrons

of literature. Some rulers, himself were scholar also, whose name was attached

with the writings.

Harshavardhana became the king of Thaneśwara/Thanesara at the tender

age of 16 year, after the death of his elder brother Rājyavardhana. Harsha made

Kanauj his seat of power3. By the seventh century CE, Pātalipūtra loosing his

supremacy and was not the main centre of power, losing its reputation, other

side Kanauj was taking the main place in the north Indian politics. Harsha is

known for his religious tolerance, able administration and diplomatic relations.

He established an administrative system of a high order, the object of which

was welfare of people. Although he was patron of Buddhism, yet he exhibited

tolerance towards other religions. He was also a scholar and poet and the

historian called him the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a

staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country4.

Harsha was not only a great conqueror and efficient administrator5 but

also a scholar of high order. He himself was a great scholar and literary figure.
He wrote three plays-Ratnāvalī, Priyadarśikā and Nāgānanda6. His court poet

named Baṇābhaa wrote Harshacharita7 and Kādambarī. These writings

throw valuable light on the political, economic, social and religious conditions
of the seventh century CE, and great importance from the historical point view.

Harsha used to spend one fourth of his income on scholastic activities. This

2 Ranabir Chakravarti, Exploring Early India upto c. AD 1300, p. 293.

3 Radha Kumud Mookerji, op.cit., p. 20.
4 R.S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, p. 260.
5 E.I., Vol. VIII, pp. 159-160.
6 A. B. Keith, Sanskrit Drama, p.170.
7 Ed. By P.V. Kane
 27

gave impetus to literary activities. Mayūra, Matanga, Divākara, Bhartrīhari etc

were the famous scholars of the Court of Harsha. Nālandā was the most famous

university of the ancient India. It had international fame. During Harsha‟s time,

its glory was at its zenith. According to Hiuen-Tsang, Nālandā was the most

famous and greatest university of India.

After the death of Harshavardhana and the establishment of Muslim rule

in North India, between this periods saw the rise of many regional states. These

developments simultaneously took place in the north as well as in the south

India also. The Pālas in the eastern and some portion of northern-India, the

Pratihāras in the western and northern India and the Rāshrakūtas who ruled in

the Deccan and had territories in the north and south India at different times,
were the significant dynasties. North India witnessed the struggle for political

ascendancy among these three dynasties from eighth century to eleventh

century CE. The aim of political ascendancy was to conquer and hold the city

of Kanauj. Kanauj had become a symbol of status those who will be the ruler of

Kanauj at that time, it was considered that he would be owner of North India.

Kanauj was a symbol of power due to its connection with Harsha and
Yaśovarmana, who maintained this status for the city. Kanauj was a bone of

contention among the three powers i.e. the Pāla, the Pratihāra and Rāshrakua8

and much of the military activities of these powers directed towards its
conquests. In this long drawn struggle, all the three powers grew weaker.

Consequently, the Senas in Bengal and the Chālukyas in south established their

kingdoms and the Pratihāra Empire were divided into several small
principalities.

8 S. C. Raychoudhary, SCEHI(AT), pp. 109-10.

28

Considering the clear interests of both the Gurjara-Pratihāras and the

Rāshrakūtas in capturing and controlling the strategically vital Mālavā region,

it has also been inferred that the cause of disagreement really lay in that area

and not in Kanauj. Therefore, the importance of Kanauj was more symbolic

than real and the period cannot be seen as the “Age of Imperial Kanauj”9.

The Pālas were great patrons of art and literature. Dharampāla was a

great patron of Buddhism. He was the founder10 of the Vikramśilā monastery

that ultimately developed into a great centre of Buddhist learning and culture.

The Pālas ruled Bengal and Bihar for more than four century. The rule of the

Pāla dynasty ended about the middle of the twelfth century CE.

The Pratihāras were probably an offshoot of the Gurjara who ruled after
the Huṇas. Mihirbhoja (836-885 CE) was the most powerful ruler of this

dynasty. A new and glorious chapter began in the history of the Pratihāras with

the accession of King Bhoja. The Arab traveler Sulemāna has praised his rule.

His successor Mahendrapāla (885-910 CE) also became quite famous. He was

not only a conqueror but also a great lover of art and literature. Rājaśekhara

was the most reputed court poet of Mahendrapāla11. In Rashrakūa,

Amoghvarsa I (814-878 CE) was the important ruler. His reign is known for

peace law and order, development of art and literature. He himself wrote

Rattan Malika, Kavīrajamārga. Indra III (914-922 CE) and Krishṇa III, the
conqueror of the Pallava and Chola country12 were the most powerful rulers of

this dynasty but after them, this dynasty met its downfall.

9 Ranabir Chakravarti, op. cit., p. 300.

10 P. N. Chopra etc. (Ed.), A New Advanced History of India, p. 160.
11 Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gujara-Pratihāras, p. 72.
12 E1, Vol. VII, p. 135; Vol. V, pp. 189-192.
 29

Many Rajput kingdoms were established in Northern India from 647 CE

(Death of Harsha) to 1192 CE (Battle of Terāin between Mohd.Ghori and

Pṛithvī Rāja Chauhāna). This period (647-1192 CE) is called the “Rajput Age”

in the history. During this period, a new kind of traits developed in northern

India that‟s way historians are called it Rajput period. It is called so, because

several Rajput kingdoms came into existence in different parts of India. The

major states were –Gahadavālas of Kanauj, the Paramāras of Mālavā,

Chauhāna of Ajmer, Kalachuris of Chedi, Chandellas of Bundelakhanḍa, the

Chālukya of Gujarat and the Tomaras of Delhi etc. The Rajputs dominated

political development of northern India after the death of Harshavardhana. The

origin of the Rajput is a matter of great controversy. There are many theories
regarding the origin of the Rajput. Feudalism developed to the highest peak

during the Rajput Age. In this system, the king acquired the services of the

feudal lords in the exchange of land.

The Paramāra dynasty established its kingdom in Mālavā in ninth

century CE. Muñja (974-995 CE) was a great ruler and was considered as one

of the important king of this dynasty. He played an important role in the

expansion of the Paramāra kingdom. He was not only a great patron13 of poets

but also himself a great poet. Dhanañjaya belonged to the court of Muñja

(Vakpatirāja II), who is mentioned in the last stanza of Daśarupaka14. The

most important king of this dynasty was Rājā Bhoja (1018-1060 CE)15. His

capital was at Dhārā, which became a great centre of learning. During his

period, Mālavā kingdom was very famous in India. Rājā Bhoja was an

13 J. Allan etc., The Cambridge Shorter History of India, p. 97

14 Vishnoṁ sutenāpi dhananjameya vidhnmanorāganibandahutuṁ I
Āvishkrita munjamahīsagoshthivaidagdyabhājā daśarupametat II Daśarupaka, 4.85
15 Banswara Plates of Bhojadeva V.S. 1076.
30

important political figure in the early medieval age. He was not only a learned

man but also patronized the learned people. He constructed the Bhojapur Lake.

He was also responsible for the construction of a Sanskrit school at Dhārā. He

sent an army to help the Śāhī Anandapāla of Punjab against Mahmūd of

Ghazanī. Bhoja was the most enlightened king in history and fable16.

The Chandellas rose into prominence in the ninth century CE and

established a kingdom, later known as Jaijakabhūkati in the Bundelakhanḍa

region. Nānaka Chandel17 was the founder of this dynasty. Khajurāho was their

capital. The first great ruler of this dynasty was Yaśovarmana who defeated the

Chedis and the Pratihāra ruler Devapāla18. His capital was Mahobā. Under the

patronage of Kirtivarmana, Krishṇa Miśra wrote Prabodha-Chandrodaya, a

drama based on the Vedānta philosophy. The Chandelas kings built memorable

monuments in Khajurāho, which are the living examples of their exceptional

skill of architecture.

Guvaka at Sambhar founded the Chauhāna dynasty. Ajaydeva, a ruler

belonging to this dynasty, founded a new city, named Ajaymeru, modern

Ajmer. The next important king was Viśaladeva (1153-64) who captured Delhi
and extended this empire. He was great lover of art and literature and an

outstanding writer also. His play Harikeli is very famous. He patronized and

honoured the scholars. He was a great warrior, builder, poet and patron of art
and literature.19 Pṛithvirāja Chauhāna (Rai Pithorā) was another important king

of this dynasty. He was the greatest ruler of the Chauhāna dynasty, and played

an important role at the time of Muslim aggressions. He defeated Muhammad

16 P. V. Kane, HSP, pp. 257-63.

17 P. N. Chopra etc.(Ed.), op.cit., p. 164.
18 D. C. Ganguly, “Central and Western India”, in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial
Kanauj, pp. 83-84.
19 B.N. Luniya, Life and Culture in Medieval India, pp 107-08.
 31

Ghauri in the first battle of Tarāin in 1191 CE. Unfortunately, in the second

battle of Tarāin (1192 CE) Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithvirāja Chouhāna.

There was going a rivalry between Pṛithvirāja and Raja Jayachanda of Kanauj.

Sanyogītā, daughter of Jayachanda, fell in love with Pṛithvirāja because of his

bravery. But Jayachanda was against this marriage. Pṛithvirāja abducted

Sanyogītā and married her. This resulted in enmity between the two dynasties,

which ultimately led to the destruction of both20 at the hand of Mohammad

Gauri. His achievements have been described by Chandbardai and Jayānaka in

their books named Pṛithvīrāja Rāso21 and Pṛithvirāja Vijaya22 respectively.

Guhilas dynasty was one of the most famous and oldest dynasties of the

Rajputs. Bappā Rāwal was the reputed ruler of this dynasty who ruled in the
eighth century CE. He made his capital at Chittor. The Tomara of Delhi, the

Chālukya of Gujarat, the Gahadavals of Kanauj, the Śāhi kingdom of Punjab,

the Kalchuris of Chedi and the Sena of Bengal etc. were political powers of

early medieval India who played important role in the history of India.

In the seventh century CE, Durlabh Vardhan founded the Korkot

dynasty in Kashmir23. Lalitaditya (725-760 CE) was the most powerful ruler of
this dynasty. He was a great warrior who defeated king Yaśovarmana of

Kanauj24. Avantivarmana laid the foundation of Utpala dynasty in Kashmir in

855 CE25. His reign was remarkable for his literary activities and for beneficial
schemes of drainages and irrigation26. He ruled successfully till 883 CE.

Kshemgupta was married to Didā, the princess of „Hindu Śāhī‟ kingdom. After

20 James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajast’han, p. 208.

21 Ed. By S.S. Das.
22 Ed. With comm.. of Jonarāja by G.H. ojha and C.S. Gulrei.
23 The Mugals called it (Kashmir) the earthly paradise of India.
24 Rt. By Ranjit Sita Ram Pandit appendix A, p. 691.
25 op. cit., IV, 716
26 V. A. Smith, The Early History of India, pp. 387-88.
32

the death of Kshemgupta, his widow Didā ruled over Kashmir from 980 CE to

1003 CE. Sangrāmrāja was the founder27 of the Lohara dynasty in Kashmir. He

repulsed several attacks of Mahmud of Ghazanī. The history of Kashmir from

the seventh century CE, has been recorded in the detail in the Rājatraṅgiṇī28

(River of kings) written by a learned Brāhmaṇa named Kalhaṇa in the twelfth

century CE. Kalhaṇa is really the best historian of early medieval India and his

work Rājatraṅgiṇī is regarded as superior to the genealogies of the rest of

India. Sanskrit literature found an original home in Kashmir at all times. There

was a galaxy of poets under Avantivarmana29.

The feudal system was the remarkable feature of the political

organization of the Rajput Age. Feudal system means that political, social and
economic system which is based on land and its income and expenditure of

local administration is under the control of Jagirdārs. The most significant

consequence of land grants was the emergence of a class of landlords living on

the produce of the peasants. By fifth-sixth centuries, this paved the way for a

new type of social formation, which can be termed feudal30. The king was the

master of the whole land, he granted a piece of land to some feudal lords. They
helped their king in times of war and piece. During the reign of Kaṇishka, the

word feudal lord was used for the subordinates of the kings and later in the

reign of Harshavardhana, there was a custom of giving revenue free lands to

high official in lieu of their royal services. The emergence of many defeated

and subordinate rulers slowly added to the stock of the group. But feudal

system was established as a political organization during the Rajput Age.

27 U. N. Ghoshal, Studies in Indian History and Culture, p. 187

28 Ed. and Tr. By Sir M.A. Stein, Ranjit Sita Ram Pandit, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi.
29 Rt., V, 34
30 R.S. Sharma, op. cit. p. 305.
 33

Most of the high official was granted land in lieu of salaries and these

offices became hereditary. They were independent to rule the area under them,

were competent to impose taxes as per their will, and could collect them. They

had the administrative and judicial powers in their areas. From the

administrative point of view, the feudal system had the advantage of obviating

the need for a centrally administered bureaucracy31 Merits and demerits both

were present in the feudal system. Generally, the feudal lords were selfishly

busy in fulfilling their own needs. As soon as they were provided an

opportunity, they rebelled against the king.

Feudal system had a far-reaching impact on India. The king did not

maintain a permanent army. The feudal lords kept the army and helped the king
at the time of war. Due to this, the central power became weak and ruler was

made dependent on the feudal lords, who maintained armed forces that could

be used to fight against the king. The internal weakness of the Indian rulers

came to forefront, due to this internal weakness, Turks and other invaders were

inspired to attack on India. The small feudal states discouraged trade and

commerce and encouraged a few villages to become self-sufficient. The feudal

lords acted as an intermediary between the king and the peasantry. They

(feudal) exploited the peasantry class. This system laid more emphasis on

agriculture than on trade and industry. As a result, the growth of towns and
cities come to a halt32. For so many reasons, the feudal system proved harmful

for the Rajput.

The emergence of the regional states took place in south India from end
of the sixth century or beginning of seventh century CE to twelfth century CE.

31 Romila Thapar, A History of India, Vol. I, p. 245.

32 R. S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, p. 326.
34

Four prominent royal dynasties rose to power in south India i.e. the western

Chālukyas of Vātāpi or Bādāmī, the Pallavas of Kāñchī, the Rāsrakua, and

the Cholas. South India under these dynasties witnessed unprecedented

progress in the field of administration, economy, religion, culture literature and

art. Others dynasties of south India were the Chālukyas of Kalyāṇi, the Eastern

Chālukyas of Veṅgi, the Pānḍayas of Madurai, the Yādavas of Devagiri, the

Kakatiyas of Wārangal and the Hoyasalas of Dvarasamudra. The Pallavas and

the Pāṇḍays were the prominent powers in the south from 600 to 700 CE. The

Rāsrakūa rose to power after the fall of the Chālukyas of Bādāmī. Rāsrakūa

powerful kingdom of south, ruled from eight century to tenth century CE.

Between tenth to twelfth century CE, the Cholas played a very important role
in the history of south. The south India was divided into many small regional

kingdom from 900 CE to 1300 CE. The Cholas had continuous fights with

these kingdoms from time to time. A special feature of the south Indian polity

was that these kingdoms always kept fighting with one another.

The Chālukyas were one of the dominant kingdoms that played a

significant role in the rise of regional states in the Deccan. They were the
dominant power in the south from 6th to 8th century CE33 and then again in the

10th - 12th century CE. Three branches of the Chālukyas ruled in three different

regions. The Chālukyas of Vātāpi or Bādāmī (early Western Chālukyas) who

ruled for about two centuries from the middle of the sixth century to the middle

of the eight-century CE and they were ousted by the Rāsrakūas. The later

Western Chālukyas of Kalyāṇi overthrew the Rāsrakuas and they ruled from
the second half of the tenth century CE to the end of twelfth century CE. The

33 Saroj Gulati, “ Guptotara Kāla: Rājanītika Sthiti,” in D. N. Jha and K. M. Shrimali (Ed.),
Prāchīna Bhārata Kā Itihāsa, pp. 337-42
 35

Eastern Chālukyas or Chalūkyas of Veṅgi, ruled from the seventh to twelfth

century CE.

Pulkeśina II (610-642 CE)34 was the greatest ruler of the Chālukyas of

Vātāpi. He was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of art and

literature. His court poet Ravikīrtī, a Jaina poet, mentions his achievements in

the Aihole inscription. He defeated the Kadambs, the Gaṇgas of south Mysore

and the Alapas of Mālābāra on the banks of river Narmada. Pulakeśina II

defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarmana I of Kāñchī. He had not fully

established his control over Kāñchī, so he invaded Kāñchī for the second time.

But Pulakeśina II was killed in this battle. The Pallavas established their hold

over Vātāpi, but soon they lost it to the Chālukyas. Pulkeśina II was
undoubtedly one of the greatest kings of ancient India. He had friendly

relations with Khuśru II, the ruler of Persia. Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese traveler

during his visit to the south, met Pulkeśina II at Nasik and was very much

impressed by the rule of Pulkeśina II.

The founder of the later Western Chālukya or the Chālukya of Kalyāṇi

was Taila or Tailapa II35. He ruled for 24 years from 973 to 997 CE. Someśvara
I (1042-1068 CE) and Someśvara II (1068-1076 CE) were the able and

powerful rulers of this dynasty. Someśvara I made Kalyaṇī as the capital of

Chālukya. But Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE), the younger brother of

Someśwara II was the ablest and the greatest ruler of this dynasty. He was

doubtless the most striking personality in the dynasty36. He founded a new era

known as Chālukya Vikrama era in 1076 when he sat on the throne as a king.
He defeated the Cholas, Hoyasalas, and the rulers of Vanavāsi. Two great

34 E I, Vol. VI, pp. 1-12.

35 V. A. Smith, op.cit, p. 446
36 R.S. Tripathi, History of Ancient India, p. 423.
36

writers, named Bilhaṇa author of the Vikramānkadeva-charita and

Vijñaneśvara author of Mitāksharā, flourished at the court of Vikramaditya VI.

His court poet Bilhaṇa presented an exaggerated account of his achievements.

After Vikramaditya VI, rulers of this dynasty were not able and started the

downfall of this dynasty. This came to an end in c. 1190 CE. King Someśvara,

surnamed Bhulokamalla and Satyaśrayakulatilaka, was the author of

Manasolāsa, the date of composition of this work seems to be 1052 śaka (1131

CE)37.

Pulkeśina II's brother Vishṇu Vardhana founded an independent state in

Veṅgi in 615 CE. Actually, Pulkśina II appointed his brother Vishṇuvardhana

as a viceroy of Pishtapur in 615 CE. But Vishṇuvardhana declared himself as

an independent king ruled from 615 to 633 CE and made Veṅgi, as a capital.

His successors came to be known as eastern Chālukyas of Veṅgi. Many rulers

of this dynasty ruled till twelfth century CE.

The Chālukyas rulers were great patron of art and literature. This period

witnessed a rapid progress in the field of architecture, sculpture, painting etc.

Aihole, Bādāmi, Paadakal, Kalyāṇi and Veṅgī were the main centre of
architecture. About 70 temples are found at Aihole alone; therefore, it is called

the city of temple. Many paintings at Ajānta and Ellorā were created during the

Chālukya period. We found development of literature during the period of

Chālukyas, Sanskrit was the language of court. Regional languages also

flourished during this period. The rulers of Chālukyas dynasties were great,

patron of scholars. Prominent scholars of that time were Ravīkīrti, Bilhaṇa,

Vijñaneśvara, Bhāravi, Durvinīta, and Pujyapadd etc.

37 Manasolāsa, Vol. I, preface, p. vi.

 37

The Rashrakūas rose to power after the downfall of Chālukyas of

Bādāmī. Dantidurga (753-758 CE) was the founder38 of this dynasty.

Amoghvarsha I (814-878 CE), the son of Govinda III was important king of

this dynasty. He was follower of Jainism and believed in non-violence.

Amoghavarsha was a patron of learning and literature39. He was a poet and

patronized Jinasena, Mahāvīrachārya, and Śakaāyana. He himself wrote

Kavirājamārga in Kannaḍa40. Jinasena wrote the Ādi-purāṇa. Mahāvirachārya

was the author of Gaṇitasāra-saṁgraha, and Śakaāyana wrote Amoghvṛiti.

Amoghavarsha built his capital at Manyakheta or Mālakeda, which was famous

for his prosperity. Krishṇa III (940-968 CE) was the most powerful king of this

dynasty. The Rashrakūas re-established their supremacy in the south India

under Krishṇa III but he could not gain any success in the north. He captured

the important cities of Kāñchī and Tanjor in 943 CE. He defeated the Chola

army in the battle of Tokkolam in 949 CE. He was the last ablest king of this

dynasty. His successors were weak and imbecile rulers. Taking advantage of

their weakness, Taila, a feudal lord, revolted and became the independent king

of Deccan and founded the Chālukya dynasty of Kalyāṇi. The Rashrakūas

rulers were great patron of education and literature. They made a splendid

contribution to Indian art. The rock-cut shrines at Ellorā and Elephantā belong

to this period. The Kailāśa temple at Ellorā is worth mentioning. The temple is
a wonderful specimen of ancient technique of architecture.

The Pallavas came into prominence as a political power in south from

6th to 8th century CE41. Siṁhavishṇu was the real founder of the Pallavas

38 A. S. Altekar, “ The Rāshrakūa Empire” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial

Kanauj, p. i.
39 Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, p.557
40 R. S. Mugali, History of Kannada Literature, p. 12
41 S. C. Raychoudhary, op. cit., p. 119
38

dynasty. He ruled in the last quarter of sixth century CE. The Pallavas started

on their career of political and cultural achievements during his reign. He is

credited to conquer Cholamaṇḍalam. He also defeated a number of enemies.

He was a patron of art, literature and culture. He was a patron of Bhāravī, the

author of Kirātārjunia. Mahābalipuram42 became the centre of art during his

reign. Siṁhavishṇu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarmana I who ruled

from 600 CE to 630 CE. Mahendervarman I was an able and versatile monarch,

great in war and peace. He was a builder and poet. The musical exercise

engraved on a rock in Kudimiyāmalai (Pudukkoai) testifies to his great

interest in Music43. He was a poet, musician and a critic. He wrote the

Mattavilasa-prahasana in Sanskrit.
Narsimhavarman I (630-668 CE) was probably the greatest ruler of

Pallava dynasty. He defeated the famous Chālukyas king Pulakeśina II, killed

him in the battle and occupied the Chālukya capital Bādāmī in 642 CE. He sent

two naval expeditions to Śrilankā to help of his ally Manavarmana. He built

several monolithic temples at Mahābalipuram. Hiuen Tsang visited in the south

during Narsiṁhavarman I reign. The Chinese pilgrim has given an interesting

account of Pallava territory, the city of Kāñchī. The next important king of

Pallava dynasty was Narsiṁhavarman II Rājasiṁha (695-722 CE). His reign

was marked by peace and prosperity. He is known for his temple construction
activities. He built the Kailaśanātha temple at Kāñchī and Śore temple at

Mahābali-puram. He was a great patron of literature. The rhetorician Daṇḍin,

the great Sanskrit scholar, was his court poet, who wrote Kāvyadarśa and
Daśa-kumāracharita. Narsiṁhavarman II sent an embassy to the court of

42 Romila Thapar, , op. cit., p. 170

43 K. A. N. Shastri and G. Shrinivasachari, Advance History of India, p. 284.
 39

Chinese emperor for the development of trade. Many rulers of Pallava dynasty

ruled many years. The later Pallava kings sank into the position of mere nobles

and officials in the service of others. The Pallava chiefs can be traced down to

the 13th century CE. This dynasty has produced several powerful and able

rulers under whose patronage education, art, literature and administrative

system developed a lot.

The Chola was the most prominent kingdom in the south India. The

Cholas were ancient mighty power. After the downfall of the Pallavas, the

Cholas once again came into power. Vijayālaya, a feudatory of the Pallavas

became the founder of the Chola dynasty, in the middle of the ninth century

CE. Rājarāja the Great (became the king in 985 CE)44 and Rajendra I (Sat on
throne in 1012 CE)45 were the most powerful rulers of the Chola dynasty.

The accession of Rājarāja I is a turning point in the history of the

Cholas. He defeated the Cheras, the Chālukyas of Veṅgī, the Pānḍays of

Mudrai, the Gaṇgas of south Mysore, Kalinga, north Śrīlankā and Māldives

Islands46. He was a great administrator and encouraged the local self-

government. He built a Śiva temple named Rājarajeśwara at Tanjore47.

His son, Rājendra I, succeeded Rājarāja. Like his father, Rājendra I was

a great expansionist, a successful ruler and a conqueror. He forwards the Chola

armies to the distant lands of Bangāl and Orissa. He conquered Ceylon

(Śrīlankā) and imprisoned its king Mahendra V. Almost whole of the Ceylon,

became a part of the Chola Empire. His navy attacked the Śrivijaya Empire48

44 E I, Vol. VII, p. 6.
45 ibid., pp. 7, 137.
46 R. Sathianthaier, “The Cholas” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire, pp. 234-35.
47 M. Arunachalam, “Literary Heritage- Medieval Period”, in S. V. Subramanian and V.
Veerasami,(Ed.), Cultural Heritage of The Tamils, pp. 9-10.
48 Upinder Singh, op. cit., p. 559.
40

that was a great naval power in South East Asia at that time, and forced it to

accept his suzerainty. He was the first Indian ruler who established the

supremacy of Indian navy in the sea. After Rajendra I, many rulers of this

dynasty came to power, but they were not as abler as Rājarāja and Rājendra I.

Malika Kāfūra a general of Alu-ud-din-Khilji plundered the Chola kingdom

and the Cholas authority ended in 1310 CE.

The arrangements of local self-government have been regarded as the

basic feature of administration of the Cholas. Rājendra I encouraged art and

architecture. He founded the city Gangai-konḍa-cholapurama and made it his

capital49. The Cholas rulers were a great patron of art and literature. They

patronized scholars and literary personalities. Tamil literature made a lot of

progress during the Chola period. Kamban wrote the Rāmāyaṇa in Tamil.

Nāyanāra (Saiva Saints) and Ālvāra (Vaishṇava Saints) poets and saints were

flourished during this period. They composed several beautiful devotional

songs because of the revival of Bhakti. A very rich type of literature based on

the Vedas, the Purāṇas, the epics, astrology, grammar etc., developed. The

Cholas rulers took keen interest in literature and patronized the authors.
The Pānḍayas dynasty was one of the oldest dynasties of south India.

They occupied the reign comprising the modern district of Madurā and

Tinnevelly, part of Trichinopoly and some times of Travancore. Pliny,

Megasthenese, the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy

were well informed about the names and positions of the Pānḍayas country. In

the Sangam literature, which was written in Tamil language, Pānḍayas kings
played a very important role. In the early medieval India, we found the up and

downs in the Pānḍayas State. Arikeśri Parānkuśa (670-710 CE) was a great

49 V. A. Smith, op. cit., p. 487

 41

general and won victory over the Cheras and Pallavas. Srimar Śrivallabha (815-

862 CE) was also an able king of this dynasty who defeated the king of Ceylon

(Śrīlankā). He also defeated a confederacy consisting of the Gaṇgas, Pallavas

Kalingas etc. When Cholas captured the power in the south, Pānḍayas seemed

some weak. In the last quarter of tenth century and beginning of the eleventh

century CE, another attempt was made by the Pānḍayas to revive their past

glory but they failed. During the twelfth century CE, the Pānḍays continued to

grow under the leadership of Jaavarmana Kula- Śekhara who got throne in

1190 CE, the Pānḍayas made a recovery. He was a great ruler and harbinger of

his country‟s independence. His inscriptions are found in the Madurā, Rāmnād

and Tinnevelly districts and Travancore was subordinate to him. He seems to

have assumed the title of Rājagambhīra50.

The Yādavas of Devagiri, the Hoyasalas of Dvarasamundra, the

Kakatiyas of Wārangal, were among the most powerful and important

feudatories who were anxious to throw off the imperial claims of the

Chālukyan monarch. In the heart of the Chālukyan kingdom, political

rebellions were going on with lightning speed51. In the twelfth century CE,
small state of Kalachūri also played a very important role in the polity of south.

Bijjala Kalachūri tenure of rule was marked by the rise of the Liṅgāyata or

Vīraśaivas sect, which is still powerful in the Kanarese country.

On the orders of Al-Hizāz, an Arabian youth Mohd-Bin-Kāsim attacked

on Sindh in 711-712 CE. The cause of Arab invasion was the object of

spreading Islam and enriching themselves with plunder. The main cause of this
invasion on Sindh was that precious gifts sent from Ceylon to the Khalifā were

50 R. Sathianathaier, “The Later Pandyas” in RC Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire,
p. 256.
51 KAN Shastri, G Shrinivasachari, op. cit., p. 297.
42

way laid by sea-pirates at Debal near Karāchī. The Khalifā asked the ruler of

Sindh to pay compensation and handed over the robbers. At his refusal to do

so, he ordered to Mohd-Bin-Kāsim to attack Sindh. Kāsim with a large army

conquered Sindh52 in 712 CE. He defeated and killed the king Dāhir in the

battle of Rāwar in 712 CE. He conquered Nerun, Sehwan and Multāna also.

But Kāsim was killed at the orders of the Khalifā. The morale of the Arabs in

the Muslim world for a short time boosted due to conquest of Sindh and

Multāna. The Arab invasion of Sindh is generally perceived as an advent of

political troubles for Indian powers, this hardly had an impact in the overall

political fabric of the subcontinent.

The year 1000 CE was a fateful year for India when Mahmūd of
Ghazanī first invaded it53. Mahmūd (998-1030 CE) was the greatest of the

Ghazanavids and made seventeen raids on India in thirty years. The main

object of his Indian operations was not the conquest but the capturing of gold,

jewels and slaves, refreshing the Ghazanī treasury with the riches of India.

First, he defeated the Jayapāla of Punjab in 1001 CE. Jayapāla ended his life

upon the funeral pyre54. In CE 1008-09, at Waihind near Peśāwara, the capital
of the Hindu Kingdom, Mahmūd defeated the Anandapāla, the son of Jayapāla.

The fall of Narāyaṇapūra (1009 CE) in Rajasthan indicated Mahmūd‟s

aspirations to advance into western India. He attacked and plundered the

Thaneśwara, Mathurā etc. the subsequent raids of Mahmūd were aimed to

plundering the rich temples and cities of northern India. He raided Kanauj in

1018 CE and Somanātha in Gujarat in 1025 CE. He had twofold objectives in

52 J. Allan etc., , op. cit., p. 161

53 Elliot and Dowson‟s, History of India As Told By Its Own Historians, Vol. II, p. 437.
54 D. C. Ganguly, “Ghaznavid Invasion” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire,
pp. 6-7
 43

plundering the temples i.e. acquisition of fabulous wealth of the temples and to

become famous as an iconoclast. He made last raid on Multāna in 1027 CE. He

died at Ghazanī in the age 59 years in 1030 CE55. But no attempt was made by

Mahmūd to annex any part of India except Punjab. The inclusion of the Punjab

and Afghanistan in the kingdom of Ghazanī made the Islamic conquest of India

a comparatively easy process56. Mahmūd was a great patron of learning. Abū-

Rihān Alberūni, who wrote Traikh-e-Hind in Arabī language, came to India

during the raids of Mahmūd with him. Alberūni produced valuable information

of political, economical, social-cultural and religious of eleventh century CE of

India. Firdousi, a famous Persian poet, wrote the Śāhanāmā, was also in the

court of Mahmūd. His patronage of art and literature in his own kingdom also
distinguishes him as a great king.

The last quarter of the twelfth century CE, was very crucial for Indians.

The Turks entered in India under the leadership of Muhammad Ghaurī. The

Muhammad Ghauri laid the foundations of Islamic rule in India. Muhammad

Ghauri ascended the throne at Ghazanī in 1173 CE while his elder brother was

ruling at Ghor. In 1175 CE, he Conquered Multana57. Next, he took the fortress
of Uchcha. In 1178 CE, he attacked on Gujarat, but he was defeated and

compelled to retreat. Then he realized the importance of having a base in

Punjab before invading India. He conquered Peśāwara, Lahore and the forts of
Debal and Sialkot. In the first battle of Tarāin (1191 CE), he was defeated by

Pṛithvīrāja Chauhāna58 but the brave Pṛithvīrāja lost the second battle of Tarāin

(1192 CE), the turning point of history of India came. Muhammad Ghauri

55 ibid- p. 22.
56 D. C. Ganguly, op. cit., p. 22.
57 J. Allan, , op. cit., p. 164.
58 E. B. Havell, The History of Aryan Rule in India, p. 291.
44

defeated the Jayāchanda of Kanauj in the battle of Chandwar in 1194 CE. He

captured the Kanauj, Banaras etc. and extended it his frontiers to the borders of

Bihar. Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalazi and Qutub-din- Aibak, who were the

efficient military general of Muhammad Ghauri, played a very important role it

conquer the remaining part of north India. The conquest of Muhmmad Ghauri

had far-reaching results. After the death of Muhammad Ghauri, Qutub-din-

Aibak firmly grasped the power in India and established the Turkish sultanate

of India at Lahore in 1206 CE.

It is true that Indians suffered defeat several times in the field of battle

and lost extensive territories. But this did not mean the end of their well-

developed culture. Conquest of Sindh by the Arab under leadership of Kāsim in

712 CE was considered as a mere episode in the history, a victory without

result by many historians. But the Arab conquest of Sindh was of great

significance from the cultural point view. They were greatly influenced by

Indian culture and civilization. Many things were learnt by Arabs from India

and transmitted to Europe. Indian books were translated into Arabi language.

Due to raids of Mahmūd Ghazanī on North India, shocked Indian sense of

ancient superiority. Rajputs did not hesitate to sacrifice their lives in the

battlefield; still they failed to face the Turks invasions of 11th and 12th century

CE. The Turks destroyed their kingdoms and laid the foundation of Muslim

empire on their reins.

Early medieval period (7-12th century CE) witnessed unsurpassed

progress in the field of literature. The reason behind this was that many Rajput

rulers were quite learned persons. They gave special respect and honour to the

scholars and patronized them. Secondly, this time saw the growth of many
 45

great poets, dramatists and writers, which names were attached with many

outstanding works in Sanskrit and other regional languages. During this period

regional languages developed and regional literature came into being.

Feudalism became more powerful and pervasive. This changed the social,

political and economic structure of India, and contributed the regional

languages and literature.

This period was not only remarkable for political integration in south

India but also for cultural development. In south India, politically it was a

glorious age of history. The Chālukyas of Bādāmī, the Pallavas of Kāñchī, the

Pāṇḍaya of Madurai were the main three powers of South59. Rāshrakūas were

also played a very important role in the polity of north and south India. When

Cholas flourished once again in the tenth century CE, they not only united the

south India but also defeated the many kingdoms outside the India. Besides the

political conflicts, this period witnessed great cultural growth. This was the

time of the revival of Hinduism in the south. Bhakti movement started in the

south in this time. Devotional literature and advanced philosophical speculation

of Hinduism and Jainism were composed during this period. Great literary

contribution took place in Sanskrit and regional language such as Tamil,

Telugu, Kannaḍa and Malayālama.

The period marks the spread of Sanskrit throughout the subcontinent

along with the emergence of a number of regional vernaculars. Prākrit could

also be the Vehicle of writings. This is an important fact that Modern Indian

languages took the shape in this period from the different Prākrits. The first

phase of the contact of Muslim with India began towards the end of the 7th

59 Romila Thapar, op. cit., p. 168.

46

century CE. The second phase of this contact beginning in the 11th century CE

in Northern India is much more significant for the culture history of India than

the first one. This period proved to be a blooming one in the history of

historical writings in the early medieval India, because a number of historical

biographies were produced in different parts of India.