11.

4 Polar Coordinates 917

11.4 Polar Coordinates

In Section 1.1, we introduced the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the plane as a means of
assigning ordered pairs of numbers to points in the plane. We defined the Cartesian coordinate
plane using two number lines – one horizontal and one vertical – which intersect at right angles at a
point we called the ‘origin’. To plot a point, say P (−3, 4), we start at the origin, travel horizontally
to the left 3 units, then up 4 units. Alternatively, we could start at the origin, travel up 4 units,
then to the left 3 units and arrive at the same location. For the most part, the ‘motions’ of the
Cartesian system (over and up) describe a rectangle, and most points can be thought of as the
corner diagonally across the rectangle from the origin.1 For this reason, the Cartesian coordinates
of a point are often called ‘rectangular’ coordinates. In this section, we introduce a new system for
assigning coordinates to points in the plane – polar coordinates. We start with an origin point,
called the pole, and a ray called the polar axis. We then locate a point P using two coordinates,
(r, θ), where r represents a directed distance from the pole2 and θ is a measure of rotation from
the polar axis. Roughly speaking, the polar coordinates (r, θ) of a point measure ‘how far out’ the
point is from the pole (that’s r), and ‘how far to rotate’ from the polar axis, (that’s θ).
y

P (−3, 4) P (r, θ)
3
2 θ
r
1

r Polar Axis
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x Pole
−1
−2
−3
−4

For example, if we wished to plot the point P with polar coordinates 4, 5π

6 , we’d start at the pole,
move out along the polar axis 4 units, then rotate 5π
6 radians counter-clockwise.
5π


P 4, 6

5π
θ= 6
r=4
Pole Pole Pole

We may also visualize this process by thinking of the rotation first.3 To plot P 4, 5π


6 this way,
5π
we rotate 6 counter-clockwise from the polar axis, then move outwards from the pole 4 units.
1
Excluding, of course, the points in which one or both coordinates are 0.
2
We will explain more about this momentarily.
3
As with anything in Mathematics, the more ways you have to look at something, the better. The authors
encourage the reader to take time to think about both approaches to plotting points given in polar coordinates.
918 Applications of Trigonometry

5π
Essentially we are locating a point on the terminal side of 6 which is 4 units away from the pole.
5π


P 4, 6

5π 5π
θ= 6
θ= 6

Pole Pole Pole

If r < 0, we begin by

moving in the opposite direction on the polar axis from the pole. For example,
to plot Q −3.5, π4 we have
r = −3.5
Pole θ= π Pole Pole
4

π


Q −3.5, 4

If we interpret the angle first, we rotate π4 radians, then move back through the pole 3.5 units.
Here we are locating a point 3.5 units away from the pole on the terminal side of 5π π
4 , not 4 .

π π
θ= θ= 4
4

Pole Pole Pole

π


Q −3.5, 4

As you may have guessed, θ < 0 means the rotation away from the polar axis is clockwise instead
3π


of counter-clockwise. Hence, to plot R 3.5, − 4 we have the following.
r = 3.5
Pole Pole Pole

θ = − 3π
4

R 3.5, − 3π


4

From an ‘angles first’ approach, we rotate − 3π

4 then move out 3.5 units from the pole. We see that
R is the point on the terminal side of θ = − 3π
4 which is 3.5 units from the pole.

Pole Pole Pole

θ = − 3π
4
θ = − 3π
4

R 3.5, − 3π


4
11.4 Polar Coordinates 919

The points Q and R above are, in fact, the same point despite the fact that their polar coordinate
representations are different. Unlike Cartesian coordinates where (a, b) and (c, d) represent the
same point if and only if a = c and b = d, a point can be represented by infinitely many polar
coordinate pairs. We explore this notion more in the following example.
Example 11.4.1. For each point in polar coordinates given below plot the point and then give
two additional expressions for the point, one of which has r > 0 and the other with r < 0.

1. P (2, 240◦ ) 2. P −4, 7π 3. P 117, − 5π 4. P −3, − π4

6 2

Solution.
1. Whether we move 2 units along the polar axis and then rotate 240◦ or rotate 240◦ then move
out 2 units from the pole, we plot P (2, 240◦ ) below.

θ = 240◦

Pole Pole

P (2, 240◦ )

We now set about finding alternate descriptions (r, θ) for the point P . Since P is 2 units from
the pole, r = ±2. Next, we choose angles θ for each of the r values. The given representation
for P is (2, 240◦ ) so the angle θ we choose for the r = 2 case must be coterminal with 240◦ .
(Can you see why?) One such angle is θ = −120◦ so one answer for this case is (2, −120◦ ). For
the case r = −2, we visualize our rotation starting 2 units to the left of the pole. From this
position, we need only to rotate θ = 60◦ to arrive at location coterminal with 240◦ . Hence,
our answer here is (−2, 60◦ ). We check our answers by plotting them.

Pole

θ = −120◦ Pole
θ = 60◦

P (2, −120◦ ) P (−2, 60◦ )

2. We plot −4, 7π by first moving 4 units to the left of the pole and then rotating 7π


6 6 radians.
Since r = −4 < 0, we find our point lies 4 units from the pole on the terminal side of π6 .

7π


P −4, 6

Pole Pole

7π
θ= 6
920 Applications of Trigonometry

To find alternate descriptions for P , we note that the distance from P to the pole is 4 units, so
any representation (r, θ) for P must have r = ±4. As
we noted above, P lies on the terminal
side of π6 , so this, coupled with r = 4, gives us 4, π6 as one of our answers. To find a different
representation for P with r = −4, we
may choose5πany angle coterminal
with the angle in the
original representation of P −4, 7π 6 . We pick − 6 and get −4, − 5π
6 as our second answer.

π
P −4, − 5π



P 4, 6 6
θ= − 5π
6
π
θ= 6

Pole Pole

3. To plot P 117, − 5π


2 , we move along the polar axis 117 units from the pole and rotate
clockwise 5π
2 radians as illustrated below.

Pole Pole

θ = − 5π
2

P 117, − 5π


2

Since P is 117 units from the pole, any representation (r, θ) for P satisfies r = ±117. For the
r = 117 case, we can take θ to be any angle coterminal with − 5π 2 . In this case, we choose
3π 3π


θ = 2 , and get 117, 2 as one answer. For the r = −117 case, we visualize moving left 117
units from the pole and then rotating through an angle θ
to reach P . We find that θ = π2
satisfies this requirement, so our second answer is −117, π2 .

Pole Pole

3π π
θ= 2
θ= 2

3π π



P 117, 2
P −117, 2
11.4 Polar Coordinates 921

π
4. We move three units to the
left of the pole and follow up with a clockwise rotation of 4
radians to plot P −3, − π4 . We see that P lies on the terminal side of 3π
4 .

P −3, − π4

θ = − π4

Pole Pole

Since P lies on the terminal side of 3π 3π

4 , one alternative representation for P is 3, 4 . To
find a different representation for P with r = −3, we may choose any angle coterminal with
− π4 . We choose θ = 7π 7π


4 for our final answer −3, 4 .

3π 7π



P 3, 4
P −3, 4

3π 7π
θ= 4
θ= 4

Pole Pole

Now that we have had some practice with plotting points in polar coordinates, it should come as
no surprise that any given point expressed in polar coordinates has infinitely many other represen-
tations in polar coordinates. The following result characterizes when two sets of polar coordinates
determine the same point in the plane. It could be considered as a definition or a theorem, depend-
ing on your point of view. We state it as a property of the polar coordinate system.
Equivalent Representations of Points in Polar Coordinates
Suppose (r, θ) and (r0 , θ0 ) are polar coordinates where r 6= 0, r0 6= 0 and the angles are measured
in radians. Then (r, θ) and (r0 , θ0 ) determine the same point P if and only if one of the following
is true:

• r0 = r and θ0 = θ + 2πk for some integer k

• r0 = −r and θ0 = θ + (2k + 1)π for some integer k

All polar coordinates of the form (0, θ) represent the pole regardless of the value of θ.
The key to understanding this result, and indeed the whole polar coordinate system, is to keep in
mind that (r, θ) means (directed distance from pole, angle of rotation). If r = 0, then no matter
how much rotation is performed, the point never leaves the pole. Thus (0, θ) is the pole for all
922 Applications of Trigonometry

values of θ. Now let’s assume that neither r nor r0 is zero. If (r, θ) and (r0 , θ0 ) determine the same
point P then the (non-zero) distance from P to the pole in each case must be the same. Since this
distance is controlled by the first coordinate, we have that either r0 = r or r0 = −r. If r0 = r, then
when plotting (r, θ) and (r0 , θ0 ), the angles θ and θ0 have the same initial side. Hence, if (r, θ) and
(r0 , θ0 ) determine the same point, we must have that θ0 is coterminal with θ. We know that this
means θ0 = θ + 2πk for some integer k, as required. If, on the other hand, r0 = −r, then when
plotting (r, θ) and (r0 , θ0 ), the initial side of θ0 is rotated π radians away from the initial side of
θ. In this case, θ0 must be coterminal with π + θ. Hence, θ0 = π + θ + 2πk which we rewrite as
θ0 = θ + (2k + 1)π for some integer k. Conversely, if r0 = r and θ0 = θ + 2πk for some integer k, then
the points P (r, θ) and P 0 (r0 , θ0 ) lie the same (directed) distance from the pole on the terminal sides
of coterminal angles, and hence are the same point. Now suppose r0 = −r and θ0 = θ + (2k + 1)π
for some integer k. To plot P , we first move a directed distance r from the pole; to plot P 0 , our
first step is to move the same distance from the pole as P , but in the opposite direction. At this
intermediate stage, we have two points equidistant from the pole rotated exactly π radians apart.
Since θ0 = θ + (2k + 1)π = (θ + π) + 2πk for some integer k, we see that θ0 is coterminal to (θ + π)
and it is this extra π radians of rotation which aligns the points P and P 0 .
Next, we marry the polar coordinate system with the Cartesian (rectangular) coordinate system.
To do so, we identify the pole and polar axis in the polar system to the origin and positive x-axis,
respectively, in the rectangular system. We get the following result.

Theorem 11.7. Conversion Between Rectangular and Polar Coordinates: Suppose P

is represented in rectangular coordinates as (x, y) and in polar coordinates as (r, θ). Then

• x = r cos(θ) and y = r sin(θ)

y
• x2 + y 2 = r2 and tan(θ) = (provided x 6= 0)
x
In the case r > 0, Theorem 11.7 is an immediate consequence of Theorem 10.3 along with the
sin(θ)
quotient identity tan(θ) = cos(θ) . If r < 0, then we know an alternate representation for (r, θ)
is (−r, θ + π). Since cos(θ + π) = − cos(θ) and sin(θ + π) = − sin(θ), applying the theorem to
(−r, θ + π) gives x = (−r) cos(θ + π) = (−r)(− cos(θ)) = r cos(θ) and y = (−r) sin(θ + π) =
(−r)(− sin(θ)) = r sin(θ). Moreover, x2 + y 2 = (−r)2 = r2 , and xy = tan(θ + π) = tan(θ), so the
theorem is true in this case, too. The remaining case is r = 0, in which case (r, θ) = (0, θ) is the
pole. Since the pole is identified with the origin (0, 0) in rectangular coordinates, the theorem in
this case amounts to checking ‘0 = 0.’ The following example puts Theorem 11.7 to good use.

Example 11.4.2. Convert each point in rectangular coordinates given below into polar coordinates
with r ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ θ < 2π. Use exact values if possible and round any approximate values to two
decimal places. Check your answer by converting them back to rectangular coordinates.

√

1. P 2, −2 3 2. Q(−3, −3) 3. R(0, −3) 4. S(−3, 4)
11.4 Polar Coordinates 923

Solution.

1. Even though we are not explicitly told to do so, we can avoid many common mistakes
√
by taking
the time to plot the points before we do any calculations. Plotting P 2, −2 3 shows that
√ √
2
it lies in Quadrant IV. With x = 2 and y = −2 3, we get r2 = x2 + y 2 = (2)2 + −2 3 =
4 + 12 = 16 so r = ±4.√ Since we are asked for r ≥ 0, we choose r = 4. To find θ, we have
√
that tan(θ) = xy = −22 3 = − 3. This tells us θ has a reference angle of π3 , and since P
lies in Quadrant IV, we know θ is a Quadrant IV angle. We are asked to have 0 ≤ θ < 2π,

5π 5π
(r, θ)
= 4, 5π


so we choose θ = 3 . Hence, our answer is 4, 3 . To check, we convert 3
5π
we find x = r cos(θ) = 4 cos 3 = 4 12 = 2 and


back to rectangular coordinates and
 √
3
 √
y = r sin(θ) = 4 sin 5π


3 =4 − 2 = −2 3, as required.

2. The point √
Q(−3, −3) lies 2 2 2
√ in Quadrant III. Using x = y = −3, we get r = (−3) √+ (−3) = 18
so r = ± 18 = ±3 2. Since we are asked for r ≥ 0, we choose r = 3 2. We find
−3
tan(θ) = −3 = 1, which means θ has a reference angle of π4 . Since Q lies in Quadrant III,
we choose θ = 5π , which satisfies the requirement that 0 ≤ θ < 2π. Our final answer is
√ 5π 4
√ 5π

√  √2 
(r, θ) = 3 2, 4 . To check, we find x = r cos(θ) = (3 2) cos 4 = (3 2) − 2 = −3
√ √  √2 
and y = r sin(θ) = (3 2) sin 5π


4 = (3 2) − 2 = −3, so we are done.

y y

5π 5π
θ= 3
θ= 4

x x

Q
P

√
P has rectangular coordinates (2, −2

3) Q has rectangular coordinates√(−3, −3)
P has polar coordinates 4, 5π Q has polar coordinates 3 2, 5π


3 4

3. The point R(0, −3) lies along the negative y-axis. While we could go through the usual
computations4 to find the polar form of R, in this case we can find the polar coordinates of R
using the definition. Since the pole is identified with the origin, we can easily tell the point R
is 3 units from the pole, which means in the polar representation (r, θ) of R we know r = ±3.
Since we require r ≥ 0, we choose r = 3. Concerning θ, the angle θ = 3π 2 satisfies 0 ≤ θ < 2π
4
Since x = 0, we would have to determine θ geometrically.
924 Applications of Trigonometry

3π


with its terminal side along the negative y-axis, so our answer is 3,

2 . To check, we note
x = r cos(θ) = 3 cos 3π 3π


2 = (3)(0) = 0 and y = r sin(θ) = 3 sin 2 = 3(−1) = −3.

4. The point S(−3, 4) lies in Quadrant II. With x = −3 and y = 4, we get r2 = (−3)2 +(4)2 = 25
so r = ±5. As usual, we choose r = 5 ≥ 0 and proceed to determine θ. We have tan(θ) =
y 4 4
x = −3 = − 3 , and since this isn’t the tangent of one the common angles, we resort to using
the arctangent function. Since θ lies in Quadrant II and must satisfy 0 ≤ θ

< 2π, we choose
θ = π − arctan 34 radians. Hence, our answer is (r, θ) = 5, π − arctan 43 ≈ (5, 2.21). To

check our answers

requires a bit of tenacity

since we need to simplify expressions of the form:
cos π − arctan 43 and sin π − arctan 43 .

These are good review exercises

and4 are hence
left to the reader. We
find cos π − arctan 43 = − 35 and sin π − arctan 4
3 = 5 , so that
3 4


x = r cos(θ) = (5) − 5 = −3 and y = r sin(θ) = (5) 5 = 4 which confirms our answer.
y y

3π 4


θ= 2
θ = π − arctan 3

x x

R has rectangular coordinates (0,
−3) S has rectangular coordinates (−3, 4)

R has polar coordinates 3, 3π
2 S has polar coordinates 5, π − arctan 34

Now that we’ve had practice converting representations of points between the rectangular and polar
coordinate systems, we now set about converting equations from one system to another. Just as
we’ve used equations in x and y to represent relations in rectangular coordinates, equations in the
variables r and θ represent relations in polar coordinates. We convert equations between the two
systems using Theorem 11.7 as the next example illustrates.

Example 11.4.3.

1. Convert each equation in rectangular coordinates into an equation in polar coordinates.

(a) (x − 3)2 + y 2 = 9 (b) y = −x (c) y = x2

2. Convert each equation in polar coordinates into an equation in rectangular coordinates.

4π
(a) r = −3 (b) θ = 3 (c) r = 1 − cos(θ)
11.4 Polar Coordinates 925

Solution.

1. One strategy to convert an equation from rectangular to polar coordinates is to replace every
occurrence of x with r cos(θ) and every occurrence of y with r sin(θ) and use identities to
simplify. This is the technique we employ below.

(a) We start by substituting x = r cos(θ) and y = sin(θ) into (x−3)2 +y 2 = 9 and simplifying.
With no real direction in which to proceed, we follow our mathematical instincts and
see where they take us.5

(r cos(θ) − 3)2 + (r sin(θ))2 = 9

r2 cos2 (θ) − 6r cos(θ) + 9 + r2 sin2 (θ) = 9
r2 cos2 (θ) + sin2 (θ) − 6r cos(θ) = 0 Subtract 9 from both sides.

r2 − 6r cos(θ) = 0 Since cos2 (θ) + sin2 (θ) = 1

r(r − 6 cos(θ)) = 0 Factor.

We get r = 0 or r = 6 cos(θ). From Section 7.2 we know the equation (x − 3)2 + y 2 = 9

describes a circle, and since r = 0 describes just a point (namely the pole/origin), we
choose r = 6 cos(θ) for our final answer.6
(b) Substituting x = r cos(θ) and y = r sin(θ) into y = −x gives r cos(θ) = −r sin(θ).
Rearranging, we get r cos(θ) + r sin(θ) = 0 or r(cos(θ) + sin(θ)) = 0. This gives r = 0 or
cos(θ) + sin(θ) = 0. Solving the latter equation for θ, we get θ = − π4 + πk for integers
k. As we did in the previous example, we take a step back and think geometrically.
We know y = −x describes a line through the origin. As before, r = 0 describes the
origin, but nothing else. Consider the equation θ = − π4 . In this equation, the variable
r is free,7 meaning it can assume any and all values including r = 0. If we imagine
plotting points (r, − π4 ) for all conceivable values of r (positive, negative and zero), we
are essentially drawing the line containing the terminal side of θ = − π4 which is none
other than y = −x. Hence, we can take as our final answer θ = − π4 here.8
(c) We substitute x = r cos(θ) and y = r sin(θ) into y = x2 and get r sin(θ) = (r cos(θ))2 , or
r2 cos2 (θ) − r sin(θ) = 0. Factoring, we get r(r cos2 (θ) − sin(θ)) = 0 so that either r = 0
or r cos2 (θ) = sin(θ). We can solve the latter equation for r by dividing both sides of
the equation by cos2 (θ), but as a general rule, we never divide through by a quantity
that may be 0. In this particular case, we are safe since if cos2 (θ) = 0, then cos(θ) = 0,
and for the equation r cos2 (θ) = sin(θ) to hold, then sin(θ) would also have to be 0.
Since there are no angles with both cos(θ) = 0 and sin(θ) = 0, we are not losing any
5
Experience is the mother of all instinct, and necessity is the mother of invention. Study this example and see
what techniques are employed, then try your best to get your answers in the homework to match Jeff’s.
6
Note that when we substitute θ = π2 into r = 6 cos(θ), we recover the point r = 0, so we aren’t losing anything
by disregarding r = 0.
7
See Section 8.1.
8
We could take it to be any of θ = − π4 + πk for integers k.
926 Applications of Trigonometry

information by dividing both sides of r cos2 (θ) = sin(θ) by cos2 (θ). Doing so, we get
sin(θ)
r = cos 2 (θ) , or r = sec(θ) tan(θ). As before, the r = 0 case is recovered in the solution

r = sec(θ) tan(θ) (let θ = 0), so we state the latter as our final answer.

2. As a general rule, converting equations from polar to rectangular coordinates isn’t as pstraight
forward as the reverse process. We could solve r2 = x2 + y 2 for r to get r = ± x2 + y 2
y y

and solving tan(θ) = x requires the arctangent function to get θ = arctan x + πk for
integers k. Neither of these expressions for r and θ are especially user-friendly, so we opt for
a second strategy – rearrange the given polar equation so that the expressions r2 = x2 + y 2 ,
r cos(θ) = x, r sin(θ) = y and/or tan(θ) = xy present themselves.

(a) Starting with r = −3, we can square both sides to get r2 = (−3)2 or r2 = 9. We may now
substitute r2 = x2 + y 2 to get the equation x2 + y 2 = 9. As we have seen,9 squaring an
equation does not, in general, produce an equivalent equation. The concern here is that
the equation r2 = 9 might be satisfied by more points than r = −3. On the surface, this
appears to be the case since r2 = 9 is equivalent to r = ±3, not just r = −3. However,
any point with polar coordinates (3, θ) can be represented as (−3, θ + π), which means
any point (r, θ) whose polar coordinates satisfy the relation r = ±3 has an equivalent10
representation which satisfies r = −3.

√
(b) We take the tangent of both sides the equation θ = 4π to get tan(θ) = tan 4π = 3.
y y
√ √ 3 3
Since tan(θ) = x , we get x = 3 or y = x 3. Of course, we pause a moment to wonder
√
if, geometrically, the equations θ = 4π
3 and y = x 3 generate the same set of points.11
The same argument presented in number 1b applies equally well here so we are done.
(c) Once again, we need to manipulate r = 1 − cos(θ) a bit before using the conversion
formulas given in Theorem 11.7. We could square both sides of this equation like we did
in part 2a above to obtain an r2 on the left hand side, but that does nothing helpful for
the right hand side. Instead, we multiply both sides by r to obtain r2 = r − r cos(θ).
We now have an r2 and an r cos(θ) in the equation, which we can easily handle, but
we also have another r to deal with. Rewriting the equation as r = r2 + r cos(θ)

2
and squaring both sides yields r2 = r2 + r cos(θ) . Substituting r2 = x2 + y 2 and

2
r cos(θ) = x gives x2 + y 2 = x2 + y 2 + x . Once again, we have performed some
9
Exercise 5.3.1 in Section 5.3, for instance . . .
10
Here, ‘equivalent’ means they represent the same point in the plane. As ordered pairs, (3, 0) and (−3, π) are
different, but when interpreted as polar coordinates, they correspond to the same point in the plane. Mathematically
speaking, relations are sets of ordered pairs, so the equations r2 = 9 and r = −3 represent different relations since
they correspond to different sets of ordered pairs. Since polar coordinates were defined geometrically to describe the
location of points in the plane, however, we concern ourselves only with ensuring that the sets of points in the plane
generated by two equations are the same. This was not an issue, by the way, when we first defined relations as sets
of points in the plane in Section 1.2. Back then, a point in the plane was identified with a unique ordered pair given
by its Cartesian coordinates. √
11
In addition to taking the tangent of both sides of an equation
√ (There are infinitely many solutions
√ to tan(θ) = 3,
4π y
and θ = 3 is only one of them!), we also went from x = 3, in which x cannot be 0, to y = x 3 in which we assume
x can be 0.
11.4 Polar Coordinates 927

algebraic maneuvers which may have altered the set of points described by the original
equation. First, we multiplied both sides by r. This means that now r = 0 is a viable
solution to the equation. In the original equation, r = 1 − cos(θ), we see that θ = 0 gives
r = 0, so the multiplication by r doesn’t introduce any new points. The squaring of
both sides of this equation is also a reason

2 to pause. Are there points with coordinates
2 2 2
(r, θ) which satisfy r = r + r cos(θ) but do not satisfy r = r + r cos(θ)? Suppose

2
(r0 , θ0 ) satisfies r2 = r2 + r cos(θ) . Then r0 = ± (r0 )2 + r0 cos(θ 0 ) . If we have that

r0 = (r0 )2 +r0 cos(θ0 ), we are done. What if r0 = − (r0 )2 + r0 cos(θ0 ) = −(r0 )2 −r0 cos(θ0 )?

We claim that the coordinates (−r0 , θ0 + π), which determine the same point as (r0 , θ0 ),
satisfy r = r2 + r cos(θ). We substitute r = −r0 and θ = θ0 + π into r = r2 + r cos(θ) to
see if we get a true statement.

?
−r0 = (−r0 )2 + (−r0 cos(θ0 + π))

?
− −(r0 )2 − r0 cos(θ0 ) = (r0 )2 − r0 cos(θ0 + π) Since r0 = −(r0 )2 − r0 cos(θ0 )
?
(r0 )2 + r0 cos(θ0 ) = (r0 )2 − r0 (− cos(θ0 )) Since cos(θ0 + π) = − cos(θ0 )
X
(r0 )2 + r0 cos(θ0 ) = (r0 )2 + r0 cos(θ0 )

Since both sides worked out to be equal, (−r0 , θ0 + π) satisfies r = r2 + r cos(θ) which

2
means that any point (r, θ) which satisfies r2 = r2 + r cos(θ) has a representation
which satisfies r = r2 + r cos(θ), and we are done.

In practice, much of the pedantic verification of the equivalence of equations in Example 11.4.3 is
left unsaid. Indeed, in most textbooks, squaring equations like r = −3 to arrive at r2 = 9 happens
without a second thought. Your instructor will ultimately decide how much, if any, justification is
warranted. If you take anything away from Example 11.4.3, it should be that relatively nice things
in rectangular coordinates, such as y = x2 , can turn ugly in polar coordinates, and vice-versa. In the
next section, we devote our attention to graphing equations like the ones given in Example 11.4.3
number 2 on the Cartesian coordinate plane without converting back to rectangular coordinates.
If nothing else, number 2c above shows the price we pay if we insist on always converting to back
to the more familiar rectangular coordinate system.