VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT

BRUSSEL

Acoustics
Bruface Master 1 Electromechanical Engineering

Prof. S. Vanlanduit
2
Preface

Sound is caused by the vibration of air particles. Sound can also be repre-
sented as a wave, propagating in a certain media (air, steel, et cetera... ).
Sound is a perfect means of communication. Spoken language is a necessity in
our contemporary society. It is difficult to imagine our world without sound.
A total absence of sound (like in an anechoic room) feels weird although it
could be a blessing sometimes. Sound has many pleasurable aspects: listen-
ing to your favourite music, a phone call from your friend, an aria of Luciano
Pavarotti, the growling of the engine of a sports car. It is clear that the
notion of a sound being pleasurable or not is subjective. The sounds emitted
during an activity will in most cases not hinder the executor. This same
sound however, can hinder a person in the proximity. The interpretation of
sound is highly individual, meaning that it is a factor that is hard to take
into account. For example; listening to modern music, played extremely loud
can be a lust for daughter or son; whereas it causes annoyance for father and
mother. The lawnmower of your neighbour can irritate you while the sound
of your own one doesn’t bother you. There is a thin line between sound and
sound pollution. In other cases (like noise pollution on the shop floor) it
is quite obvious. One could think of a distinction between sound and noise
pollution on basis of the sound level. This is the way the difference is defined
in current legislation. It is clear however that not only the sound level deter-
mines if we are dealing with sound pollution. The time of day, the activity
of a person and his/her mood play a role as well. A leaking tap can cause a
large irritation during the night, and no irritation at all during the day.

i
ii

When sound becomes noise, it will hinder us and start to annoy. At this
point we call it sound pollution (or noise pollution). Sound pollution not
only occurs on the shop floor but in our daily lives as well. There exist
multiple causes of sound pollution: industry, traffic, trains, airplanes, disco’s
et cetera. Noise is sound that:
ˆ causes hinder, disturbs or is uncomfortable
ˆ causes harm
ˆ or has both consequences
Noise must always be contested because it poses some risks for man.
The most notable being hearing impairment. When someone is exposed to
certain noises for a to long period of time, their hearing capabilities will de-
grade. In some cases it is only temporary; after some rest the hearing will
recover. In other cases irreversible damage is caused, because no or insuffi-
cient precautions were taken to reduce the noise or to protect the hearing.
The occupational hearing impairment or deafness is included on the list of
occupational disabilities. Noise or unwanted sounds can lead to: stomach
ulcers; high blood pressure; headache; infection of the large intestine; raised
pulsation; dilatation of the eye pupil; palpitations; reaction of the Skeletal
striated muscle; vasoconstriction. Noise has an indirect negative influence on
the general health, because it causes feelings of hinder, anger, tension, and
anxiety. Noise is probably a far greater risk for the general health than was
assumed in the past.
One could think that noise pollution only occurs in our time. This is not
true however, as is indicated in the following chronicle: At the time of the
reign of Queen Elisabeth II (1533 - 1603) a law was enforced that forbade
male nationals from beating their wives after 10 pm. The screaming of the
victims was said to disrupt the good nights sleep of the neighbours. Even
other writings (incl. Horatius, 65-8 BC) complained about the increasing
noise in the cities. It is clear for everyone that sound pollution increases
daily due to the ever increasing contribution of traffic, industry, and hobbies.
In the following modules we will discuss how we can deal with this problem
practically and scientifically sound.
The permissible noise level for different application areas is regulated
extensively in legislation. In this course we will focus on three recent Euro-
pean directives regulating the noise pollution in the environment and on the
workfloor. The main objectives and actions of these European directives are
described in Part III of the course.
In each of these directives the primary objective is to limit the noise a the
level of the sound source as much as possible. In Chapter 6 some practical
 iii

measures that can be used to reduce the sound production in an industrial

environment are outlined. In practice, it is not always possible to modify
the sound source itself because of financial implications. In that case one
can consider reducing the transfer of sound to the receiver. In Chapter 5
the transmission of sound through a wall is studied. A simple calculation
method is introduced to calculate the transmission loss based on material
properties of the wall. This so called mass-frequency law formula then allows
one to calculate the required thickness of an enclosure to reduce the noise
level to acceptable level. In order to significantly reduce the noise level of
a source, acoustic absorption should also be applied in addition to sound
insulation. The latter means that the walls of an enclosure are treated to
eliminate reflections at the wall possibly leading to an amplification of the
sound (giving rise to an acoustic resonance). This is described in Chapter 4.
Before the elements of noise control are outlined, the fundamental concepts
of acoustics are given in Chapter 1.
iv
Contents

I Introduction to acoustics 1
1 Fundamental Concepts of Acoustics 3
1.1 Definition and origin of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Plane sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 The speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 The one-dimensional wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4 Acoustic impedance of a medium . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Spherical sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Cylindrical sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Sound levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.1 The effective sound pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.2 The dB-scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.3 Superposition of two sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5.4 Types of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 The acoustic intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.2 The sound intensity level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7 Source power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7.2 The sound field produced by a point source . . . . . . 21

2 The human hearing system 23

2.1 Anatomy of the ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 The external ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.2 The middle ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.3 The internal ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Physiology of the ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.1 The auditory field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2 Amplification of signals in hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Pathology of the ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2 Development of the ear with age . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 The human perception of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.1 The phon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.2 The sone as measure of loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3 Measuring sound 33
3.1 Introduction: why measure sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 The measurement microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Size of the microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.2 The sound field where measurements take place . . . . 36
3.2.3 Influence of the wind speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.4 Division of sound in frequency bands . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Frequency weighting of microphone signals . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4 The sonometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5 Calibration of measurement systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.6 Presence of the observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7 Background noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.8 Quantitative parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8.1 The equivalent sound pressure level . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8.2 Sound Exposure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.8.3 Statistic sound levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.8.4 The Noise Rating value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8.5 The nuisance of fluctuating sound . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.9 The intensity meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.10 Measuring sound sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.10.1 Measurements in an anechoic half-space . . . . . . . . 52
3.10.2 Measurements in a full anechoic room . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.10.3 The comparison method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.10.4 Power measurement with an intensity meter . . . . . . 55

II Noise control 57
4 Sound Absorption 59
4.1 Acoustic transmission between two media . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1.1 Normal incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2 Realization of acoustic absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.1 Plate on an air layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.2 Helmholtz resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.3 Porous acoustic absorbing materials . . . . . . . . . . . 67
CONTENTS vii

4.3 Measuring the acoustic absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.3.1 Reverberation time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.2 Measuring the absorption in a reverberation room . . . 75
4.3.3 Measuring the absorption in the Kundt tube . . . . . . 75
4.4 The direct and diffuse sound field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

5 Sound Insulation 81
5.1 Measuring sound insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1.1 Measuring airborne sound insulation . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1.2 Measurement of impact sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.1.3 Single number rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2 Airborne sound insulation of a wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.1 Simple law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.2 Effect of the wall stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.3 The coincidence effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2.4 Insulation of double wall constructions . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.5 Insulation of a composite wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3 The acoustical barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

6 Noise control 99
6.1 Origin of noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2 Reducing noise at the level of the sound source . . . . . . . . . 102
6.2.1 Aerodynamic noise sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.2.2 Sources of hydrodynamic noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.3 Sources of structure-borne noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.3 Tackling noise transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.3.1 Transmission of aerodynamic noise . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.3.2 Hydrodynamic noise transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.3 Structure-borne noise transmission . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.4 Radiation noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

III Noise directives 119

7 Directive 2000/14/EG : ’Machines in open air’ 123

8 Noise on the work floor 127

8.1 Previous guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.2 Present guideline: directive 2003/10/EG . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.3 Risk of hearing damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.4 The audiometric examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
viii CONTENTS

8.4.1 Personal hearing protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

9 Community noise 139

9.1 EC directive 2002/49/EC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

A Material properties 143

 Part I

Introduction to acoustics

1
Chapter 1

Fundamental Concepts of
Acoustics

1.1 Definition and origin of sound

When an external mechanical excitation is applied on a material, a liquid or
a gas, vibrations are induced in it. The molecules of the medium vibrates
around an equilibrium position. If this phenomenon occurs in a solid or a
liquid, we talk about vibrations. The term sound is used if air is the medium,
as long as it can be perceived by the human ear. This latter concept can be
explained by means of a simple example (Figure 1.1): a tuning fork is struck
and produces sound. The reason for this sound production is the vibration of
the instrument which creates over – and underpressures in the surrounding
medium, the air. Note that the order of magnitude is really small compared
to the atmospheric pressure (105 Pa).
Seen in the space this phenomenon is comparable to a wave, like a stone
falling into a puddle. Sound will thus propagate as a wave through its medium
and can consequently be characterized by an amplitude, a frequency and a
wave velocity.
Like mentioned above sound waves are induced by a disturbance of the equi-
librium in a given point of the elastic medium. They propagate to another
point, in a predictable manner, depending on the physical properties of the
elastic medium. Between 20 Hz and 20.000 Hz one speaks of sound. Under
the first value and above the second one a human can not hear it, but its
body is not completely insensitive to these pressure changes.
Different wave types can be distinguished. Sound waves are longitudinal
waves: the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of wave propa-
gation.

3
4 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

Figure 1.1: Sound production by tuning fork. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

The wave type produced by e.g. the stone falling into a puddle is called
transverse wave: the particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation.

1.2 Plane sound waves

1.2.1 Definition
Because of the more simplistic mathematical description with respect to
spherical waves, plane waves will first be discussed. However, the physi-
cal realization is more difficult: an infinite large flat plate must be brought
into a vibratory motion perpendicular to the plane of that plate. In this
way, it results in a oscillating system of plane regions with alternating over
– and under-pressure. The wave fronts (surfaces of constant phase) propa-
gate indeed in a direction normal to the flat pane. The air particles in the
direct surrounding of the plate, and some time later, also further away, move
around their equilibrium in the same direction (normal to the plate). In a
given point the air density ρ is a function of time t, and on a given time also
function of the position x: ρ(x,t). The pressure disturbances propagate with
a velocity c (the wave velocity, or speed of sound, or also known as phase
velocity).
Different parameters are associated to a plane wave:

p the pressure fluctuation with respect to the atmospheric pressure P0 caused

by sound. Generally, p ≪ P0 with p = p(x, t).
1.2. PLANE SOUND WAVES 5

u the air particle displacement from equilibrium position caused by sound

with u = u(x, t). (A ‘particle’ is a volume that is small enough so that
within it , u and v can be considered to be constant).

v the particle velocity given by v = ∂u∂t

and must not be confused with c.
The speed of sound is the propagation speed of the wave, constant for
the continuous medium, for a given pressure and temperature. The
particle velocity v is variable because the particle (e.g. air) vibrates
around an equilibrium position. On average these particles have a zero
velocity, while the wave phenomenon propagates. The direction of v
and c is equal and this explains why sound waves are considered to be
longitudinal.

Consider a plane wave: along x-axis and independent of y- and z co-

ordinates. In point x = 0 the harmonic motion of a random point can be
described by :
u(t, 0) = U exp (iωt) (1.1)
We call this a wave if on position x the same vibrational state holds as in
x = 0, but with the proviso that there is a phase difference, caused by the
finite propagation speed of the wave phenomenon. This means that at time
t and on position x we have the same vibrations as at time t − xc on position
x = 0.
By solving the 1–D wave equation [19] :

∂2u 1 ∂2u
= (1.2)
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
one obtains the harmonic solution describing the wave propagation :
 ω 
(u(t, x) = U exp iωt − i x = U exp (iωt − ikx) (1.3)
c

with k the wave number or more specifically the angular wave number defined
ω
as k = (radians per unit distance).
c
The amplitude U is considered independent of x and t, and consequently
these equations are only valid for undamped propagation. Moreover, the
wave equation is only valid for small variations around the equilibrium,
which is always the case in acoustics and noise unless so called aerody-
namic shock-waves are considered. It can easily be shown that the plane
wave u(t, x) = U exp (iωt − ikx) is a possible solution of the PDE known as
6 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

the wave equation by differentiating two times with respect to the time and
repeating the same with respect to the position x :

∂2u
= −ω 2 u(t, x)
∂t2
∂2u ω2
= − u(t, x) (1.4)
∂x2 c2
and filling these expressions in the wave equation.
If damping is present due to absorption of the medium, the solution has
the following form:
U = U0 exp (−αu) (1.5)
Note that the wave can be considered undamped if propagation of sound
occurs in an (unconfined) air volume. Indeed, the damping of sound at 1000
Hz is only 5 decibel per km. One can show that the damping is proportional
to the square of the frequency according to :

ω2τ
α= (1.6)
c
With τ the relaxation time (around 0.2 ns for monatomic gases). Conse-
quently for high frequencies damping in air may not be neglected. Con-
cerning the periodic character, we know that the exponential function with
imaginary exponent has a periodicity equal to 2π :

1. Time periodicity: u(t + T, x) = u(t, x) with period T. From which

follows that ωT = 2π and further ω = 2π T
= 2πf with f = T1 the
frequency.

2. Space periodicity: u(t, x + λ) with wavelength λ, from which follows

that λk = 2π. Replacing k = ωc yields : ω λc = 2π and finally ω = 2π λc

3. Combining 1. and 2. gives us the relation between the spatial and

frequency domain wave propagation parameters :

λf = c (1.7)

with c the speed of sound.

1.2.2 The speed of sound

The speed of sound is the velocity at which a perturbation, a wave front,
propagates in the given medium. It depends on the properties of this medium,
1.2. PLANE SOUND WAVES 7

Material Speed of Sound

Glass 5400
Steel 5000
Aluminium 5200
Nickel 4800
Wood 4000
Copper 3500
Plumbum 1300
Platinum 2800
Silver 2600
Water 1460
Seawater 1500
Mercury 1407
Hydrogen 1260

Table 1.1: Speed of sound for common materials

especially density and elasticity.

In gases the following equation is applicable [19] :
s s
γPO K p
c= = = γrT (1.8)
ρ0 ρ0
with

K = γP0 the compression– or bulk modulus for gases and where γ represents
the heat capacity ratio and P0 the atmospheric air pressure

T the absolute temperature in °K

r the specific gas constant

q
In fluids : c = Bρ with

B the compression– or bulk modulus for fluids (in P a)

q
In solids c = Eρ with

E the elastic– or Young’s modulus

The speed of sound for some common materials, gases and fluids are tabu-
lated in Table 1.1.
8 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

1.2.3 The one-dimensional wave equation

Following parameters are considered :

x coordinate of elementary particle in equilibrium.

u particle displacement with respect to equilibrium.

∂u
v particle velocity v = ∂t
.

ρ the instantaneous value of the fluid density.

ρ0 fluid density in equilibrium (considered constant)

s condensation in a point (de facto: relative change in density). This variable

is defined as :
. ρ − ρ0
s= or ρ = ρ0 (1 + s) (1.9)
ρ0

p the sound pressure P = P0 + p

c wave propagation speed

Gravitation is not considered and thus ρ0 and P0 are constant. The gas or
fluid is assumed to be homogeneous isotropic elastic : there are no dissipative
forces due to viscosity or heat conduction. We limit this study to waves with
small amplitude such that the condensation s can be considered to be small :
ρ − ρ0 ≪ ρ0 . While the wave propagates along the x-axis through the fluid,
the adjacent fluid layers are also disturbed from their equilibrium position.
This displacement u is function of x and t.
In order to derive the wave equation we will use three physical laws:

1. The mass conservation principle.

2. Thermodynamic change of state.

3. Newtons equation.

Firstly, the mass conservation principle is applied on a volume between x

and x + dx and a deformed volume :

∂u
ρ0 Sdx = ρSdx(1 + ) (1.10)
∂x
1.2. PLANE SOUND WAVES 9

Substituting ρ = ρ0 (1 + s) :
∂u
ρ0 = ρ0 (1 + s)(1 +
)
∂x
∂u ∂u
1 = 1+ +s+s
∂x ∂x
∂x
s = −
∂u
∂x
assuming that s ∂u ≪ s.

Secondly, we use thermodynamic change of state (adiabatic assumption :

no heat transfer between fluid element and surrounding fluid). This is allowed
because p ≪ P0 :  γ
P ρ
= (1.11)
P0 ρ0
with γ = ccpv the adiabatic constant (around 1.4 for air). The right– hand side
of Equation 1.11 is developed as a Taylor series and only the first two terms
are conserved (s ≪ 10−4 in common acoustic problems). It then follows q :
p γP0
P0
= γs or p = P0 γs. From the definition of the speed of sound : c = ρ0
,
we have c2 = γPρ0
0
. Rewriting and substituting in the previous equations this
gives (with s = − ∂u∂x
):
∂u
p = −c2 ρ0 (1.12)
∂x
The fundamental equation of dynamics :

∂2
dFx = ρ0 Sdx (1.13)
∂t2
The elementary force dFx is generated by a difference in pressure : dFx =
∂p ∂p
[p − (p + ∂x dx)]S = ∂x Sdx After substitution :

∂p ∂2
= ρ0 2 (1.14)
∂x ∂t
If we fill in p, given by Formula 1.12, one obtains (after taking the deriva-
tive) the wave equation.
It is sufficient to find a solution for u in function of x and t in order to find the
other parameters of the propagating wave with e.g. the following equations :

ˆ Pressure: p = −ρ0 c2 ∂u
∂x
.
∂u
For an harmonic sound wave(u = Uexp(iωt)exp(−kx)) one has ∂x
=
10 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

−i ωc u en ∂u
∂t
= iωu. It then follows (using the defintion of v and above
equation of pressure) :
p = ρ0 cv (1.15)

ˆ Condensation: s = − ∂u
∂x

ˆ Particle velocity: v = ∂u
∂t

One can make the remark that a fluid doesn’t consist of molecules, each
having a fixed mean position in space, like we did above in order to derive
the wave equation. Indeed, even in the presence of the sound wave, the
particles are continuously in movement with mean velocities far greater than
the particle velocity due to the wave.
However one has to look at it in a statistical way : the molecules leaving
the elementary control volume are forthwith replaced by other molecules
which possesses on average the same properties. Consequently it allows us to
consider particle displacements and particle velocities in our mathematical
approach. Note that a statistical variable like the sound pressure is more
suited for describing sound waves than the displacement. For this reason
the pressure is of practical use and also used for measurements. Besides, the
sound pressure is almost the only acoustic variable measurable on a relative
easy manner.
In an harmonic wave the displacement u, the wave velocity v as well as
the sound pressure p varies periodically in time and space and all satisfy
the wave equation. In acoustics our interest is mainly focused on the sound
pressure. The sound pressure p in a plane wave satisfy the wave equation :
∂2p 1 ∂2p
= (1.16)
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
with solution : p(t, x) = p1 (t − x/c) + p2 (t + x/c). The harmonic solution is :
p(t, x) = A exp (iωt − ikx) (1.17)
The solutions of this one–dimensional wave equation shows that the am-
plitude A is independent of the distance : sound propagating as a plane
wave does not fade away with the distance to the source. This can lead to
troublesome consequences like explained in the two following examples :
1. Consider a street in the city with on both sides high buildings. People
living in the higher levels of the buildings are as much bothered by the
noise as people from the lower levels. The reason is that when plenty
of cars are circulating in the street it can be seen as a source of plane
noise which will propagate upwards as a plane wave. This is not true
for one car in the street.
1.3. SPHERICAL SOUND WAVES 11

2. In a ventilation system the rooms are connected with the ventilator

by means of long ductwork usually having a constant section. Noise
generated by ventilation will propagate as plane waves through these
canals reaching the rooms and thus the users.

1.2.4 Acoustic impedance of a medium

The specific acoustic impedance of a medium, for a given type of wave prop-
agation, is defined as the ratio of sound pressure to particle velocity. For a
plane wave with propagation along the positive x-axis :

p+ ρcv+ K
z+ = = = ρc = (1.18)
v+ v+ c

with use of Equations 1.8 and 1.15. For a plane wave propagating along the
negative x-axis we have z− = −ρc. So for a plane wave, independently of
the propagation direction, the specific acoustic impedance is a real variable.
In the MKS unit system the unit of z is kg/(m2 sec) or simply rayl (named
after Lord Rayleigh). Due to the greater role of the product ρc compared
to ρ and c separately its also known as the characteristic impedance or wave
impedance of the medium. At room temperature the impedance of air is
approximatively 400 Rayl.

1.3 Spherical sound waves

Let us take a small spherical surface whom all points move radially in a pe-
riodical way, with same amplitude, frequency and phase, around equilibrium
position: this is the monopole or isotropic radiator. The surface will exert
a periodic pressure on the fluid in contact with that surface. Consequently
the perturbation of fluid equilibrium will propagate radially in the shape of
spherical waves. We will assume that contact with the surrounding fluid is
preserved. A lot of acoustic problems are related to this divergent spherical
shaped sound waves, radiated by a point source (limit of the monopole). To
give an example on a distant large enough with respect to a physical dimen-
sion one can consider a machine, a car or aircraft as a point source. Damping
is not considered here. In analogy with plane waves one can obtain (see [19]
for the derivation of the equation) :

∂2p ∂2p ∂2p 1 ∂2p

+ + = 2 2 (1.19)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t
12 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

Transformation into a spherical coordinate system one can obtain (see

[19]) the following form of the wave equation :
∂ 2 rp 1 ∂ 2 rp
+ = (1.20)
∂r 2 c2 ∂t2
p
with r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Taking rp as one variable we get a spherical wave equation of the same
form as the equation for plane waves. A general solution of this equation, as
traveling waves, is thus :

1 1
rp(r, t) = p1 (t − r/c) + p2 (t + r/c)or p(r, t) = p1 (t − r/c) + p2 (t + r/c)
r r
(1.21)
with the first term representing a divergent spherical wave and the second one
a convergent spherical wave. Both waves exhibit the same propagation speed
c and their amplitudes decreases with increasing distance r, radially from
the point source. Convergent waves have so to say no acoustical application,
while the divergent waves have . Indeed, this latter is present as soon as the
distance from the sound source becomes larger than the physical dimensions
of that source. If the point source produces an harmonic wave one may write
for the divergent wave :

A
p(r, t) = exp (iωt − ikr) (1.22)
r

1.4 Cylindrical sound waves

For a cylindrical line sound source one can show that the solution can be
written as (see [19]) :

A
p(r, t) = √ exp (iωt − ikr) (1.23)
r

An important conclusion concerning the three simple types of sources is the

following :

ˆ For plane sound waves the sound pressures does not decrease with the
distance.
ˆ For spherical sound waves the sound pressure decreases linearly with
increasing distance.
1.5. SOUND LEVELS 13

ˆ For cylindrical sound waves the sound pressure decreases inversely pro-
portional to the square root of the distance.

1.5 Sound levels

1.5.1 The effective sound pressure
Suppose a given source of sound produces sound, i.e. the quickly fluctuating
air pressure makes our eardrum to vibrate which causes through our ear
and nervous system a sensation of sound. Total pressure can be written
as : p = patm + psound . One could think that (subjectively) if we have
the impression of a constant sound level, intensity or loudness it implies
(objectively) a constant sound pressure in time. Nothing appears to be less
true. The sound perceived with a constant loudness may be both a pure sine
tone and a stochastic sound generated by a source with constant parameter:
p(t) is extremely complicated, and yet the human ear have the impression of
a constant loudness. Our purpose is to describe mathematically this sound
loudness. A first conclusion : the instantaneous value and the algebraic mean
value does not matter (this latter is eventually zero). The human hearing
system is quite insensitive for sharp positive and negative peaks, which may
be cut off. In contrast, it seems to be sensitive to the energy of sound waves.
This led to the consideration of the effective– or Root-Mean-Square (RMS)
value of the sound pressure, over a certain time interval, as an measure of
intensity :
s Z t2
1
pef f = p2 (t)dt (1.24)
t2 − t1 t1
√
For an harmonic wave (with DC value equal to zero) this is : pef f = pmax / 2.
As can be seen in the definition the effective value pef f depends of the time
interval as well as the type of sound. E.g. :

1. We listen to a noise which seems to be constant in time. To describe

the intensity one can thus use p2 averaging over a relative small or
relative large time interval – this changes not much to the result of the
measurement. In this case the time interval does not play a major role.

2. When a plane flies over one hear the sound surging followed by ex-
tinction during a specific time interval. If we want to use pef f in this
case to describe the instantaneous numerical value giving a reasonable
impression of the perceived sound intensity, we would have to average
14 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

p2 over a short time period, negligible with respect to the fly over time.
In this case the time interval for integration is important.
3. Physiological experiments have allowed to see that for the human ear
the sound intensity impression can sometime noticeably change in 0.1sec.
Consequently this is a maximum value of time integration for variable
sound.
4. Technical application (the measuring equipment is based on this) : the
integration interval is taken relatively short (e.g. 125 ms), such that the
needle of the measuring equipment is capable of detecting relative quick
fluctuations of the sound pressure; a sound whose variating intensity in
time is perceived by the human ear. The measurement system delivers
a result that variates in time approximately in the same way. The
measured values for pef f are more or less located between following
limits :
2 × 10−5 Pa < pef f < 200 Pa (1.25)

The ratio of the largest limit to the smallest is 107 , which is very large.
All the common sounds are situated between those limits. For this rea-
son, and also because earlier one believed that a human hears according
to the law of Weber–Fechner, i.e. logarithmic, one have introduced the
dB-scale (response proportional with the logarithm of the stimulus).

1.5.2 The dB-scale

The dB-scale allows us to describe sound, like a person perceives, in a correct
way. The sound pressure level (SPL) is defined as :

p2 p
Lp = 10 log 2
= 20 log (1.26)
p0 p0

with p0 = 20 × 10−6 Pa the reference pressure (it equals the threshold of

human hearing). An example of the dB-scale and a comparison with the
linear scale is given in Figure 1.2.
The hearing threshold equals 0 dB, the pain threshold is 120 dB. Calcu-
lating with dB causes often problems because of the fact that we are used to
work with the linear scale. Summation and subtraction are best performed
by first transforming to the linear scale, then by executing the operation and
finally by transforming back to the dB-scale. For the sum of two values Lp1
en Lp1 :
Lp = 10 log(10Lp1 /10 + 10Lp2 /10 ) (1.27)
1.5. SOUND LEVELS 15

Figure 1.2: Some sound values in the linear and dB scale. Source:
Bruël&Kjær.

Note that when on a given position a certain source produces a sound pres-
sure level 10 dB smaller than the sound pressure level of another source, this
first source has no big contribution (less than 1 dB) to the sound pressure
level in that point. This will enable us to perform measurement of sound
sources without the need of shutting down all other sources.

When multiplying a sound pressure in the linear scale with a certain

factor this results in the addition of a value in the dB scale. Examples (see
also Figure 1.3 :

ˆ Multiplication with a factor 2 equals an addition of around 6 dB.

ˆ Multiplication with a factor 3 equals an addition of around 10 dB.

ˆ Multiplication with a factor 10 equals an addition of around 20 dB.

Attention: these rules are only valid for sound pressures p. Later the
concepts of sound intensity and sound power will be introduced. These pa-
rameters are proportional to the energy of sound (i.e. ∼ p2 ) and this is for
example the reason that a multiplication of the sound power with 10 equals
an addition of 10 dB.
16 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

Figure 1.3: Multiplication in the linear scale equals an addition in dB scalel.

Source: Bruël&Kjær.

1.5.3 Superposition of two sounds

In this section we will see in more detail how to superpose two sound waves.
The resulting instantaneous pressure in a given point is the sum of the in-
stantaneous values measured in that point : p(t) = p1 (t) + p2 (t). Due to the
fact that one only hear and measure effective pressure values, the question is :
what is the link between the effective pressures ptotal , p1 en p2 . This relation
seems to depend on the nature of the sound and the distance between the
sources. The total effective sound pressure is given by :
s
1 T
Z
pef f = (p1 (t) + p2 (t))2 )dt
T 0
s
1 T 2
Z
= (p1 (t) + p22 (t) + 2p1 (t)p2 (t))dt
T 0
(1.28)

Two cases can be distinguished :

Incoherent sources One speak of incoherent sources if

Z T
p1 (t)p2 (t)dt = 0 (1.29)
0
1.5. SOUND LEVELS 17

In this case we can thus say that RMS(ptotal )2 = RMS(p1 )2 +RMS(p2 )2 .

Examples of incoherent sources :

ˆ two pure sine tones with differen ferquencies (e.g.two rotating ma-
chines not rotating synchronous)
ˆ two independent stochastic sounds
ˆ two sources with energy in different frequency bands

Special case : if two coherent sources produce sound pressure with same
amplitude we have pef f,1 = pef f,2 en dus p2ef f,total = 2p2ef f,1 , or in the
dB scale :
Lp,total = Lp,1 + 3dB (1.30)
The total sound pressure level is thus 3 dB higher compared to the case
of only one source present. And thus the noise is not twice as strong
(an increase with factor two equals a rise of 6 dB).
In general : for n independent sound sources we have that the effective
2
sound
Pn 2pressure in a given point equals the square root of pef f,total =
i=1 pef f,i .
Example : machines in an enterprise or cars in the street.
In general : the n sources are independent but they cause the same
effective pressure in a given point : p2ef f,total = np2ef f,1 , or in dB scale :
Lp,total = Lp,1 + 10 log n dB

Coherent sources For coherent sources the following is valid :

Z T
p1 (t)p2 (t)dt 6= 0 (1.31)
0
In this case the total effective sound pressure depends on the phase
difference between the two single sound waves and the amplitudes.
Suppose we have two sound waves p1 en p2 in a point x and defined as
p1 = A exp(iωt) en p2 = A exp(iωt + φ) (for simplicity we consider the
case were the amplitudes of the waves are equal).
One distinguish a few special cases :

ˆ If φ = 0 we have that p2ef f,total = 4p2ef f,1 and for the dB value :

Lp,total = Lp,1 + 20 log n dB (1.32)

ˆ If φ = π than follows p2ef f,total = 0. Considered apart p1 and

p2 are audible, but together no sound is generated (ant-noise).
18 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

This property is used in active noise control. E.g. : anti-noise

technique in some headphones to reduce background noise as well
as for reducing noise generated by aircrafts in the cabin of the
SAAB2000 plane.

1.5.4 Types of sound

Based on the frequency spectrum some types of sound can be distinguished :

ˆ Pure tone : A sound characterized by only one frequency and can only
be generated, approximatively, by a tone generator

ˆ Musical tone : (Figure 1.4-above) : It consists of a fundamental with

overtones and are together called partials. (Harmonics are partials).
The number and the nature of the harmonics define the so-called ’tone
color’.

ˆ Chaotic or stochastic sound (Figure 1.4-middle) : (noise, hiss, etc.) It

covers a wide frequency spectrum (where sounds with a specific fre-
quency and higher amplitudes than the other, are typical for the ma-
chine involved), think of ventilators, traffic noise, factory noise, jets,
and so on. In acoustics a very detailed analysis will not be performed
(cost) but an analysis in 1/1 octave band or 1/3 octave band. These
are normalized. More detailed analysis e.g. 1/12 octave or even more
detailed are sometimes used in research.

ˆ Impulse noise (Figure 1.4-below) : is a type of sound which is of very

short duration, mostly generated by an impact.

Sound can also be classified in other ways like considering the change of
amplitude in function of time. This classification will be described in Part III
of the text where the legislation regarding environmental noise is discussed.

1.6 The acoustic intensity

1.6.1 Definition
A sound source delivers energy in the form of kinetic and potential energy,
that is transported by the sound wave. Assume we have a ’free field’, i.e. no
reflection possible. Consider a plane of 1 m2 perpendicular to the direction
in which we want to determine the intensity of a traveling plane wave.
1.6. THE ACOUSTIC INTENSITY 19

Figure 1.4: Some types of sound. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

Definition : the intensity I is the sound energy that propagates in one

direction and that is incident on 1 m2 per sec (or the sound power per unit
area (in Watt/m2 )). One can easily show for a sound wave along the r
direction that :

dEr
Ir =
dt dS
Fr dr
=
dt dS
pdS dr
=
dt dS
= p vr

Let p represent the sound pressure in the considered point (the atmo-
spheric pressure does indeed not deliver energy) and v the particle velocity.
¯
We have than that the power per m2 or intensity vectorI(t) ¯ = p(t)v̄(t)
: I(t)
(instantaneous values).
Important remark : in contrast to the sound pressure p the sound intensity
is a vector quantity (considering it being proportional to the velocity). If one
want to know the magnitude of the intensity in a certain direction ē it has
to be calculated with : I(t) = p(t)v(t) cos φ, where φ = ∠(ē, v̄).
For an harmonic plane wave we know that (equation 1.15) : p = ρcv. It then
follows for a traveling harmonic plane wave :
pef f
I= = ρcvef f (1.33)
ρc
20 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS

Note that a spherical wave behaves like a plane wave if the observer is far
away from the point source (in practice for distances larger than 3λ). For a
diffuse sound field, where the waves are in all directions just as strong and
independent, we may find (no proof is given in this text) :
p
Idif f uus = = ρcvef f (1.34)
ρc

1.6.2 The sound intensity level

Definition : the sound intensity level (SIL) LI is defined as :

I
LI = 10 log (dB) (1.35)
I0

with I0 = 10−12 W/m2 the standard reference sound intensity level.

Note that for a traveling plane wave propagating in air the sound intensity
level is approximately equal to the sound pressure level : LI ≈ Lp . Indeed :

I
LI = 10 log
I0
p2
= 10 log met ρc ≈ 412
ρcI0
≈ Lp

1.7 Source power

1.7.1 Definition
Definition : The sound power is the acoustic power (Watt) delivered by a
sound source : Z
W = IdS (1.36)
S
2
with I the intensity in W/m over the elementary surface dS. If I is constant
in all directions (nondirectional source) : W = IS.

In analogy with the sound pressure level and sound intensity level one
can define the sound power level.
Definition : The sound power level (SWL) is defined as :

W
LW = 10 log (1.37)
W0
1.7. SOURCE POWER 21

with W0 = 10−12 W the reference level.

One have to pay attention to the terms we use because all those different
levels have the same units (dB).

1.7.2 The sound field produced by a point source

For a spherical source the source power is W = I4πr 2 , with I the intensity
according to the radius of this sphere on a distance r from the source. In a
p2 f
distant sound field r ≫ λ we can write I = efρc
and thus :

p2ef f 4πr 2
W = (1.38)
ρc
from which one can get an expression for the effective sound pressure, mea-
sured at a distance r from the source :
r
W ρc
pef f = (1.39)
4πr 2
With known source acoustic power the sound pressure can be calculated
in a given point. The effective sound pressure decreases with increasing
distance 1r . One may rewrite Equation 1.39 as a function of values in dB.
r
412W
pef f = ρc = 400 for air
4πr 2
412W
⇒ p2ef f =
4πr 2
p2ef f 412W
⇒ = 2
400 ∗ 10−12 4πr 400 ∗ 10−12
⇒ Lp = LW − 10 log(4πr 2 )

For r = 1 one has approximately :

Lp = LW − 10 (1.40)
22 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ACOUSTICS
Chapter 2

The human hearing system

2.1 Anatomy of the ear

The hearing organ is sketched in Figure 2.1 and consists of three parts :
the external hearing organ, the middle ear and the inner ear. The external
hearing organ consists of the pinna (also called auricle), the external auditory
canal and the ear drum. The middle ear consists of the hammer, anvil, stirrup
and also the eardrum. The inner ear consists of the cochlea.

2.1.1 The external ear

The external ear consists of the auricle. The use of both ears allows us to
determine the direction where a sound comes from. The brain measures the
time delay in between the sound arriving at both ears. The sound received
by the auricle is converted in a vibration of the eardrum at the end of the
external auditory canal.

2.1.2 The middle ear

The middle ear contains the hearing ossicles : the hammer, anvil, stirrup
(see Figure 2.1). The middle ear cavity is connected with the nasal cavity
via the Eustachian tube. This allows to have the same pressure as outside.
The ossicles are responsible for the transmission of the sound wave from
the eardrum to the oval window of the inner ear. The ossicles are attached
to the sides of the middle ear cavity with ligaments and muscles. When
a strong sound stimulant enters (more than 80 dB at 1000 Hz), a muscle
attached to the stirrup contracts to restrict the movement : this is called
the acoustic reflex (Stapediusreflex). This reflex provides the ear with an
internal protection of order 10 dB at low frequent sound : the protecting

23
24 CHAPTER 2. THE HUMAN HEARING SYSTEM

Figure 2.1: The anatomy of the human ear r : 1) skull External ear : 2)
external auditory canal, 3) auricle Middle ear : 4) eardrum, 5) oval window,
6) hamer, 7) anvil, 8) stirrup, 12) Eustachian tube Internal ear : 9) labyrinth,
10) cochlea, 11) cochlear nerve. Source : nl.wikipedia.org

effect decreases with increasing frequency and disappears above 2000Hz. The
latency of the reflex decreases with the intensity of the stimulus : it varies
from a mean value of 150ms with a tone of 80dB to 40ms with a tone higher
than 100dB.

2.1.3 The internal ear

The inner ear consists of two organs : the half circular channels that provide
the balance, and the cochlea, that accounts for the hearing function. The
cochlea consists of a spiral shaped cavity that is divided into two channels by
the cochlear tube : the two channels are filled with a liquid, the perilymph
and are connected at the end of the spiral. The upper channel starts at the
oval window and the lower channel ends at the round window. When a sound
wave arrives on the eardrum, the ossicles pass the motion on to the stirrup
that compresses the oval window and creates a pressure wave in the upper
channel. This wave propagates farther in the upper channel as the tone of
the sound decreases. The transversal component of the wave (remark that
this exists in a fluid) exerts its force directly on the cochlear duct where the
2.2. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR 25

organ of Corti is located. This is the actual organ that serves to perceive
sound. The membrane that separates the upper channel from the cochlear
duct is compressed and gives rise to a pressure wave in the liquid of the
cochlea (the endolymph), which in turn compresses the basilar membrane on
which the organ of Corti is situated. The organ of Corti consists of hair cells
internally arranged in a row and externally arranged in 3 to 5 rows. The hairs
of the cells are in direct contact with a heavy membrane, called the tektorial
membrane. When the basilar membrane is compressed, the contact of the
hairs with the tektorial membrane will be lost beginning with the external
rows. Every time the contact is broken or recovered, the electrical potential
of the cells is changed. The changes in the electrical potential are transmitted
to the brain via the fibres of the cochlear nerve. In the brain they are decoded
and converted into a perception of sound. Due to the interaction between the
waves in the two canals, the maximal displacement of the basilar membrane
becomes larger as the incoming tone gets lower. Sharp tones only stimulate
a small band near the oval and round window. The maximal amplitude of a
wave at a certain frequency always stimulates the same hair cells, allowing
to precisely distinct between different frequencies.
Moreover, the displacement of the basilar membrane (and with this the
number of hair cells that are in a working state) is proportional to the in-
tensity of the sound : for a non intense sound, only the outer row of hair
cells will send pulses to the brain. While for a very intense sound all outer
rows and eventually the inner row send pulses. The cochlear nerve or recto-
cochlear part of the sound perception, is situated directly behind the organ.
As happens with the eyes, it is here that the overlap between left and right
nerves takes place. The stimuli come to consciousness in the auditive cortex.
This is situated near the temple.

2.2 Physiology of the ear

2.2.1 The auditory field
The sensitivity of the ear is phenomenal. If it were 20dB better, we would
have been capable to hear the pressure fluctuations caused by the Brownse
movement of the air molecules! For a tone of 1kHz that we are just able
to hear, the eardrum moves 10−6 mm. This are distances smaller than the
wavelength of visible light : 0.5 µm. The range of audible frequencies of the
human ear is situated between 20 and 20000 Hz. Tones below 20 Hz are
called subsonic and those above 20 kHz ultrasonic. The absolute threshold
of hearing is at its lowest for frequencies around 1000 : this is why 1 kHz
26 CHAPTER 2. THE HUMAN HEARING SYSTEM

Figure 2.2: The anatomy of the cochlea. Source : Encarta Winkler Prins
2004

is chosen as the reference frequency for the dB-scale. The pain threshold is
virtually independent of the frequency and corresponds to 130 or 140 dB.
Speech is above all a complex mixture of tones, with a frequency spectrum
ranging from 200 to 4000 Hz. This zone in the auditory field is called the zone
of speech. The protection of the ear in this zone is of the utmost importance
for a persons the social life (Figure 2.4).

2.2.2 Amplification of signals in hearing

The amplification of sound happens in the external ear (external auditory
canal), middle- and inner ear. The amplification in the external auditory
canal relies on resonator-operation and happens predominantly in the speech
intelligibility area (Figure 2.4). In the external auditory canal, that resembles
a open-closed tube, a standing wave originates with if the wavelength of the
sound is given by λ = 4L, with L ≈ 0.03m the length of the external auditory
2.2. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR 27

Figure 2.3: The organ of Corti. Source : anatomie.med.vu.nl and

www.audiologieboek.nl

canal. This means that the resonance frequency of the acoustic system can
be found as follows :
c 340m/s
f= = ≈ 3000Hz (2.1)
4L 4 ∗ 0.03m
Because the inner ear contains a liquid, there is an impedance mismatch
between the outer and inner ear. To overcome this mismatch the hearing
system has two mechanisms that are used to amplify the force that can be
exerted on the liquid. The first amplification in the middle ear relies on the
mechanical amplification of the vibrations of the ossicles. The system of os-
sicles (hammer - anvil - stirrup) weakens low and high tones and amplifies
28 CHAPTER 2. THE HUMAN HEARING SYSTEM

Figure 2.4: The zone of speech. Source : Bruël&Kjær.

tones in the speech intelligibility area. Due to a leverage effect, the forces
exerted on the middle ear are amplified with approximately factor three (see
Figure 2.5). Note that although the forces are amplified, the displacements
are attenuated (due to the conservation of energy of the sound wave). Sec-
ondly, an amplification of the forces is realised due to the ratio between the
section of the eardrum (where the sound wave strikes) and the oval window
(where the sound wave is transmitted to the cochlea).

The amplification in the inner ear depends on the frequency of the stim-
ulants, acting on different locations in the cochlea (Figure 2.6). The func-
tioning of the inner ear relies on the propagation of waves on the basilar
membrane. At low frequencies the maximum of the displacement is situ-
ated further away in the cochlea (since at any wave length energy is lost,
the low frequencies propagate further in comparison with higher tones). At
high frequencies, the maximum is situated near the oval window. moreover,
the stiffness of the membranes in the organ of Corti tuned on the different
frequency bands that need to be perceived in the different places along the
cochlear duct.
2.2. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR 29

Figure 2.5: Amplification of the sound by the ossicles.

Figure 2.6: Changing cross section of the cochlea to realize a frequency de-
pendent hearing mechanism.
30 CHAPTER 2. THE HUMAN HEARING SYSTEM

2.3 Pathology of the ear

2.3.1 Introduction
When considering hearing disabilities, distinction between conductive hear-
ing loss and perception hearing disorders should be made. The conductive
hearing loss concerns all defects that prevent all mechanical conduction of
vibrations to the oval window. For example : constipation of the external
auditory canal, stiffening of the eardrum, concrescence of the ossicles, con-
crescence of the ossicles to the side of the cochlea,... Otosclerosis is a common
disorder where the bone growth hinders the movement of the ossicles, in par-
ticular the stirrup. The surgical procedure in which the stirrup is removed
(stapedectomy) and is replaced with a prothese, offers a good chance on full
recovery of the hearing capabilities. Perception hearing disorder includes all
defects in the cochlea, like : wear of the hair cells, tinnitus, impairment of the
nerves. At the moment there is no cure for tinnitus. Devices that look like a
hearing aid are sometimes used to generate masking noise to make the dis-
order bearable. Some medications can be the cause of tinnitus to. Cochlear
implants use an electrostimulation of the cochlea on the round window or in
the cochlea itself. The electronic signal originates from a speech processor
and is induced by a coil outside the body on an implanted receiver coil in
the body. This is an aid for people who have a serious hearing disorder or
are deaf. It is however still to be considered as the generation of a sound
perception far from normal hearing.

2.3.2 Development of the ear with age

The sensitivity of the ear tends to diminish with age, and loss of hearing
arises faster at high frequencies in general. The span of the effect of age,
called presbycusis, varies strongly from individual to individual. The loss of
hearing at a certain frequency as a consequence of the presbycusis effect is
the difference between the absolute threshold of hearing at this frequency and
the ’normal’ absolute threshold of hearing. According to ISO 389 standard,
’normal’ thresholds are the median thresholds of a normal hearing, young (20
years old) population. Table 2.1 shows the values at the frequencies normally
used in audiometry.
In loss of hearing an enormous individual variability exists. For example,
at a frequency of 4000 Hz the loss can be 5dB for the least sensitive individuals
(sensitivity = 10%) and 45dB for the most sensitive (sensitivity = 90%).
2.4. THE HUMAN PERCEPTION OF SOUND 31

Frequency Threshold
125 Hz 45.0 dB
250Hz 25.5 dB
500Hz 11.5 dB
1 kHz 7.0 dB
2kHz 9.0 dB
3 kHz 10.0 dB
4kHz 9.5 dE
6kHz 15.5 dB
8kHz 13.5 dB

Table 2.1: Hearing threshold of a normal hearing young population (20

years).

2.4 The human perception of sound

2.4.1 The phon
The sensitivity of the ear is function of the frequency. Thanks to the ex-
periments of Fletcher and Munson [15] in the early nineteen thirties this
sensitivity was mapped (see Figure 2.7). During these experiments a tone
of 40 dB of 1 kHz was presented to the test subjects. Next the frequency
was adjusted and the test subjects were asked to indicate the sound pressure
level at which the tone sounded equally loud as the original sound at 1 kHz.
The resulting curve is the co called 40 dB isophone. The experiment was
repeated for other sound pressure levels (see Figure 2.7). It follows from this
that frequency sensitivity depends on the sound levels : at a higher sound
intensity the curves get flatter.

2.4.2 The sone as measure of loudness

Starting from the results of Fletcher and Munson one could think that for
example a sound of 80 phon has a sound level about ten times as high as a
sound of 60 phon (remember : a 20dB SPL increase corresponds to a factor
10 in sound pressure). In reality, humans experience the sound of 80 phon as
four times louder than 60 phon. Extensive experimental and psychological
research was performed to find a mathematical relation between the loudness
(in phon) and the sound level. We can observe from this :

loudness level + 10 dB (phon) = loudness X 2

32 CHAPTER 2. THE HUMAN HEARING SYSTEM

Figure 2.7: The isophone curves. Source : Bruël&Kjær.

Increase/decrease (dB) Experienced change in loudness

3 just observable
5 Notable difference
10 Twice as loud
15 Important increase
20 Four times as loud

Table 2.2: Qualitative experience of loudness with an increase in dB.

This relation is valid for 20 phon < Lp < 120 phon. This is why the sone
scale is introduced to fix a linear relation. An international standard defines
the sone (S) as measure for loudness as follows:
P −40
S=2 10 (2.2)

A sound of 120 phon is 256 times louder than a sound of 40 phon. In-
versely one has: P = 40 + 33.3 log S. The qualitative experience with the
increase/decrease of sound levels is displayed in Table 2.2.
Chapter 3

Measuring sound

3.1 Introduction: why measure sound

In order to select a useful measuring technique we need to determine what
the purpose of the sound measurement is. A first important objective can be
to determine a sound pollution problem. To do this extend, measurements of
the sound pressure level are usually sufficient. In such a case the availability
of a simple, portable measuring system is desirable. It the hindrance is
momentary, one wishes a swift registration of the peak levels. For a long
observation, an automatic averaging and statistical processing is advised and
most of the times required by the legislator. A second objective can be the
reduction of noise after the confirmation of nuisance. One speaks of sound
sanitation. Mostly, there is a need to examine the frequency spectrum of
the sound to accomplish this task. To this extend specific measuring devices
are developed. Measurements in frequency bands gives the general picture
of the composition whereas the linear spectrum can be an important aid in
localizing the source of the sound. The latter can also be done by using
vector intensity measurements, which will not be discussed in this course.
A third objective of sound measurements is to investigate if the norms and
regulations concerning noise pollution are not violated. In this case, as we
shall see in later modules, the measuring parameters as well as the measuring
conditions are often prescribed.

3.2 The measurement microphone

A measurement system to measure sound pressure consists of a microphone,
signal amplifier, conditionings unit and a measuring device. The microphone
converts vibrations of the air into mechanical vibrations, these are in turn

33
34 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

converted in an electric signal. This is amplified and optionally filtered in the

frequency domain. The electrical signal is then read out by the measuring
device. This reading can be done in several ways (digital display, computer
screen, analog display.
The microphone is the critical element in every measuring system for
sound. The microphone detects the sound pressure variations and converts
them into electrical signals. This can be done in several ways:

ˆ Ceramic or piezoelectrical microphones. The working principle of

ceramic or piezoelectrical microphones is based on the properties of the
piezoelectrical material. This material generates an electrical voltage
when mechanical pressure is applied on it. Ceramic microphones are
robust and not sensitive to moisture and other environmental impacts.
Other advantages are their relatively low cost and the fact that no
external voltage source is necessary.

ˆ Condenser microphones. The condenser microphone is used to ex-

ecute precise measurements. Condenser microphones make use of two
electrically charged plates with an air gap in between. One of the plates
is a light membrane that moves under influence of the incoming sound
waves. Figure 3.1 displays a construction of such a microphone. Be-
tween the membrane and the base plate an electrical charge is created
by a voltage supply. Due to the incoming sound wave the distance
between the base plate and membrane changes, casing the capacity
to change. This results in variations on the voltage over the micro-
phone that that proportional with the incoming pressure (see Figure
3.2). Condenser microphones can be designed to have a sensitivity
that does not change much over time and to have a frequency response
that is very flat (the sensitivity is the ratio of the measured tension
over the sound pressure, this value is of the order of a few mV/Pa).
Moreover they are very insensitive to temperature changes. Due to
this stability condenser microphones are designated to use for precision
measurements. Since an notable polarisation tension needs to be ap-
plied over the capacitor, a to high humidity can give problems. The use
of a heating element can present a solution to this problem, if lengthy
measurements need to be conducted.

ˆ Electret microphones an electret is a polymer film with an electrical

charge bound to the molecules. An electret condenser microphone is
made by applying the electret on a perforated metal plate, and shield
it off on the front side with a plastic membrane on which a thin metal
3.2. THE MEASUREMENT MICROPHONE 35

coating is applied. Incoming sound waves alter the capacity of the ca-
pacitor, this gives rise to an electrical current. The electret microphones
do not need an external polarisation, which is the case for condenser
microphones.

Figure 3.1: Layout of a condenser microphone. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

3.2.1 Size of the microphone

Condenser measuring microphones exist in a number of standard sizes, the
core number to describe the size of the microphones is the diameter of the
microphone in inch : one distincts the 1/8, 1/4, 1/2 and 1 inch microphones.
If the wavelength of the sound to observe is about the size of the diameter
of the microphone, the sound pressure will be partially averaged out over the
surface of the membrane and the microphone loses a lot of its sensitivity (see
Figure 3.3). To measure high frequencies, a small microphone will be used.
The total incoming acoustic energy will be lower on a smaller microphone,
which is disadvantageous for the sensitivity. For a 1 inch microphone one
can easily check that up to a frequency of 8kHz, the frequency response is
constant with an accuracy of 2dB. The sensitivity of such a microphone is
typically 50mV/Pa. If one wants to measure higher frequencies, a 1/2 inch
microphone must be used. This can be used up to 20kHz, but its sensitivity
36 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

Figure 3.2: Working principle of a condensator microphone. Source:

Bruël&Kjær.

is only 12,5mV/Pa. 1/8 inch microphones can be used for measurements

of ultrasonic sound, or when measuring impulse sounds or very loud noises.
The manufacturer gives precise data concerning the sensitivity and measuring
range for each type of microphone.

3.2.2 The sound field where measurements take place

The sound field has influence on the measured sound pressure (see Figure
3.4). To keep the influence of the sound field as low as possible, different
types of microphone were designed :

ˆ The free field microphone. The free field is defined as an area where
no reflected sound waves are present. This microphone will compensate
the influence of the microphone on the free field. The highest accuracy
is obtained when pointing the microphone to the source.

ˆ Random incidence microphone for measurements in a diffuse field

another microphone is developed that compensates incoming sound
pressure from all directions.

ˆ Pressure microphone A pressure microphone gives a constant fre-

quency response of the sound field, the way it exists, including the
influence of the microphone itself (no compensation is carried out).
These microphones are useful i.a. when the sound pressure on the side
of a cavity is to be measured (e.g. exhaust systems).
3.2. THE MEASUREMENT MICROPHONE 37

Figure 3.3: Frequency response of the different standard microphone sizes.

Source: Bruël&Kjær.

The three types of microphones can also be used in another field than
the one they are developed for : pressure microphones can be used in diffuse
fields. If a free field microphone is used in a diffuse field, an electronic cor-
rection must be carried out. When a random incidence microphone is used
in a free field, the microphone must be turned 70circ to 80circ relative to the
source of the sound. A pressure microphone must be placed at a 90circ angle
relative to the direction of the source. The National American Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) relies on the use of random incidence microphones to compose
its standards, the International Electrotechnical Commision (IEC) relies on
free field microphones (see Figure 3.5). In Belgium, norms legislation and
regulations prescribe apparatus that comply with the IEC-guideline.

3.2.3 Influence of the wind speed

It is common knowledge that wind in the vicinity a microphone produces
additional noise. This pollutes the signal. For measurements in open air, it
is therefore advised to use a windscreen (this is a soft foam rubber sphere,
as can be seen in Figure 3.6). Windscreens are essentialy transparent in the
interesting frequency range. Typical values are a weakening of 0.5 dB at 5
kHz, this increases to 2 dB weakening at 12 kHz. Figure 3.7 displays the
38 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

Figure 3.4: Disturbing effect of the microphone on the sound field. Source:
Bruël&Kjær.

Figure 3.5: IEC en ANSI measuring procedure. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

3.2. THE MEASUREMENT MICROPHONE 39

sound power caused by the wind in function of the wind speed. This figure
displays a very strong sound signal caused by wind speeds above 40 km/u,
even when using windscreens. The energy in the noise signal caused by the
wind is the highest for low frequencies. At those wind speeds measurements
outside are better postponed. Moreover, most norms (including the Vlarem
legislation for community noise that is discussed later) prohibit the execution
of measurements at speeds higher than 5 m/s.

Figure 3.6: Foam windscreens and other accessories for the microphone.
Source: Bruël&Kjær.

3.2.4 Division of sound in frequency bands

Noise that surrounds us is usually made up out of frequencies spread over the
hearing range (20 Hz - 20 kHz). The sound pressure level of this broadband
signal can be measured in a number of consecutive frequency intervals that
are called frequency bands. Sometimes one prefers frequency bands with
a fixed width, bust mostly one uses octave or fractional octave bands. An
important reason for this choice is that a change of frequency of one octave
in the hearing range always causes the same impression of change. The
difference in frequency between 40 and 50 Hz will be sensed similar as the
difference between 4000 and 5000Hz for example. The standard octave bands
in the audible frequency range have central frequencies (fc ) that equal 31.5
40 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

Figure 3.7: Disturbing effect of sound on measured soundlevels. Source:

Bruël&Kjær.

Hz, 63 Hz, 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz, 4 kHz, 8 kHz and 16 kHz.
The central frequency doubles in every consecutive band. The√lower limit of
the band is given by: fL = √fc2 and the upper limit by: fU = 2fc . Instead
of using these exact numbers, the bands were rounded and standardized like
in Table 3.1. Third bands or 1/3rd octave bands are obtained by dividing
the octave bands into three separate bands. following relations exist for third
bands:

fctertz = 21/3 fcoctave

f tertz
fLtertz = c1/6
2
tertz
fU = 21/6 fctertz

Where fLtertz , fctertz , fUtertz are the sub-, center- and upper frequencies of
the third bands and fcoctaaf the center frequencies of the octave bands.
3.3. FREQUENCY WEIGHTING OF MICROPHONE SIGNALS 41

Lower limit fL Center frequency fc Upper limit fU

22.4 31.5 45
45 63 90
90 125 180
180 250 355
355 500 710
710 1000 1400
1400 2000 2800
2800 4000 5600
5600 8000 11200
11200 16000 22400

Table 3.1: lower-, center- and upper frequencies of the standardized octave-
bands.

3.3 Frequency weighting of microphone sig-

nals

Measuring in octave- and even more in third bands is quite cumbersome.

Moreover this results in a whole set of readings per measuring point. Mostly
one tries to limit the number of readings to a minimum with this kind of
measurements. To accomplish this one will mostly use an averaged value of
the different frequency bands. To let the measured values correspond with
the sound perception of the human ear, one will weight the desired sound
pressure in the frequency range. To accomplish this different filters are used :
the A, B, C and D filer. The A-weighted sound level is accomplished by ad-
justing the sound level in every frequency band to the frequency sensitivity
of the human ear for soft sounds (40 dB). This is done by a custom filtering.
This is standardized (ANSI 1983) and presented in Figure 3.8. The adjusted
global sound level is displayed in A-weighted decibels (dBA). The B- and
C-weighing are defined analogous. They take into account the sensitivity
of the human ear at average and loud noises respectively. The filter curves
used for the different weighting schemes are shown in Figure 3.9. Sensitiv-
ity measurements under different circumstances gave rise to other weighting
schemes. D-weighting is used to measure the sound produced by airplanes
(very loud noises). In practice one uses quasi only the dBA, independent of
the sound level. Even at high sound levels dBA is measured instead of dB(B)
or dB(C).
42 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

Figure 3.8: Inverse of the sensitivity of the hearing at 40 dB and an A-

weighting curve. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

Figure 3.9: Various standardized weighting curves. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

3.4 The sonometer

Sound level meters are the basic equipment for direct measurements of the
sound level, if one is not interested in the frequency spectrum. It can be
simple instruments that can be held in the palm of one’s hand and work
on batteries. These instruments can easily be used on a site where a noise
problem might be present (eg. a factory).
A typical device consists of a (1/2 inch) microphone, a preamplifier,
3.4. THE SONOMETER 43

weighting networks, an amplifier, an RMS rectifier and a meter that displays

the sound level in dB (see Figure 3.10). A switch allows to chose between
an A-, B-, C-, D-weighting or no weighting at all. Finally the rectified signal
is converted in dB and send to an analog or digital display instrument. The
speed at which the meter follows the changes in sound level is often selectable.
In the ’fast’ mode the time constant is approximately 1/8 sec. In ’slow’ mode
the time constant is approximately 1 sec. In slow mode, the device averages
the sound level over the past second. Some devices contain octave or 1/3
octave filters, others have an ’impulse’ and a ’peak hold’ feature, that can
measure signals with a steep rise or that can hold the maximum of a sound
signal in a certain period.

Figure 3.10: Build up of a sonometer. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

According to their accuracy, three types of sound level meters are spec-
ified by the ANSI (American National Standards Institute) and the IEC
(International Electrotechnical Comission):
ˆ Type 1: precision devices
ˆ Type 2: devices for general use
ˆ Type 3: inspection devices
A laboratory reference device is called a device of Type 0. The exact
accuracy of the sound level measurement is of course dependent of several
44 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

factors. In general one can state that with a Type 1 meter the error will be
less than 1 dB. The accuracy of a Type 2 device is approximately 2 dB.

3.5 Calibration of measurement systems

A microphone is usually accompanied with a calibration chart upon delivery.
On this map the frequency sensitivity is mapped (see Figure 3.11). There
exist numerous calibration methods for microphones or measuring systems
a a whole. One has recorded that when measuring sound pressure levels,
the best results are obtained when a pistonphone is used for the calibration
of the system (see Figure 3.12). A pistonphone (piston calibrator) consists
of an engine that moves a few pistons back and forth. The calibration is
done by placing the junction piece of the pistonphone over the microphone
and switching on the device. A pistonphone will typically generate a signal
of 250 Hz at 124(±0, 5) dB. Oscillator based soundlevelcalibrators are light,
small and battery-backed. The electrical oscillator controls a piezoelectrical
element that causes a membrane to move. The sound pressure level that
is generated is 94 ± 0.3 dB. The resonance frequency typically is 1000Hz
since at this frequency possible weighting has no influence. his frequency is
stabilized by the Helmholtz resonator with a natural frequency of 1000Hz,
that is formed by a cavity behind the membrane.

3.6 Presence of the observer

The presence of the instruments and the observer in the sound field will
perturb the measurement. If measurements in a diffuse field are executed,
the error will usually be small. If one wants to measure in the proximity of
a source, the observer shall obviously not be in the direct line between the
source and measurement device. Preferably the instrument is placed on a
tripod and the observer steps back at least half a meter behind and sideways
of the instrument. Octave band or small band measurements are much more
sensitive to the presence of the observer. Usually in this case the microphone
is mounted on a tripod and connected with a cable of at least half a meter to
the other equipment. When measuring in an anechoic room, all equipment
(except for the microphone) and the observer shall be placed outside the
room.
3.7. BACKGROUND NOISE 45

Figure 3.11: Calibration sheet accompanying a microphone. Source:

Bruël&Kjær.

3.7 Background noise

When measuring sound caused by a certain source, all other sounds present
are considered as background noise. If the level of the background noise
is more than 10 dB lower than the total sound pressure level, it can be
neglected. If it is less than 10dB lower, a correction is necessary. Assume we
want to determine the sound level LS of a source, situated in an environment
with a background sound level LN . The combined sound level (background
+ source) is LC . LN and LC are measured and LS is the value we want to
determine. Since the source and the background noise are not correlated, the
average quadratic sound pressures of the combined sound and the background
noise need to be subtracted to obtain the source term. Taking into account
the definition of the sound pressure level we find:

LC −LB
 
LS = LC + 10 log 1 − 10− 10 (3.1)
46 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

Figure 3.12: pistonphone for the calibration of a microphone. Source:

Bruël&Kjær.

3.8 Quantitative parameters

3.8.1 The equivalent sound pressure level
To characterize sound that highly varies in time, one introduces the equiva-
lent sound level. A constant sound at this level contains the same acoustic
energy as the highly varied sound. The equivalent sound level is obtained by
averaging the average quadratic sound pressure over the desired time interval
and converting it again to dB. From the definition of the sound pressure level
one obtains:

p2rms
= 10Lp /10 (3.2)
p20
this gives :

T
p2rms
   
1
Z
Lp /10
Leq = 10 log = 10 log 10 dt (3.3)
p20 T 0

With Leq the equivalent sound level (dBA), p2rms the time average of the
average quadratic sound pressure and T the time over which the averaging
3.8. QUANTITATIVE PARAMETERS 47

operation takes place. The integration in Equation 3.3 is replaced by a sum

over a set of N measurements in practice:

N
!
1 X Li /10
Leq = 10 log 10 (3.4)
T i=1

The equivalent sound level is directly measured with the aid of a microproces-
sor controlled sound level meter. This can usually be programmed to execute
and record a whole set of measuring cycles over a period of 24 hours.

3.8.2 Sound Exposure Level

The sound exposure level (SEL) is used to characterize a single event, both
in sound level and duration. The SEL is defined as:
Z T
SEL = 10 log( 10L/10 dt) (3.5)
0

with T the time measured in seconds. The SEL can also be measured with
an integrating sound level meter. The SEL can be used to characterize the
noise produced by say, a certain machine action.
A dosimeter or noise exposure meter is an instrument that is designed to
measure the accumulated noise exposure of workers in an industrial environ-
ment (like dosimeters exist for radiation). The dosimeter is a compact device
(see Figure 3.13) with an integrating sound level meter that can be worn by
workers during their normal activities at work. Usually the dosimeter has
an internal memory to track the sound exposure of several workers. Apart
from the sound exposure levels in dBA, the percentage of the allowed level
and the peak level is displayed. Also the data and duration of the measuring
period are registered.

3.8.3 Statistic sound levels

In lots of real life situations the sound level will vary strongly in function of
time. When registering such a sound over an extended period, it is difficult
to interpret. Apart from often continuously present sound, there is a whole
set of interferences. Because of this the sound can be registered in a statistic
way. Per time period, all sound pressure levels are registered. This can be
statistically displayed in a statistic or cumulative distribution. These cumu-
lative measured values are also called the fractional sound pressure levels.
48 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

Figure 3.13: Dosimeter. Source: Bruël&Kjær.

Typical cumulative distributions are the L99 , L95 , L50 , L10 , L5 and L01 dis-
tributions. Lx indicates that during x% of the time, a sound pressure level
is present larger than or equal to the indicated value. For example; L95 = 60
dB indicates that 95% of the time, the sound pressure level is at least equal
to 60dB. L95 and L90 can be interpreted as the sound pressure levels that
are continuously present, whereas L10 and L05 indicate sound pressure levels
that are caused by accidental noises (eg. passing vehicles).

3.8.4 The Noise Rating value

Noise pollution is related to the loudness and the frequency spectrum of the
sound. This is the case because of the following reasons : a) high tones prove
to contribute more to the nuisance of sound than the low tones; b) when
dealing with noise one wants to track the source, and this is only possible
with a frequency spectrum analysis. One has searched for a better one digit
system, that also takes into account the spectrum. In this way one gets the so
called ISO-limit curve for noise, also called the N.R. or Noise Rating curves
(see Figure 3.14), presented by Kosten and Van Os. These are prescribed
for e.g. the determination of noise of ventilators and HVAC units. They
display an octave band level (dB) in function of the frequency. They are
enumerated according to the number of dB sound pressure in the 1000Hz
3.8. QUANTITATIVE PARAMETERS 49

octave band. One only needs to analyse the noise in the octave bands and
connect the measuring points to get a polygonal figure, this figure needs to be
superimposed on the NR-curves. The NR number of the lowest not crossed
curve is a measure for the noise pollution caused by that noise. One may
interpolate. The value obtained, has to be corrected to take into account the
duration of the disturbance, the season, the surroundings etc. In the ISO-
1996-standard all these notions are fixed. Tolerable limits for the sound that
may enter a living room, bedroom, bureau, hospital etc. are also proposed
in this standard. Or the sound that may be caused in a factory, central, at a
transformation station, etc. A few examples, as presented in the ISO-1996-
standard. - in a bedroom : NR 25, concert hall : NR 30 - in offices : NR 40,
typing pool : NR 55 - in a factory : NR 85

Figure 3.14: Noise rating curve.

3.8.5 The nuisance of fluctuating sound

The NR method is interesting to represent the nuisance of a sound by a
single value, taking into account the frequency spectrum of that sound. Nev-
ertheless this is only valid for a sound with constant magnitude in time. In
later research one has tried to express the nuisance of a fluctuating sound by
a single value, assuming the nuisance is not only dependant of the average
loudness of the sound (Leq ) but also of the changes the loudness is undergoes.
50 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

For example, cars and airplanes that pass by repeatedly will not raise the
average sound level Leq much but are annoying because of the repeated rising
and fading away of sound. In other words, the frequent variation compared
to the background noise. Robinson proposed a measure: Noise Pollution
Level or N.P.L. : NP L = Leq + 2.56σ. with Leq the energetic time average
as discussed above, and σ the standard deviation, that is to say, a statistic
measure of the variations of the sound. The larger these variations, the larger
σ. There exists a very good correlation between the values obtained for NPL
and the subjective nuisance of the fluctuating sound. For airplanes special
models exist. The noise loading is expressed as: LAmax + b log N + c, with N
the number of flybys within a certain time interval, and a, b and c represent
constants.

3.9 The intensity meter

In Chapter 1 the notion sound intensity was introduced and it was shown
that the acoustic intensity Ix in a direction x is given by : Ix = vx p, where vx
represents the particle speed of the sound wave in the x direction and p the
sound pressure. The sound pressure can simply be measured with a micro-
phone, but measuring the particle speed is far more difficult. This vectorial
quantity can however be measured with the aid of a derived quantity :
Fx = m a
∂vx ∂p
⇒ ρ =−
∂t Z∂x
1 ∂p
⇒ vx = −
ρ ∂x
In reality the derrivative of the pressure with respect to the distance is cal-
culated by discretization :
Ix = p.vx
1
Z
= − (pA + pB ) (pA − pB ) dt
2ρ∆r
where pA and pB represent the sound pressure on two neighbouring loca-
tions.
This discretized equation is used to calculate the sound intensity with the
aid of the intensity meter (see Figure 3.15). This measuring device consists
of two microphones spaced out over a fixed distance with a so called spacer
(a few centimetres).
The use of the intensity meter offers some advantages :
3.9. THE INTENSITY METER 51

ˆ Since the intensity is a vectorial quantity is one can determine the

direction in which the intensity is the largest. This means the intensity
meter can be used to localize sources of sound (One can ’scan’ where
the sound comes from so to speak).

ˆ It will be shown further that the intensity meter can also be used to
measure the sound power of a source (see the next paragraph). For this
purpose the intensity meter has a few important advantages :

– The background noise can be eliminated (under the condition that

it is stationary).
– One can define a random surface surrounding the source of a sound
(instead of a simple spherical surface).
– One can measure closer to the source (where the sound waves are
not necessarily in plane or spherical).

There are a few issues that require attention when using an intensity
meter however :

ˆ For a fixed distance between the microphones, the intensity meter has a
rather limited frequency range where the measurements are valid. The
c
upper limit is given by fU = 4D (for a distance D = 0.05 this comes
down to fU = 1700). At low frequencies the value derived from the
theory is still correct, but noise present in the measurement will result
in an incorrect measurement.

ˆ The direction of the probe is of great importance. To measure the

power of the source, the intensity probe has to be held perpetual on
the defined surface at all times (this is not the case for an intensity
meter that is not directional).

ˆ The cost of an intensity meter is much higher than that of a sonome-

ter. The calibration of the probe is also a lot more devious (the two
microphones must be matched perfectly.

The error on the measured intensity depends on the distance r between

the microphones of the intensity meter and the frequency. Assume the in-
stantaneous pressure on a certain point in time is given by :

p(x) = pm sin(kx) (3.6)

with pm the amplitude, k the wavenumber and x the coordinate of the

measured midpoint between the microphones. The exact expression for the
52 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

derivative of p is :
∂p
= pm k cos(kx) = kpm (3.7)
∂x
The approximation pA − pB is given by :
pA − pB pm (sin(kr/2) − sin(−kr/2)) 2pm sin(kr/2)
= = (3.8)
r r r
The relative error equals :
pm k − 2pm sin(kr/2)/r 2 sin(kr/2)
e= =1− (3.9)
pm k kr
Example : suppose one uses an intensity meter wit a 6mm spacer to measure
the intensity at 12kHz. It can be calculated that k = 217.9m−1 and therefore
kr/2 = 0.65 and e = 0.07. The relative can be seen to equal 7%. This error
will increase rapidly when using a bigger spacer.

3.10 Measuring sound sources

3.10.1 Measurements in an anechoic half-space
An anechoic half-space is a room that is confined (usually at the bottom)
by a hard surface, that reflects the sound waves (see Figure 3.16). Along all
other walls there is in principle no material border, or, the sound waves are
completely absorbed (and not reflected). This anechoic half-space is realised
outside on a hard concrete surface (without buildings or other objects in
the near surroundings), or inside in an acoustical dead room with a hard
floor. The measurements of the sound power in an anechoic half-space are
conducted as described in the ISO standard 3745 [4]. The sound source is
placed on the hard surface. The measuring points, n in number (6 or 8)
are placed at a distance far enough from the source to guarantee that the
measurements are conducted in the far field (see Figure 3.16). In practice this
means that the measuring points are placed at a distance of at least three
wavelengths from the source. Moreover the measuring points spaced out
over the half-space (on a half spherical surface) in such a fashion that every
point is concerned with an equal part of the surface Si . This means that :
nSi = 2πr 2. If the machine radiates non-omnidirectional sound, the various
microphones will not measure equal sound pressure. One will therefore take
into account the ’spatial average effective’ pressure pp in the expression of
the power W :
2 p2m
W = I2πr with I = (3.10)
ρc
3.10. MEASURING SOUND SOURCES 53

Figure 3.15: An intensity meter.

We can use the above expression because there is a free field above the hard
surface. We switch to reduced quantities:
W 1 p2m p2
= 2πr 2 20
W0 W0 ρc p0
2
p p20
= m2 2πr 2 because =1
p0 W0 ρc
54 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND

The sound power level can therefore be determined with the following ex-
pression :
LW ≈ Lpm + 20 log r + 8dB (3.11)
2
where Lpm is determined in the following manner : Lpm = 10 log ppm2 . The
0
averaged sound pressures are calculated in the following way :

1 X 2
p2m = p Si . (3.12)
nSi i i

The measurements are conducted in all normalized frequency bands (octave

bands).

Figure 3.16: Anechoic half-space.

3.10.2 Measurements in a full anechoic room

The more fundamental measurements are conducted in an acoustic dead
room, where the microphones are placed over a complete spherical surface
surrounding the source. In this case the sound level is given by :

LW = Lpm + 20 log r + 10 log 4π ≈ Lpm + 20 log r + 11dB (3.13)

3.10. MEASURING SOUND SOURCES 55

3.10.3 The comparison method

In the ’comparison method’ one uses a reference source which is normalised.
The method itself is also standardized in many industries. The test is con-
ducted in a so called acoustic hard room, since one does not usually have
access to an acoustic dead (anechoic) room. The reference source can gener-
′
ate for example a power LW . Firstly, one has to install multiple microphones
spaced out in the room and not to close to the machine (in the far field). One
measures the sound pressure levels Lpi and the spatial averages Lpm of the
sound radiated by the unknown source (use Equation 3.12). Secondly, one
′
then replaces the machine with the reference source and one measures Lpm in
an identical fashion (microphones on identical positions). In each frequency
′ ′
band the following equations hold true : LW = Lpm + C and LW = Lpm + C
(where c is a constant that is the same for the two measurements) The un-
known power can be calculated from :
′ ′
LW = LW + (Lpm − Lpm ) (3.14)

3.10.4 Power measurement with an intensity meter

Due to the fact that the measuring locations for the described comparison
methods are located in the far field, that method is not applicable when
different objects are placed close to each other. In this case one can use an
intensity meter to measure the sound power. The following procedure must
be used to do this (ISO 9614) :

ˆ Define a random surface S that includes the source. This does not have
to be placed in the far field but can be situated close to the source.

ˆ Measure the intensity Ii in N discrete points on the surface S.

ˆ Calculate the power level : LW = 10 log N

P Wi
i=1 W0 with Wi = Ii Si .

Instead of discrete measuring locations an alternative method can be

used where the intensity meter scans in a continuous fashion over the defined
surface (the so called sweep method, described in ISO 9614-2). Care must be
taken that the sweep speed is as constant as possible, moreover the intensity
meter must be held perpendicular to the surface.
56 CHAPTER 3. MEASURING SOUND
 Part II

Noise control

57
Chapter 4

Sound Absorption

All (construction) materials have, to a greater or lesser degree, the property of

sound absorption: concrete and stone absorb less sound, wood and fibreboard
more. It often occurs that too much sound is reflected, and so one can hear
echoes in a room. One can decide to cover certain boundaries of the room,
with materials that better absorb the sound, e.g. in homes or offices :
ˆ Acoustic tiles on the ceiling

ˆ Acoustically absorbing plates against the walls

ˆ Carpet on the floor

ˆ Curtains in front of the windows

One should pay attention to the fact that these sound absorbing materials
serve to attenuate the sound reflections. They are not used to improve sound
insulation, as is often thought. The sound insulation of an absorbing material
is quite small, and the misconception probably originates from the fact that
good thermal insulating materials like glasswool and rockwool, are also good
sound insulating materials.

4.1 Acoustic transmission between two me-

dia
In practice it never occurs that an acoustic wave, generated by an acoustic
source, propagates exclusively in one medium. Usually the wave will propa-
gate on to a second medium (e.g. gas/fluid, gas/solid, etc.). In this section
we will present a model which allows us to study to which extent energy
is reflected, and to which extent energy will be transmitted to the second

59
60 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

medium. We will start this study with the simple case of normal incidence
of a sound wave.

4.1.1 Normal incidence

Let us consider a plane sound wave pi (t, x) that impinges on the interface
of two media (each medium is semi-infinite). One part of the energy will
be reflected in wave pr and another part will be transmitted in wave pa (see
Figure 4.1). Given all the energy is either reflected, either absorbed, one can
write :

Ii = Ia + Ir (4.1)
with Ii , Ia and Ir the incident energy, absorbed energy and reflected en-
ergy respectively (the transmitted energy is neglected because in practice
the transmitted energy is various orders of magnitude smaller). We can also
use the following dimensionless coefficients: absorption coefficient a = IIai and
reflection coefficient r = IIri , so : a = 1 − r.
There are two continuity conditions which need to be fulfilled at the
interface x = 0 at each point of time t :
ˆ Total sound pressure of Medium 1 needs to be equal to total sound
pressure of Medium 2 :
pi (0, t) + pr (0, t) = pa (0, t) (4.2)

ˆ Total normal speed of the particles of Medium 1 needs to be equal to

the normal speed of the particles of Medium 2 :
vi (0, t) + vr (0, t) = va (0, t) (4.3)

Physical contact between the two media is expressed by these two condi-
tions: the vibration movement is completely passed on. For the sound wave
in positive and negative direction we can write : v(x, t)+ = p(x,t)
z
+
and
p(x,t)−
v(x, t)− = z with z = ρc the characteristic impedance. Equation 4.3
can be rewritten using pressures :
1 1
(pi (0, t) + pr (0, t)) = pa (0, t) (4.4)
z1 z2
By eliminating the transmitted pressure wave pa in Equations 4.2 and 4.4
we can find the the ratio of the reflected pressure to the normal incident
pressure :
pr (0, t) z2 − z1
= (4.5)
pi (0, t) z2 + z1
4.1. ACOUSTIC TRANSMISSION BETWEEN TWO MEDIA 61

By elimination of the reflected pressure wave pr from Equations 4.2 and 4.4
we can find the ratio of the transmitted pressure to the normal incident
pressure :
pa (0, t) 2z2
= (4.6)
pi (0, t) z2 + z1
From these last two equations we can calculate the coefficients of absorption
and reflection :
Ia p2 z1
a = = a 2
Ii z2 pi
Ir p2 z1
r = = r 2
Ii z1 pi
so :
4z1 z2
a=
(z1 + z2 )2
(z2 − z1 )2
r=
(z1 + z2 )2

If the acoustic impedances z1 and z2 are frequency independent, so will be a

and r, and they can be used for various waveforms.

In practice, one can distinguish three cases :

ˆ zl ≪ z2 e.g. for the transition from gas to solid. In that case :

4z1
a≈ (4.7)
z2

and r ≈ 1, which means that only a small amount of energy will pene-
trate the solid and most energy will be reflected to the gas.
ˆ z1 = z2 : Now a = 1, r = 0, which means that all energy incident
on the interface between two media, will be transmitted to the second
medium. No energy will be reflected to the medium from which the
wave is generated. This means that a so-called ’impedance match’ is
realized.
ˆ zl ≫ z2 (e.g. solid to gas). The same result is obtained as in the first
case, because all the expressions of a and r are symmetrical in z1 and
z2 . There is only small transition of acoustical energy and most energy
is reflected.
62 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

Figure 4.1: Transmission between two media.

Example: interaction air/water: z1 =415 rayl, z2 = 1.48 × 106 rayl. In

this case a = 0.00112 and r = 0.99888.
Apparently the impedances are not adjusted and there is strong reflection.
The fact that in Cases 1 and 3 there is mostly reflection, does not mean that
the pressure waves form the same image in these two cases. We will now
consider this. The total pressure in Medium 1 is given by :

p(x, t) = A exp(iωt − ikx) + B exp(iωt + ikx) (4.8)

with A and B are the amplitudes of the incident and reflected waves (notice
that the direction of propagation of the reflected wave changes and that there
is a complex amplitude because a phase shift with respect to the reference
may occur). Again we distinguish two cases :

ˆ Case 1 : (z1 ≪ z2 ) so B = A. This allows us to rewrite the pressure :

p(x, t) = A exp(iωt − ikx) + A exp(iωt + ikx) = 2A cos(kx) cos(ωt)

(4.9)
This is a standing wave with amplitude 2A cos(kx). On the interface
x = 0, cos(kx) = 1 and so the amplitude is 2A. There will be a doubling
of pressure (also see Figure 4.2).

ˆ Case 2 : (z1 ≫ z2 ) so B = −A. This allows us to rewrite the pressure :

p(x, t) = A exp(iωt − ikx) − A exp(iωt + ikx) = 2A sin(kx) cos(ωt)

(4.10)
4.1. ACOUSTIC TRANSMISSION BETWEEN TWO MEDIA 63

This is a standing wave with amplitude 2A sin(kx). On the interface

x = 0, sin(kx) = 0, so the pressure is also equal to 0. (also see Figure
4.3).

Figure 4.2: Amplitude of the standing wave at transition from low to high
impedance.

Figure 4.3: Amplitude of the standing wave at transition from high to low
impedance.

From the absorption and reflection expressions in function of the impedances

(see Equations 4.7), one can deduce that the impedance of a good acoustic
64 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

absorbing materials is close to that of air. Seen that this impedance is rather
small (∼ 400 rayl), it is not easy to find solid materials which absorb enough
sound. However, there exist alternative solutions for the physical realization
of sound absorption, based on other phenomena :
ˆ A plate on a layer of air
ˆ Helmholtz resonator
ˆ Porous acoustic absorbing materials
Following sections will give an overview of these three methods.

4.2 Realization of acoustic absorption

4.2.1 Plate on an air layer
A plate on an air layer belongs to the category of resonant absorption means.
One fixes a plate (plywood, chipboard, sheet metal, hardboard, plasterboard,
etc.), using wooden slats or profile irons, at a distance of some centimeters
in front of a hard wall (see Figure 4.4). The plate, together with the air
behind it, constitutes a mass-spring system. The plate represents the mass,
while the air represents the spring element. In fact the plate has also some
resilience, but it can be shown that its influence is negligible once the plate is
of a certain size (starting from 1 m x 1m). The method of attachment of the
plate is therefore almost of no importance, i.e. one may reason on a highly
simple physical model: a plate freely suspended on an air cushion of a few
cm thickness. The wave length of sound is supposed to be much bigger than
the thickness of the air cushion, so no wave phenomena occur. Let :
m mass per square meter of panel surface,
d damping per m2 ,
k the stiffness coefficient of the air layer behind the plate,
p the excitation force per m2 , i.e. the sound pressure incident on the plate.
then one can find for this model with one degree of freedom :
mẍ + dẋ + kx = p (4.11)
or by writing the equation in function of the particle velocity v :
Z
mv̇ + dv + k vdt = p (4.12)
4.2. REALIZATION OF ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION 65

1
R
For harmonic signals : v̇ = iωv and vdt = iω v and thus Equation 4.12 can
be rewritten :
v
iωmv + dv + k = p (4.13)
iω
Thus, the impedance z = vp of the system is given by :
k
z = iωm + d + (4.14)
iω
One can show that the stiffness k of the air layer is given by k = γP D
0

(no proof is given in this text), with P0 the atmospheric pressure and D the
distance between plate and wall. The resonance frequency of the mass-spring
system can be deduced from Equation 4.13 :
r r
1 k 1 γP0
f0 = = (4.15)
2π m 2π mD
In the practical case of a light panel, for example, this gives, with m =
4kg/m2 and D = 0.04 m, f0 = 150 Hz. Now when a sound wave hits
the panel, it will vibrate at the frequency of the sound. When this forced
frequency is in the vicinity of the eigenfrequency of the panel, calculated
above, shall this strongly vibrate on the air spring. All sorts of friction losses
will then occur (internal losses in the panel due to the deformation, friction
of the panel on the slats, etc...) which cause the loss of vibrational energy,
i.e. sound energy will be absorbed. Moreover when rockwool or glass wool
mats are applied in the air gap, than this will augment the dissipation of
energy, making the sound absorption increased in a wider domain around
the eigenfrequency of the panel. I.e. the damping term d can be consciously
adapted to the needs. When the expression of the impedance is put into
the expression of the absorption, one is capable to calculate the acoustic
absorption coefficient of a given material as a function of frequency. The
experimentally obtained value of a is usually smaller, and typically not higher
than 0.5 (generally 0.3 to 0.4) and the bandwidth amounts to several octaves.
The eigenfrequency is low, thus a panel on an air layer is typically applied to
absorb low tones. Absorption at low frequencies is often absent in modern
buildings, one can encounter absorption of high frequencies in these buildings
due to, for example, porous fiber board, which is applied as lost mold of the
ceilings.

4.2.2 Helmholtz resonator

By applying a large number of holes (round, elongated, ... ) to a panel, its
acoustic properties are changed. When a sound wave impinges on a perfo-
rated panel, the incident sound wave will not vibrate the mass of the panel
66 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

Figure 4.4: Schematic representation of a plate on an air layer.

alone, but will also excite the mass of the air in the holes : these small masses
will start to resonate on the air spring behind it : this phenomenon is called
the Helmholtz resonator. The Helmholtz resonator originally consisted of
a small space, filled with air (see Figure 4.5). There is an opening with a
neck, which forms the connection with the environment. (One can think for
example of a bottle). The air in the hollow space takes the role of an air
spring, in which the mass of the air in the neck will start to vibrate. There
is a clear agreement with the perforated panel.
The realization of noise absorption is similar to the plate on an air layer,
where in this case, a column of air resonates on a volume of air. It is clear
that the mass of the vibrating air is much smaller than the mass of the
(perforated) plate. The mathematical model that was previously created,
remains valid, but m has a different meaning and a much smaller numerical
value. In practice, the resonance frequency is 7 to 10 times higher. Moreover,
the bandwidth B within which sound can be absorbed well, is slightly larger.
Indeed, the quality factor of the oscillation circuit is :
ω0 m
Q= (4.16)
d + ρc
and is thus greatly reduced because of the small numerical value of m in air.
The bandwidth B is inversely proportional to the quality factor Q. Even
4.2. REALIZATION OF ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION 67

with perforated panels, one can adjust the friction term d as desired, e.g.
by applying rock wool or glass wool in the air layer behind it. Moreover,
there are also products available on the market that approach the resonator
of Helmholtz in shape : very thick embedded, sawed or milled wood fiber
panels. Indeed, the air mass in the holes, cuts or milled grooves can vibrate,
while energy is dissipated in the porous fiber material. They absorb mainly
in the acoustic middle frequency range.
N.B.: The air behind the big plate, as well as the air in the Helmholtz
resonator undergoes compression and expansion as a whole, i.e. it is assumed
that no wave phenomena occur (λ > characteristic size).

Figure 4.5: Schematic representation of a Helmholtz resonator.

4.2.3 Porous acoustic absorbing materials

Consider a porous material which consists of fibers (diameter 2 to 20 µm)
that are random oriented, and bonded to each other at their contact points
using a resin. Frequently used fiber materials for acoustic absorption are
glass or mineral materials. Notwithstanding the specific mass of the glass
or mineral fiber (approximately 2400 kg/m3 ) the mass of the bulk porous
material is only between 30 and 200 kg/m3 (average of about 100 kg/m3 ).
The porosity is thus very large : the ratio of pore volume to total volume
amounts to about 95 to 98%. The pores are all in connection to each other,
68 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

and one may therefore say that the air in these pores participates completely
to the sound movement if a wave is incident. Viscous friction losses in the
air occur due to the vibrating movement of the air and furthermore also
impulse losses due to the constrictions, dilations and turns along the many
fibers. These losses mainly occur at higher frequencies. Moreover, the air will
be alternately compressed and relaxed and therefore experience temperature
fluctuations which will give rise to heat exchange with the fibers. This creates
thermal losses, and these tend to occur at lower frequencies. The result of all
occurring losses is that the compressibility modulus K and the propagation
velocity c are complex quantities in porous media. From the complex nature
of c follows that the wave is damped (see above). A first model to describe
the sound propagation in porous material, is that of the quasi-homogeneous
absorber in which it is supposed that fibers and pores are evenly distributed
over the entire volume and that their dimensions are small compared to the
wavelength of the sound. A second model is that of Rayleigh in which the
pores are represented by a large number of cylindrical tubes of small diameter,
parallel to the wave propagation direction. There are many other theoretical
models. We will not discuss the mathematical formulation of these models
here.
Experimental research of Delany and Bazley on a very large number of
porous materials, and statistical processing of the measurement results, has
led to following practical model for the wave impedance z = r + ix :
ρ0f −0.754
r = z0 (1 + 0.0571( ) )
Rs
ρ0 −0.732
x = z0 (−0.087( ) )
Rs
with z0 = ρ0 c, f the frequency and Rs the specific air resistance in Rayl/cm.
The above expression is valid for 10 ≤ Rfs ≤ 1000.
According to C.W. Kosten it is possible to use the model of impedance
of an air column for the porous material :
ωl
z = −iρc cot (4.17)
c
where ρ and c are complex quantities, and l is the thickness of the porous
layer. At increasing frequency, z will, due to the cotangent function, run
through an infinite series of zeros and poles i.e. anti-resonances and reso-
nances.
The art of sound absorption consists of adapting as good as possible the
value of impedance of the absorption means to the impedance ρc of the air,
within the desired frequency range. In the selection of a porous acoustic
material, the following factors are taken into account :
4.2. REALIZATION OF ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION 69

ˆ The narrower the pores are, the stronger will be the air friction, thus the
stronger the damping, i.e. absorption. In order to measure the acoustic
absorption of a porous material an experiment can be conducted to
measure the airflow through the material as shown in Figure 4.6. The
∂p
specific air resistivity Rs is a measure for this, defined by Rs = −1 v ∂x
.
It seems obvious that Rs must be sufficiently large to achieve damping
and thus absorption. On the other hand Rs should not be too large,
because then the pores will become too narrow and only a small fraction
of the incident intensity will penetrate, while the main part is reflected.
ˆ The layer thickness is also an important parameter. Indeed, in order
to get a damped wave, it must penetrate a sufficient distance into the
porous material. Moreover, the damping is proportional to the wave
velocity (and not the pressure) which has a maximum at a quarter
wavelength away from the wall. One thus comes to the conclusion
that relatively low Rs and relatively thick material should give rise to
favorable absorption properties. One should especially not think that
high Rs and small thickness give rise to good absorption. This cheap
solution leads to bad results.
ˆ Frequency also plays a major role here, since the particle velocity de-
pends on it. The friction losses, which are dependent on the viscos-
ity, increase with increasing speed, thus increasing frequency of sound.
Hence porous layers especially absorb high frequencies. Further, one
may also imagine that a large layer thickness is required to absorb lower
frequency (large wavelength).
ˆ The pore structure also plays a role (granular or fibrous material ...).
The structure can be described by means of the so-called tortuosity
(this is the randomness with which the fibers are arranged in the ma-
terial).
ˆ The method of fixation in front of the wall. If fixed on profiles, a few
centimeters in front of a hard wall, then one obtains an absorbent effect,
approximately equivalent to that of a layer absorbent material, equally
to the sum of the thickness of the air layer and the thickness of the
absorbent material.
Caution: paint covers the fine pores and annihilates the sound-absorbing
effect of porous materials (there is no danger with large pores).
Some numerical values of the specific flow resistivity : Rs = 104 for glass-
wool and rockwool, Rs = 105 for compact glasswool and compact rockwool
Rs = 106 for compact fiberboard and Rs = 107 for compact stony materials.
70 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

Figure 4.6: Schematic of the experiment for the measurement of the specific
flow resistivity.

4.3 Measuring the acoustic absorption

The acoustic absorption coefficients are material parameters that can be
found from manufacturers data sheets (Table 4.1 shows the absorption co-
efficients of some materials). If data sheets are not available the absorption
coefficient must be measured as will described in this section. To measure
the absoption coefficient we will first introduce the concept of reverberation
time in the next section.

4.3.1 Reverberation time

The reverberation time T in a certain space is the time required in order that
the energy level decreases 60 dB (which is equal to a factor 10−6 ) :
I(T )
T such that = 10−6 (4.18)
I(0)
In what follows, we will calculate the reverberation time of a room. We will
use the following assumptions :
1. The room is large : the length L1 , the height L2 and width L3 ≫ λ.
This means that the method is only valid for large rooms, halls, factory
halls, etc. or smaller enclosures at higher frequencies.
2. At each position on a boundary of the room, a part of the acoustic
energy will be absorbed, while the remaining part is reflected.
4.3. MEASURING THE ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION 71

Material 125Hz 250Hz 500Hz 1000Hz 2000Hz 4000Hz

parquet flooring on concrete 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07
carpet on concrete 0.02 0.06 0.14 0.37 0.60 0.65
Brick 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
Concrete - coarse 0.36 0.44 0.31 0.29 0.39 0.25
Concrete - painted 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.08
Curtain 0.03 0.04 0.11 0.17 0.24 0.35
Window glass 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.12 0.07 0.04
Plaster 0.013 0.015 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Marble/tile 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02
Glasswool (5cm) 0.22 0.82 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
Water 0.008 0.008 0.013 0.015 0.020 0.025
Person 0.25 0.35 0.42 0.46 0.5 0.5

Table 4.1: Absorption coefficients of some materials

3. All wave propagation directions have the same probability. The shape
of the space is not of any importance, and is basically random and
irregular ; however the dimensions are approximately of the same order
of magnitude.

4. If a source of constant level acts in this space, a diffuse sound field will
be built up in this space after a certain amount of time. In doing so,
the energy density in all points of the field will be constant.

This theory neglects therefore :

ˆ The direct field in the immediate vicinity of the sound source.

ˆ Certain side effects in the immediate vicinity of the absorbing materials.

ˆ Possible interferences and diffractions.

Conclusion : In practice we assume that this theory is applicable on large,

possibly irregular shaped rooms, in which acoustic absorbing materials are
present to a limited extent (the theory is not valid for an anechoic room).
Consider a space with volume V , and wall surface S. Suppose that a
diffuse acoustic field prevails in the space. We consider a sound source in
this space, of which the walls have a mean absorption coefficient a. When
the source is disabled, the intensity is I0 . The sound dies out, i.e. the
intensity will decrease due to multiple reflections and absorptions, so that
72 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

after reflection I1 = I0 (1 − a). After n reflections the sound intensity will

be :
In = I0 (1 − a)n (4.19)
In order to determine the number of reflections n, we define :

ct = total path length in time t

n= (4.20)
mean free path

One can prove that the mean free path in a space with volume V and wall
surface S is given by 4V
S
(without proof). Therefore we can write :

In cSt cSt
= (1 − a) 4V = exp ln(1 − a) (4.21)
I0 4V

because we know x = exp(b ln q) with x given by x = q b .

By definition of the reverberation time we know that at t = T is IIn0 = 10−6
and so :
cSt
10−6 = exp ln(1 − a) (4.22)
4V
If we take the natural logarithm of both members of this equation, we find :

−6.3 × 4 × V
T = (4.23)
cS ln(1 − a)

For air, we can obtain :

−V
T = (4.24)
6S ln(1 − a)
The different walls Si of the room shall have, in practice, different ab-
sorption coefficients ai . We define a mean value ā of the acoustic absorption
coefficients as : P
ai Si
ā = Pi (4.25)
i Si

According to the model of Eyring-Norris [14], Equation 4.24 will be :

−V
T = P (4.26)
6 i Si ln(1 − ā)

We note that this model is basically valid for both small as well as large
values of ā, but it is assumed that the absorbing materials are spatially,
fairly homogeneously distributed over the walls (if not, the mean value ā has
no physically sense).
4.3. MEASURING THE ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION 73

If the absorption coefficient a is small (a < 0.25) than a ≈ − ln(1 − a)

and equation 4.24 :

V X
T = with A = ai Si the total absorption (4.27)
6SA i

This last equation is called the model of Sabine (W.C. Sabine has found this
expression experimentally [22]).
Remark : Above theory belongs to what is called the statistical room
acoustics. It gives a certain global image of the reverberation of sound, and
is based on many hypothesis and neglects many phenomena, so it does not
deliver full satisfaction to many theorists. The result is however useful and
practically well applicable.

If the volume V and the reverberation time T of a space is measured, the

V
total absorption can be determined with use of the law of Sabine : A = 6T .
From this one can determine āSAB , the experimentally determined, average
absorption coefficient of Sabine : āSAB = PASi . One may thus assume, that
i
āSAB is a practically acceptable correct value (keeping in mind that it is a
spatial and experimental average, defined by the model of Sabine). Thus
in practice, the absorption coefficient shall be experimentally determined for
various absorbing materials, making use of the model of Sabine. Would we
then estimate the reverberation time of a certain space in which absorbing
materials are used, it can be done with the following practical model:
V
T = P (4.28)
6 i Si aSAB,i

wherein the values of aSAB,i be used which can be found in tables of mea-
surement results. In what follows in this course, we will simplify the notation
by omitting SAB, in which we however remember that each absorption co-
efficient a that we encounter, was determined experimentally in the manner
described above.
Favorable reverberation times depend on the type and usage of the rooms :
for a furnished living room : 0.5 sec, for a cinema and lecture hall : 0.7-1
sec, theater : 0.9-1.3 sec, music hall : 1.7-2.3 sec.
In principle, one should not interpret these numbers in a too ’mathemat-
ical’ manner, as having an absolute value for the acoustics of a given space.
One notes, however, that the rooms which have good acoustics, have a T
that is about within the above range. Short reverberation time gives rise to
’dry sound’ i.e. sound that does not reverberate because it is immediately
absorbed. Several sound (e.g. music) need reverberation for their subjective
74 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

appreciation. However, for speech the reverberation should not be to exces-

sive, otherwise the syllables will overlap each other and speech intelligibility
will be reduced. Nevertheless, the absorption can not be too big in the latter
case, because this weakens the sound pressure of the source (speaker) which
will reach the receiver.
In order to measure the reverberation time, one proceeds as follows (see
also Figure 4.7) :

1. A stationary noise is produced (broadband noise, sine, etc.).

2. The sound source is suddenly switched off .

3. The amplitude is recorded as a function of time. The time in which

a decrease of 60 dB can be recorded, is the reverberation time T60 .
In practice, it is often not possible to lower the intensity level by 60
dB because the original sound is usually less than 60 dB above the
background noise. Instead, the time needed for a decrease of 30 dB is
calculated and the resulting time is multiplied by 2 (the measured time
is denoted by T30 .

Figure 4.7: Method for the measurement of the reverberation time.

4.3. MEASURING THE ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION 75

4.3.2 Measuring the absorption in a reverberation room

If one needs to find the absorption coefficient of an object or e.g. a glass
wool mattress, it is necessary to have a reverberation room at its disposal.
This is a room with very hard walls (see Figure 4.8). According to the
international standards for a reverberation room V ≈ 200m3 and V ≫ Vobject ,
the maximum dimensions of the diagonals is 12 m, and there are no parallel
surfaces. First, the total absorption A0 of the reverberation room itself is
determined during a first measurement using the formula of Sabine : A0 = 6TV 0
in which T0 is the reverberation time of the empty reverberation room. Next,
the object is introduced and a new (shorter) value of the reverberation time
V
T is measured. Again follows A = 6T (A is the total absorption of the
reverberation room with the object).
The total absorption (room plus object) is given by A = A0 + aS with a
the absorption coefficient to be determined and S the surface of the object.
Therefore :  
V 1 1
a= − (4.29)
6S T T0
It suffices thus to measure two reverberation times to be able to determine
a in a reverberation room. The measurement is normally carried out at a
number of normalized frequencies (i.e. band limited noise in various octave
bands is used for the different measurements of the reverberation times). One
should note that a can be found in a reverberation room with the aid of a
practically obtained diffuse field, i.e. for practically ’omnidirectional’ sound
waves. This omnidirectional incidence is often facilitated by hanging sound
diffusing panels (plywood or plastic) in the reverberation room.

4.3.3 Measuring the absorption in the Kundt tube

Measuring sound absorption of a material in a reverberation room is rather
complicated because a fairly large material specimen must be available and
because only few certified reverberation rooms are available. An alternative
test method is the so-called Kundt tube , also called impedance tube. A
schematic representation of the apparatus is given in Figure 4.9. The setup
consists of a cylindrical tube with the test specimen mounted at one end.
At the other end a speaker is mounted. In the tube a rod is inserted on
which a microphone is mounted. The the sound wave (pressure) in the tube
is measured while moving the rod through the tube. Two major parameters
are recorded (these can be easily visualized on an oscilloscope) :

Pmin the mimimum amplitude of the sound pressure

76 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

Figure 4.8: Reverberation room.

Pmax the maximum amplitude of the sound pressure

These parameters are used to calculate the so-called Standing Wave Ratio of
SWR :
Pmax
SW R = (4.30)
Pmin
√
One can show that the reflection factor R (given by R = r, with r the
reflection coefficient) can be calculated, using following equation :

SW R − 1
r= (4.31)
SW R + 1

From this, the absorption coefficient a can be determined : a = 1 − R2 .

The method with the Kundt tube is a very simple method, which can
give fairly accurate results. There are however two major limitations in the
application of the method :

ˆ The method only gives the absorption coefficient at perpendicular inci-

dence (in contrast to the method in the reverberation room from which
a is obtained at random incidence).
4.4. THE DIRECT AND DIFFUSE SOUND FIELD 77

ˆ The measurements are only valid in a fairly limited frequency range.

On the one hand there is a lower limit for the frequency fL which is
3c
determined by the length l of the tube : fL = 4L (at lower frequencies
the minimum and maximum can not be observed within the length of
the tube). On the other hand, there is an upper limit fU that is given
by fU = 170d
with d the thickness of the tube. This limit has to be
taken into account in order to avoid acoustic resonances in the lateral
direction of the tube. One could reduce the thickness of the tube, but
then the disturbance of the microphone on the sound field would be too
large and the wave would be damped too much throughout the tube.

Figure 4.9: The Kundt tube, used to measure the absorption coefficient of a
material.

4.4 The direct and diffuse sound field

Suppose W is the total transmitted acoustic power of a sound source (ma-
chine) which is put in a room. In what follows, we calculate the sound
pressure at a certain distance from the source.
The acoustic power produced by the sound source is fully absorbed by
the walls of the room. Therefore :
Ii ai Si = I¯ ¯
X X
W = ai Si = IA (4.32)
i i
2
pef f
with I¯ the spatially averaged sound intensity. For a diffuse field W = 4ρc A
and thus :
p2ef f ρc 4 W0
2
= 2 (4.33)
p0 p0 A W0
78 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION

ρcW0
Because p20
≈ 1 for air, we can write :

Lp = LW − 10 log A + 6dB (4.34)

This way, one can determine the sound level of a given sound source if
the absorption of the room and the sound power is known.
Two different sound fields with a different propagation behavior exist :
the diffuse field and the direct field. In the diffuse field the pressure is uni-
form throughout the field (the propagation direction in any point is random
uniform). The diffuse field does not extend over the space, but is only valid
from a certain distance from the sound source. Close to the source a direct
field is present (propagation in one direction and SPL highly dependent on
the distance to the source). For a point source in a free field the following
expression holds (see Chapter 1) :
ρcW
p2 = (4.35)
4πr 2
Now, both direct and diffuse fields occur together in a space, so we have
to add the different contributions to the pressure. This is done by using the
expression for adding non-coherent sources :

p2total = p2direct + p2dif f use (4.36)

and thus :  
1 4
p2total = ρcW 2
+ (4.37)
4πr A
or in dB scale (for air) :
 
1 4
Lp = LW + 10 log 2
+ (4.38)
4πr A

The graph of Lp for different values of the total absorpton A is given in Figure
4.10.
Conclusion : at a certain distance from the source, the sound field is
amplified because of the reflections which are due to the partial absorption
of the walls.
The seperation between the direct free field and the diffuse field is given
by a value R of r for which both fields produce an equal sound pressure.
This value R is called the reverberation radius. For the determination of the
reverberation radius we write :
ρcW 4ρcW
2
= (4.39)
4πR A
4.4. THE DIRECT AND DIFFUSE SOUND FIELD 79

from which follows : r

A
R= (4.40)
16π
Within a sphere with that radius R a direct field is present, (which decreases
by 6 dB per doubling of the distance) and outside the sphere a the diffuse
field is present (or reverberant field) where a constant sound level occurs,
depending on the absorption A (and of course of the source power).

Figure 4.10: The sound pressure level in function of the distance for different
values of the total absorption A.
80 CHAPTER 4. SOUND ABSORPTION
Chapter 5

Sound Insulation

When considering the sound transmission between two rooms, a distinction

must be made between airborne sound and impact sound. In airborne sound,
a source (loudspeaker, singer, radio, music instrument, aircraft, car, machine,
...) generates a pressure wave in a room which is transmitted through a wall
to a neighbouring room. Contact noise, on the other hand, is generated
by vibration sources (generally impacts) which leads to structural vibrations
that propagate to neighbouring rooms (e.g. a machine fixed on the floor or
a wall, footsteps, elevator).
The distinction between both types of transmission is important because
both the transmission mechanisms, the measurement procedures and the
techniques to prevent the sound transmission are completely different. In the
next paragraphs we will focus on the simulation and measurement of airborne
sound insulation (contact noise measurements will be briefly introduced).

5.1 Measuring sound insulation

5.1.1 Measuring airborne sound insulation
In approximation one could think of describing airborne sound insulation
between two rooms as :
∆Lp = Lp1 − Lp2 (5.1)
with Lp1 en Lp2 respectively the sound pressure levels in the source room
and receiving room. This would mean that the airborne sound insulation is
defined as the attenuation of airborne sound arising from the first room (rep-
resented as the difference in sound pressure level). Not only the separating
wall plays a role in the transmission of sound, but also all other bound-
ary surfaces of these two adjacent rooms because they can all contribute to

81
82 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

the transmission of the sound (and vibrations) energy from one room to the
other. This indirect way of transmission through all those other boundaries /
paths (other than directly through the partition which separates the rooms)
is called ’flanking’ transmission (see Figure 5.1). Consequently a distinction
must be made between the sound insulation R of a separating structure which
is called the ’sound reduction index ’ in the international ISO140 norm, and
the sound insulation Dn between two rooms which is called ’the normalized
level difference’ in the ISO140 norm.

Figure 5.1: Flanking (2 to 4) and direct (1) transmission.

It is obvious that in practice, i.e. in the acoustics of a construction,

only the sound insulation Dn between two rooms matters because flanking
transmission is always present. Normally we will perform the so-called ’field
measurements’ of the insulation between two given rooms, where we ignore
the sound path between the source- and receiving room. The sound insulation
Dn is expressed in dB. To characterize the quality of a partition construction
by measurements all the flanking effects must be eliminated and thus a field
measurement is not an option. A ’laboratory-only measurement’ must be
performed (see Figure 5.2) Such a laboratory consists of two rooms : the
source- and receiving room are independent with regard to vibrations, and
the sound transmission occurs only through the structure under test. This
enables us to determine the sound insulation R (this is typically larger than
Dn ).
We will now give the formula that enables us to experimentally deter-
mine the sound insulation as function of the frequency. Let S represent the
separation plane consisting of the wall to be tested (10 m2 is required for
5.1. MEASURING SOUND INSULATION 83

Figure 5.2: Laboratory for measuring sound insulation of a separating struc-

ture.

measurements in laboratory). Because of the fact that sound transmission is

a transfer of energy, we will consider the sound intensity levels :
I1
R = LI1 − LI2 = 10 log (5.2)
I2
with I1 the incident intensity and I2 the transmitted intensity at the other
side of the wall. Now, the intensity level I2 transmitted through the wall
is quite difficult to measure because also the walls will contribute to the
measured sound level in the receiving room (in the normalized laboratory
the hard walls create a diffuse field). For this reason we will use the mean
intensity I¯2 in the receiving room and convert this to the intensity I2 . Both
intensities are related to each other by :I2 S = I¯2 A (the transmitted energy
is absorbed by the walls with total absorption A). This means that we can
write the sound insulation as follows :

I1
R = 10 log
I2
p2 p2
= 10 log 1 because I1 = 1 in a diffuse field.
4ρcI2 4ρc
2
p1
= 10 log with SI2 = AI¯2
4ρcI¯2 A
S
p2
= 10 log 21A
p2 S
84 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

and thus :
S
R = Lp1 − Lp2 + 10 log (5.3)
A
where the sound pressure level measurements are performed in terts-
octave bands (according to the international standard ISO 140). Also the
total absorption A of the receiving room must be measured in terts-octave
bands. Above equation is only valid for the laboratory measurement of sound
insulation of a wall (or door, window, panel, ...), whereby no flanking trans-
mission takes place. The problem of the measurement of sound insulation
between two rooms in a construction still persist. Although in this case one
has flanking transmission, it is proposed in international standard to use
the same expression (Equation 5.3) in that case, but with the surface of the
separating wall S replaced by A0 = 10m2 open window area :

A0
R = Lp1 − Lp2 + 10 log (5.4)
A
Now one can compare different constructions independently of the receiv-
ing room total absorption. The expression 0.5 T
is also used instead of AA0 ,
with T the reverberation time of the receiving room (0.5 sec is a reference
reverberation time that is typical for small rooms).

5.1.2 Measurement of impact sound

The international standard ISO 140-6: 1978 describes the measurement of
impact sound insulation in a laboratory. An impact device is used (see Figure
5.3). It has 5 small steel hammers with normalized mass of 0.5 kg and a
radius of 3 cm (the final radius is 50 cm). These hammers are aligned (0.4 m
total length). At impact of the hammers one measure the normalized sound
pressure in the receiving room :

A
Ln = L + 10 log (5.5)
A0

with L the A weighted SPL. Such as was the case for airborne sound insula-
tion one measure also the standardized level (according to ISO-7 140) :

′ 0.5
LnT = L + 10 log (5.6)
T
5.1. MEASURING SOUND INSULATION 85

Figure 5.3: Device for measurement of impact sound insulation with four
hammers indicated by the arrows.

5.1.3 Single number rating

In the measuring procedures for acoustic insulation, described in previous
paragraph (ISO 140 series), measurements are performed of the sound pres-
sure levels in the source-and receiving room in octave bands (or eventually
terts- octave bands).
If we want to make a statement about the insulation quality of a construction
there is a need for a single number rating which can be compared with refer-
ence values. Calculation of this single number rating based on measurements
of sound insulation in octave bands is described in ISO 717-1 1982 standard.
The procedure includes following steps :

ˆ The measurements in octave bands or terts bands are plotted in a

graph.

ˆ On this same graph reference values for sound insulation are displayed
(see Table 5.1.3).

ˆ The reference values are shifted in steps of 3 dB until an average dif-

ference of 1 dB with the measurements is obtained.

ˆ The value at 500 Hz is recorded as single number rating (further, devi-

ations of more than 8 dB between the shifted reference graph and the
measurements are to be reported in addition to the value at 500Hz).
86 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

Frequency Ref. value (in dB)

100 33
100 33
125 36
160 39
200 42
250 45
315 48
400 51
500 52
630 53
800 54
1000 55
1250 56
1600 56
2000 56
2500 56
3150 56

Table 5.1: Reference values for sound insulation of a wall from ISO 717.

5.2 Airborne sound insulation of a wall

5.2.1 Simple law
Consider a plane sound wave which is incident on a (simple) wall. We assume
following conditions are met :
ˆ The wall is characterized by its mass per unit area (isotropic material).
It is assumed infinitely long.
ˆ The wall does not absorb sound (a = 0).
ˆ The wall has no stiffness and no damping. On the source side a plane
harmonic wave is normally incident on the partition wall. There is no
deformation within the wall: it displaces as a whole.
On the source side one can write that the air particles have a zero velocity
on the wall because this wall does not move and does not absorb sound (see
also Section 4.1). Because of the acoustically hard reflection if no absorp-
tion is present the pressure doubles at the incident side 2pi . Applying the
fundamental equation of dynamics on the wall surface :
2pi − pd = ma (5.7)
5.2. AIRBORNE SOUND INSULATION OF A WALL 87

with pd the sound pressure at transmission side, m the mass per m2 and a the
acceleration of this wall mass. In practice one may write 2pi = ma because
pd ≪ pi . For an harmonic wave we have pi = Pi cos ωt. The wall acceleration
is thus a = m2 Pi cos ωt and his velocity :

2
v= Pi sin ωt (5.8)
mω
Because there is no wave phenomenon in the transverse direction in the
wall it follows that v = vi = vd . The velocity vd is transmitted to the air in
contact with the wall at the receiving side and gives rise to a plane travelling
wave with pressure given by pd = ρcvd . It then follows that :
2
pd = ρc Pi sin ωt = Pd sin ωt (5.9)
mω
And thus :
Pi mω π
= = mf (5.10)
Pd 2ρc ρc
The sound insulation is given by :
Ii Pi
∆L = 10 log = 20 log (5.11)
Id Pd
and consequently :
πmf
∆L = 20 log (5.12)
ρc
This simplified law is known as the acoustic mass-frequency law. We can see
that :

ˆ By doubling the wall mass the insulation is doubled (sound reduction

level +6 dB).

ˆ By doubling the frequency the insulation is doubled (sound reduction

level +6 dB).

For a brick wall (m ≈ 100 kg/m2 ) the application of the mass-frequency law
gives ∆L40 dB at 500 Hz.
In practice the increase is smaller than what the mass-frequency law pre-
dicts :

ˆ Doubling the wall mass : +5 dB.

ˆ Doubling the frequency : +5 dB. (frequency-law).

88 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

Above mass-frequency law was derived assuming normally incident waves.

One can show the following relation for sound with oblique incidence :
πmf cos θ
∆L = 20 log (5.13)
ρc
The more oblique the incident wave, the lower the insulation value of the
wall. But starting from a certain angle reflection will occur. Above model is
only valid for 0 < θ < 78 degrees. In practice sound will be incident from
different directions simultaneously (e.g. in the case of a diffuse field there is
a omnidirectional incidence). One can show that in this case :

πmf
∆L = 20 log − 5 dB (5.14)
ρc

The insulation value of the wall is thus 5 dB less than for a normal incidence.
For air this formula can be rewritten as :
∆L = 20 log mf − 47.4 dB (5.15)
The mass frequency law is an engineering models which attempt to give a
coarse prediction of the sound insulation behavior. It does not give an exact
representation of the vibroacoustic behavior of the air-wall interaction. In the
following sections we will introduce several extensions of the mass-frequency
law.

5.2.2 Effect of the wall stiffness

The theoretical mass-frequency law showed that the mass per unit area plays
an important role in sound insulation. We assumed that the wall was charac-
terized by its mass only and the elastic properties were ignored. If the latter
properties are considered, we notice that for the acoustic insulation proper-
ties this has some negative consequences : resonance phenomena can occur
at which the wall is transparant for the sound wave. This will be shown in
what follows.
Consider p− en p+ the sound pressures at respectively the left and right
side of the wall, given by :

p− = 2Pi cos k1 x exp iωt − iωXρ1 c1 exp iωt + k1 x

p+ = iωXρ2 c2 exp iωt − k2 x = Pd exp iωt − k2 x
The equation of motion can now be written :
mẍ + dẋ + kx = p− (0) − p+ (0) (5.16)
5.2. AIRBORNE SOUND INSULATION OF A WALL 89

with m the mass, k the wall stiffness and d the daming. For harmonic waves
we now that from x = X exp(iωt) follows ẋ = iωx and ẍ = −ω 2 x. Equation
5.16 can now be written in function of the amplitudes P and X (respectively
of the sound pressure and particle displacement) :

(−mω 2 + iωd + k)X = 2Pi − iωρ1 c1 X − iωρ2 c2 X (5.17)

or by introducing the velocity amplitude V = iωX :
k
[i(ωm − ) + (d + ρ1 c1 + ρ2 c2 )]V = 2Pi (5.18)
ω
From the previous paragraph we know that Pd = ρcV , and thus :
k
Pd = ρ2 c2 2Pi [i(ωm − ) + (d + ρ1 c1 + ρ2 c2 )]−1 (5.19)
ω
Which gives us :
!
i(ωm − ωk )

Pi d ρ1 c1
=2 + + +1 (5.20)
Pd ρ2 c2 ρ2 c2 ρ2 c2

Three cases can now be distinguished depending on the frequency ω :

1.
r
k
ω ≪ ω0 = ⇒ R = 20 log k − 20 log f − 20 log(4πρc) (5.21)
m
For low frequencies the sound insulation of a wall is thus determined
by the wall stiffness.

2.
r
k ρc
ω ≫ ω0 = ⇒ R = 20 log m + 20 log f − 20 log( ) (5.22)
m π
For high frequencies the mass of the wall is the determining factor for
sound insulation (in this case the simple mass-frequency law is appli-
cable).

3. r  
k Pi d
ω = ω0 = ⇒ = +2 ≈ 1 and R ≈ 0 (5.23)
m Pd ρc
At the resonance frequency ω0 the wall becomes transparant for sound.
90 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

It can be shown that for a rectangular wall with height a, length b and
thickness h the resonance frequencies are given by [21] :

π  m n 
fmn = √ cL h ( )2 + ( )2 (5.24)
4 3 a b
where the indices m and n are natural numbers designating different modes
and cL the quasi-longitudinal wave velocity given by :
s
E
cL = (5.25)
ρs (1 − ν 2 )

The calculation of these frequencies allow us to estimate if the wall is either

mass controlled or stiffness controlled.

5.2.3 The coincidence effect

The resonances of the wall described in previous paragraph occur at relatively
low frequencies. At higher frequencies higher order bending waves will occur
in the wall (fmn for mn large). When the wavelength of these bending waves
coincides with the wavelength of the acoustic waves after projection on the
wall a so-called coincidence phenomenon will occur (see Figure 5.4). The
projection of the acoustic wavelength on the wall is called wave trace (this
λa
is given by sin θ
with λa the wavelength of the sound and θ the angle of
incidence). In what follows we will derive a formula for the frequencies at
which coincidence will occur.
One can show that the bending waves in a clamped wall can be described
by following equation :
∂4v ∂2v
−B 4 =m 2 (5.26)
∂x ∂t
EI 3
where B = 1−ν 2 represents the bending stiffness of the wall (I = d l/12).

For an harmonic wave we have v = exp(iωt − ikx). After substitution in

Equation 5.26 one gets the velocity of the bending wave :
r
4 B
p
cb = 2πf (5.27)
m
λa
By definition coincidence will happen when λb = sin θ
and thus when
ca
cb = sin θ (because λf = c for both the acoustic wave and the bending wave).
This yields :

c2 m
r
2
f (sin θ) = (5.28)
2π B
5.2. AIRBORNE SOUND INSULATION OF A WALL 91

Figure 5.4: Sketch of the coincidence effect.

An important frequency for the coincidence phenomenon is the so-called

critical frequency fcrit . It is the lower limit at which coincidence can occur.
The critical frequency can be found by using θ = π/2 (indeed the acoustic
wavelength can be projected on a bigger wavelength by varying theta but not
on a smaller one, θ = π/2 gives the smallest possible projection). Therefore,
the critical frequency fcrit is equal to :

c2 m
r
fcrit = (5.29)
2π B
For air we can simplify this to the following expression :

64000
fcrit = (5.30)
d cL
q
E
with cL = ρs (1−ν 2 ) the so-called quasi-longitudinal wave velocity of the wall

material. The critical frequency for some materials is shown in Table 5.2. For
a concrete wall of 10 cm thickness the value of fcrit = 138.5 Hz This means
92 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

Materiaal Densiteit E modulus cL fcrit (dikte 10 mm)

Aluminium 2.7 70 5367 1192
Lood 11.1 16 1265 5057
Beton 2.5 48 4618 1385
CFRP 1.5 1.5 1054 6071
Kurk 0.18 0.032 444 14400
Glas 2.5 65 5374 1190
Staal 7.8 210 5469 1170
PU 1.2 0.025 152 42065

Table 5.2: Materiaalparameters en coı̈ncidentiefrequentie van enkele materi-

alen

that insulation at low frequencies is very bad. The effect of this low frequency
coincidence effect can be reduced by applying an additional material with
a high critical frequency (thin material with high speed of sound) and a
reasonable insulation at low frequencies on the wall. An example of such a
material is lead foil. For a thickness of 1 mm fcrit = 50 kHz.
The graph that summarizes the insulation behavior of a wall as a function
of the frequency is shown in Figure 5.5.

5.2.4 Insulation of double wall constructions

Double walls are used a lot in constructions. Think of double glazing, cavity
walls, ... . The main reason for their use is the high thermal insulation, but
the acoustic properties are also improved. The following practical guidelines
can be used for double walls :
1. By doubling the mass the sound insulation raises with 6 dB according
to the mass-frequency law (in reality it is only 5 dB). Appart from the
mass itself the air cavity also influences the sound insulation :
ˆ For a distance between the walls of 2 to 4 cm the sound insulation
increases with 4 dB with respect to the mass-law.
ˆ For a distance between the walls of 5 to 10 cm the sound insulation
raises with 9 dB with respect to the mass-law.
2. The experimental frequency law has now a slope of 6 to 8 dB per octave
(in comparison to 5 dB for the experimental law of single walls).
3. In the cavity in between the double walls an acoustic resonance can
occur. This can lead to an important reduction in the sound insulation
at the resonance frequencies.
5.2. AIRBORNE SOUND INSULATION OF A WALL 93

Figure 5.5: Course of the insulation of a wall as function of the frequency.

4. Each panel has its own resonance frequency at which its highly trans-
missive for sound.

5. At very low excitation both panels vibrate as a whole : eigenfrequency

the same as for single walls but with m the sum of both masses.

6. The two panels form a system of two masses with a spring in between
(the air layer). Let :

m the mass per m2 for each wall seperately.

D the distance between both walls (=air layer thickness).
P0 the atmospheric pressure (P0 = 105 N/m2)

The stiffness of the spring is that of a half air layer, because the mid-
point stands still, if both masses vibrate with opposite phases against
the air layer :
94 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

2 × 1.4P0
k= (5.31)
D
The resonance frequency is equal to :
r r r
1 k 1 2.8P0 1
f0 = = ≈ 84 (5.32)
2π m 2π mD mD
If the sound has a frequency equal to f0 both walls will resonate and
thus transmit the sound. For common used double glazing the insu-
lation at low frequencies (100-300 Hz) will therefore be low (double
glazing with m = 10 kg/m2 and a air layer thickness of 1 cm we found
f0 = 266 Hz).

7. The air layer between the walls has also an infinite range of eigenfre-
quencies at which the system becomes transmissive for sound. The
fundamental frequency is found by taking the distance d as half of the
wavelength :

c c
f1 = = (5.33)
λ 2d
The harmonics are integer multiples : f2 = 2f1 , f3 = 3f1 , ... .
These frequencies are usually high. One can damp all those resonances
by applying absorbing materials between the two panels, if possible.

8. Each panel has its own critical coincidence frequency. It is preferred

to select the thickness of both panels different such that the critical
frequencies do not coincide.

5.2.5 Insulation of a composite wall

Consider a wall with total surface S composed of different materials (e.g.
windows, doors, walls, etc.) In the following we will calculate the insulation
value of composite walls. Suppose that the wall with surface S consists of
two components with surfaces S1 and S2 and that these components have a
different insulation value :

S1
R1 = Lz − L1 + 10 log
A
S2
R2 = Lz − L2 + 10 log
A
5.3. THE ACOUSTICAL BARRIER 95

For the complete composed wall we have :

S
R = Lz − L + 10 log (5.34)
A
Assume that the sounds transmitted by the separate components can be
added non-coherently :

p2eff (p21 )eff (p22 )eff

= +
p20 p20 p20
It then follows that :

S S1 S2
100.1(Lz −R+10 log A ) = 100.1(Lz −R1 +10 log A
)
+ 100.1(Lz −R+2+10 log A
)
(5.35)

After elimination of 100.1Lz −10 log A in the left– and right hand side :
−R −R1 −R2
10 10 +log S = 10 10
+log S1
+ 10 10
+log S2
(5.36)

The insulation R of the composite wall can be written as :

P
i Si
R = 10 log 10 P −Ri (5.37)
i Si 10 10

Example : consider a wall of 1 m × 1 m with a good insulation value

(R = 60 dB). If one would make in this wall an opening of 1 mm over the
whole length, one can calculate from equation 5.37 that

   
1 1
R = 10 log ≈ = 30 dB (5.38)
0.999 ∗ 10 + 0.001 ∗ 100
−6 0.001 ∗ 100

This shows that the sound insulation decreases drastically is a small hole is
present. In general the sound insulation of a composite wall is determined
by the sound insulation of the worst sub wall.

5.3 The acoustical barrier

One can often see along roads – and especially highways – walls that have the
purpose to form a sound barrier of the road noise to the inhabitants living in
the neighbourhood of the road. But sound barriers are also used frequently
in offices and factories (under the form of a screen). Part of the sound is
96 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

blocked by the material of the screen or panel, but the sound also travels
from the source to the receiver in an indirect way because of diffraction (see
Figure 5.6). In order to calculate the total sound reduction one has to take
the diffraction into account. The diffraction is dependent on the wavelength
λ and the difference d between the direct distance from source to receiver and
the indirect distance. The following equation gives an approximation of the
sound reduction index for screens outdoors (no reflection from the ceiling) :
 
λ
R = −10log (5.39)
3λ + 20d
Figure 5.6 shows the graph for a frequency of 1000 Hz. Obviously one
has to be careful with these calculations. The noise level cannot be reduced
more than the surrounding noise level. The surrounding noise can also be
generated by a roadway, railway or an airport at a distance, traffic, industry,
etc.
In practice, in an industrial environment, one has to place the screen in
such a way that an angle of 60 degrees between the source of sound and the
receiver is obtained (see Figure 5.7).
5.3. THE ACOUSTICAL BARRIER 97

Figure 5.6: Sound reduction of an infinite screen outdoors.

98 CHAPTER 5. SOUND INSULATION

Figure 5.7: Practical placement of a barrier on the work floor.

Chapter 6

Noise control

6.1 Origin of noise

When considering different sources of noise, it is useful to make a distinction
between the following three different types :

ˆ Aerodynamic noise : the sound is generated by oscillations or friction

of air molecules in an air flow.

ˆ Hydrodynamic noise : sound generated by oscillations or friction of a

liquid flow.

ˆ Structure-borne noise : sound generated by vibrations of a solid.

Furthermore, a classification can also be made between :

ˆ Active noise components : components of machines which produce

noise. Usually these are the power-converting components which de-
liver mechanical work from energy sources (electrical, mechanical or
magnetic energy, hydraulic pressure, internal forces or friction). Other
active noise components are regions with non-stationary flow and con-
tact surfaces between moving parts.

ˆ Passive noise components : These components conduct the noise gener-

ated by the active components. This class can contain dominant noise
radiators, but no noise sources. Typical passive noise components are
structural components like panels.

A heating system is an example of a machine with both active and passive

noise components as indicated in Figure 6.1.

99
100 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

Figure 6.1: Heating system. The boiler is an active noise component and the
radiators radiate the noise (they’re passive noise components).

In order to consider noise control, determining the source of the noise, is

the first thing to do. Depending on the nature of this source, there are a
number of possible ways of transmission of noise and radiation of noise, as
indicated in Figure 6.2.
For each machine, following procedure has to be used :

1. Divide the machine in active and passive noise components.

2. For each component, determine whether structure-, hydrodynamic- or

aerodynamic noise is generated.

3. Locate the transmission paths and determine whether structural, hy-

drodynamic or aerodynamic noise is transmitted.

4. Identify the radiating surfaces.

5. Identify the primary contributions (sources, transmission paths and

radiating surfaces).

As an example, consider the hydraulic group in Figure 6.3. The active

noise components are : the electrical motor, the hydraulic pump and a valve.
The hydraulic group has sources generating structure-borne, hydrodynamic
6.1. ORIGIN OF NOISE 101

Figure 6.2: Basic model of the origin of noise in machines.

and aerodynamic noise. The different types of sources and the transmission
paths of noise are indicated in Figure 6.4.
Sound power measurements are then performed on the group and the
effect of various changes is measured :
1. The power of sound of the entire aggregate is measured (LW = 90 dBA)

2. The whole of motor and pump is mounted on a separate frame with

vibration dampers on the reservoir. One can measure a reduced sound
power level due to the loss in transmission of structure-borne noise
transmission between the machine and the reservoir (LW = 89 dBA).

3. The frame (with motor and pump) is completely decoupled from the
reservoir. The connection between the pump and the valve is achieved
using a 2 meter long hydraulic line. An additional reduction of structure-
borne noise is realized (LW = 86 dBA).

4. The reservoir is removed from the measuring chamber (LW = 86 dBA).

From this, one can decide that the decoupling between pump/motor
and the reservoir is sufficiently large.

5. Switching to water cooling instead of air cooling with fan (LW = 85

dBA).
102 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

6. The electrical motor is encased to reduce the radiated Aerodynamic

noise (LW = 81 dBA).
From the measurements, a number of conclusions can be drawn :
ˆ The most important sources are the structure-borne and hydrodynamic
noise of the hydrostatic pump.

ˆ The dominant structure-borne transmission paths were found between

pump and motor and pump and reservoir.

ˆ The dominant radiating surfaces are those of the electrical motor and
the reservoir.

Figure 6.3: Hydraulic group.

6.2 Reducing noise at the level of the sound

source
6.2.1 Aerodynamic noise sources
Aerodynamic noise can be caused by :
ˆ turbulence,

ˆ vortices in the wake of obstacles in the flow,

ˆ shocks and pulsations.

These are discussed in the following paragraphs.
6.2. REDUCING NOISE AT THE LEVEL OF THE SOUND SOURCE103

Figure 6.4: Different sources of noise and transmission paths of the hydraulic
group.

Turbulence and vortices

Vortices can occur because of bodies in a flow. They generate pure tonal
components (e.g. the flow over a cylinder like a chimney pipe). Tonal noise
is also generated by a flow over a cavity (for example, the slicer Figure 6.5).
In channels, noise can be generated by sharp corners or valves (see Figure
6.6). Appart from the coherent vortical structures flow over objects can also
result in turbulent noise. Turbulent noise can also be produces due to shear
stresses that exist when there is a gradient in the air velocity (e.g. in the case
of the the jet produced by an air gun). Turbulence gives rises to a broadband
noise. The following design rules should be taken into account to reduce the
noise generated by turbulence and/or vortices :
1. Reduce the workload
2. Reduce the pressure drops
3. Reduce the outlet flow rate (for example, use a larger opening ).
104 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

4. Minimize the tip speed of rotors

5. Avoid obstacles in the flow or adapt the obstacles (see Figure 6.7).

6. Do not point the flow outlet at the panels.

7. Improve the geometry of the flow (minimize bends, narrowings). See

Figure 6.8.

8. Use special nozzles (e.g. Figure 6.9).

Figure 6.5: Slicer with cavity near the blades.

Shocks and pulsations

Shocks are generated by a rapid discharge of a compressed medium in an

area of low pressure. This happens, for example, when opening and closing
a valve in a pump. A single shock produces a broadband noise, but periodic
shocks result in a tonal noise. The noise generated by this phenomenon can
be reduced by either slowing down the pressure variation or reducing the
pressure difference.
6.2. REDUCING NOISE AT THE LEVEL OF THE SOUND SOURCE105

Figure 6.6: Sharp corners in channels produce turbulent flow and the asso-
ciated noise production.

Figure 6.7: Obstacles in the flow create flow noise.

6.2.2 Sources of hydrodynamic noise

Sources of hydrodynamic noise can also generate turbulence, vortices pul-
sation and shocks. Therefore, the design rules are the same as in previous
section.
Furthermore a peculiar effect, named cavitation, can also be produced.
Cavitation occurs when the static pressure is lower than the vapor pressure.
Cavitation bubbles are created which implode during re-compression, so high
pressures can arise. This can occur for instance in valves and pumps. Cavita-
106 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

Figure 6.8: Adjusting of the flow geometry for the reduction of the noise
generated by turbulence.

tion can be avoided by reducing the pressure drop per stage (and increasing
the number of stages). Cavitation gives rise to a broadband noise.
Some design rules that are applicable for hydrodynamic noise :

1. Reduce the pressure drop

2. Reduce the flow rate

3. Increase the static operating pressure

4. Improve the geometry to counter cavitation

5. Keep the suction ducts short

6.2. REDUCING NOISE AT THE LEVEL OF THE SOUND SOURCE107

Figure 6.9: Use of special composed silent nozzles.

6. Position the reservoir higher than the inlet of the pump

Figure 6.10: Cavitation and solution to the cavitation phenomenon.

108 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

6.2.3 Sources of structure-borne noise

Impact noise
Impact noise is one of the most dominant noise sources in many machines.
The most important parameters of impact noise are the mass and velocity of
the impact bodies and the duration of the impact. The frequency spectrum
of one single impact shows that this is a broadband noise. Repeated impacts
generate also harmonic noise.
Some practical design rules for the reduction of impact noise are :
1. Increase the time of the impact,

2. Decrease the speed of the impact (see e.g. in Figure 6.11),

3. Minimize the mass of the impact body,

4. Increase the mass of the solid body,

5. Avoid loose parts with varying load.

Figure 6.11: Reduce the impact speed of a conveyor belt.

Gearing
This is a special form of impact noise that occurs e.g. in gearboxes. Impor-
tant parameters are the contact period, the time variation of the force during
contact and the stiffness of the teeth. Defects in the teeth may cause extra
force variations and thus more noise. A tonal noise is produced (with tones
at multiples of the tooth frequencies).
Measures to reduce the generated gearing noise are :
6.2. REDUCING NOISE AT THE LEVEL OF THE SOUND SOURCE109

1. Increase the contact time

2. Use helicoidal gears

3. Increase the number of teeth

4. Improve the quality of the transmission (alignment, accuracy of the

gearing),

5. Use plastic gears for small loads

Rolling noise
Rolling noise is the result of the roughness or the irregularity of the contact
surfaces. Rolling noise occurs in roller and ball bearings, belts, rail and
road vehicles. The rolling noise also depends on the flexibility of the contact
surfaces. The frequency content of rolling noise is mainly broadband.
The design rules for rolling noise are :

1. Provide a smooth roll surface

2. Use suitable lubrication

3. Use precision bearings

4. Minimize the tolerances of the housing of the bearings

5. Increase the flexibility of the contact area

Inertia
Acceleration of a mass leads to forces that can produce noise e.g. by im-
pact, rolling, friction or pulsation. Inertia forces can be caused by oscillating
masses or by (non-balanced) rotating parts.
In order to control inertia noise, one has to take into account the following
design rules :

1. Balance rotors or use dynamic balancing

2. Minimize accelerating masses

3. Increase the uniformity of motion

110 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

Friction
Mechanisms where friction causes a so-called stick-slip phenomenon, are po-
tential noise sources. The variation of force leads to impact noise that can
excite the resonances of the structure. Friction noise occurs e.g. in brake
discs. The phenomenon is dependent on the materials and lubrication. In
principle, friction noise is broadband, but often due to the resonances strong
tonal components can occur.
Some design rules :

1. Control friction by suitable selection of materials

2. Use suitable lubrication

3. Increase the damping of the structure

6.3 Tackling noise transmission

6.3.1 Transmission of aerodynamic noise
Aerodynamic noise generated in parts of the machine is passed to the sur-
roundings by the air (one speaks of air-borne noise). There are several ways
to control this transfer :

ˆ Acoustic casing. Usually made of a metal plate. Absorption material

can be placed on the inside to reduce the noise production. Some
considerations :

1. The casing must be completely sealed (even small holes and cracks
should be closed).
2. Use heavy materials for the outer wall (see mass-frequency law to
evaluate the acoustic insulation).
3. Use absorbing materials for the inside.
4. Use dampers for openings (ventilation, cables).
5. Avoid rigid connections with the machine (as few as possible con-
nection points with vibration damping). Use a flexible connection,
optionally with damping (see Figure 6.12).
6. Sometimes enclosing the different parts can be effective.

ˆ Acoustic screens. Screens can be installed near to parts with large

emission of noise. However their efficiency is much lower than casings
6.3. TACKLING NOISE TRANSMISSION 111

and depending on the direction and the distance. The shielding of the
machine by means of a cap only has an effective noise damping effect
if:
– It is composed of sufficiently heavy material
– The cap on the inside is coated with noise absorbing material
– The openings are limited to a minimum
– The cap is isolated from the machine and/or is made of/or coated
with an already resilient material (wood instead of steel plate,
steel sheet coated with rubber, ...).
ˆ Noise Mufflers. Noise dampers are parts tthat counter the trans-
mission of Aerodynamic noise through openings. Absorption Mufflers
(Figure 6.13) consist of a channel (or a system of channels) filled with
a porous material. Another type is the reflection muffler (Figure 6.14)
that muffles the noise by the reflection of noise at a change of the
cross-sectional area (in this case, the impedance also changes). Some
guidelines for the use of mufflers :
1. Use absorption mufflers for broadband noise and reflection mufflers
for low-frequency noise.
2. Avoid speeds bigger than 20 m/s in an absorption muffler.
3. Use pneumatic expansion mufflers for the exhaust of compressed
air.
ˆ Noise absorption.

Figure 6.12: Flexible connection with the machine.

112 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

Figure 6.13: Absorption muffler.

Figure 6.14: Reflection muffler. Above : different possible reflections. Under :

reflection muffler in an exhaust system.

6.3.2 Hydrodynamic noise transmission

Transmission of hydrodynamic noise takes place in pipes and tubes. Noise
control can be done at the inlet of the system, in the system or at the
outlet. The means is both reflection and absorption. Reflection is obtained
6.3. TACKLING NOISE TRANSMISSION 113

at the end of the system due to changes in the cross-sectional area or by

changing the rigidity of the wall by transition of pipes to tubes. Absorption
of Hydrodynamic noise is provided by accumulators. The design rules for
the control of liquid-born noise are :

1. Use a combination of pipes and tubes.

2. Use dampers.

6.3.3 Structure-borne noise transmission

The transmission of structure-borne noise from sources to radiating surfaces
can be influenced by changing the mass, stiffness and damping of the struc-
ture. The selected strategy depends on a number of factors :
ˆ Is an increase of weight possible or not? If so, an increase of mass near
the region of excitation will be efficient.

ˆ Force excitation or speed excitation? In case of force excitation, adding

impedance (mass) will be effective, in case of speed excitation, adding
mass has no sense (in the latter case, the source may be isolated).

ˆ Narrow-band or broadband excitation? For a narrow-band excitation,

it is advisable to redistribute the stiffness or mass of the system (in
order to shift the resonance frequencies). The addition of damping can
also be effective. This has no sense for broadband excitation and a
broadband reduction of the transmission needs to be obtained.

ˆ Excitation at low frequencies, intermediate frequencies or high frequen-

cies (quasi-static, resonance or multi-resonance response respectively)?
At low frequencies, vibration isolation is the only possible solution.
Panels with free edges radiate, in general, less noise than clamped pan-
els (see Figure 6.15). In the middle frequency region, a number of
solutions can be chosen :

– Adding mass at the excitation point (see Figure 6.16).

– Increasing the structural damping
– Isolate the source (e.g. see Figure 6.18).
– Reflection at discontinuities (see Figure 6.17).

In the high frequency region, the following measures can be effective :

– Increasing the mass or stiffness of the excitation region.

114 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

– Isolation of the source.

– Discontinuities in combination with extra damping.

Increasing only the damping is not sufficient in this area.

Figure 6.15: The cart with free panels emits less sound than the original cart.

Figure 6.16: Lowering the transmission by increasing the mass.

6.4. RADIATION NOISE 115

Figure 6.17: Reduction of the transmission of structure-borne noise by dis-

continuities.

Figure 6.18: Isolation of structural noise in pipes.

6.4 Radiation noise

Air-borne noise can be radiated through outlet openings (e.g. the end of a
tube). Usually the noise has a directivity in the direction along the axis of
the tube. The opening can be adjusted to reduce the noise in this direction.
116 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL

The design rules are in this case :

1. Put the openings in the right place and point them in the right direc-
tion.

2. Use a damper or screen at the opening.

Structure-borne noise radiation depends on the size, shape, flexibility,

mass and damping. Regarding radiation, it is desirable to design the areas
which are loaded, as compact as possible. Design rules for structure-borne
noise radiation :

1. Reduce the radiation surface (see Figure 6.19).

2. Use lids with low radiation efficiency :

ˆ Thin plates instead of thick plates.

ˆ Perforated plates (see e.g. Figure 6.20).
ˆ Panels with damping material (bitumen, constrained layer damp-
ing material), see Figure 6.21.

Figure 6.19: Reducing the radiation surface.

6.4. RADIATION NOISE 117

Figure 6.20: Casing of a belt drive with a perforated panel.

Figure 6.21: Damping of panels.

118 CHAPTER 6. NOISE CONTROL
 Part III

Noise directives

119
 121

Legislation concerning sound is highly complex matter. There is legisla-

tion on various level that often contradicts :

ˆ Community level (e.g. police regulations).

ˆ Regional level (e.g. in Flanders there exists the Vlarem II for commu-
nity nuisance).

ˆ National level (legislation for noise exposure for workers).

ˆ At the international level (European).

Often the scope of application is not clear and the guidelines, noise indicators
and norms can contradict.
In the past few years more and more local legislation is replaced by Eu-
ropean regulations. The motivation for this is bipartite :

ˆ Economical : promote the free traffic of goods in between EU members

states.

ˆ Social : protect the EU citizens.

In this course we will concentrate on three European noise guidelines :

ˆ The directive concerning machines in open air.

ˆ The directive on exposure of workers in industry.

ˆ The directive for environmental noise.

Remark that the directives that are discusses are no laws. Each of them
has to be converted into national legislation by national governments. The
directive becomes a law from the moment it is published in the national state
gazette after conversion.
The European guidelines can be downloaded (without charge) from the
website http://europa.eu.int. The conversion of the European regulations in
the Belgian legislation can be accessed via the state gazette, where the docu-
ments are available digitally (website : http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi/welcome.pl).
122
Chapter 7

Directive 2000/14/EG :
’Machines in open air’

In may 2000, the guideline (also called directive) ’on the harmonisation of
the legislations of the member states concerning the noise emission in the
environment by equipment for outdoor use’ (2000/14/EG) was published.
This guideline was converted in a Belgian national law on the 6th of March
2002 and was published in the Belgian state gazette on the 12th of March
2002 (from that moment on it is applicable).
The goals of this guideline is the standardization and uniformization of
the legislations of the member states concerning noise emission standards,
assessment procedures, marketing, technical documentation and collection of
data concerning noise emission in the environment by equipment for outdoor
use. The guideline will contribute to the proper functioning of the market
while at the same time it is beneficial to the human health and well being.
Therefore, this guideline is in first instance an economical guideline.
The guideline concerns all machines for outdoor use that are put out on
the market after 1/1/2002. The guideline applies to the manufacturers of
machines and it does not aim at the users of equipment. Depending on their
type, all machines are divided in two groups that are listed explicitly in the
guideline :
ˆ The machines that are listed in Article 12 of the guideline. For these
machines, limit values for the produced guaranteed sound power levels
LW A are given in the directive. Examples : compressors, dozers, exca-
vation machines, welding generators, lawnmowers, current generators,
etc.
ˆ The machines listed in Article 13 of the guideline. For these machines
NO limit values for the sound power level are applicable. Examples :

123
124CHAPTER 7. DIRECTIVE 2000/14/EG : ’MACHINES IN OPEN AIR’

chainsaws, pressure washers, leaf blowers, concrete mixers, choppers,

etc.
with guaranteed sound power level meaning : the measured sound power
level including the uncertainties due to the variations in the production and
the measuring methods.
A detailed description of all machines and specific measurement methods
for the sound power is given in Appendix 1 of the guideline. The guideline
only concerns equipment that is put on the market or is used as a whole.
Non powered parts that are put on the market, or are being used separately,
are not considered in the directive.
The guideline is not applicable to :
ˆ Equipment that is primarily used for the transport of goods or persons
over the road, by railway, by air or over water.

ˆ Equipment for military or police use or for emergency services.

For machines named in Article 12, a list is included in the guidelines with
acceptable sound power levels. (an extract from this list can be found in
Figure 7.1). In function of the power of the machine a different acceptable
level is defined. Next to limits on the produced sound power there are a few
other measures that must be taken for machines in Article 12 :
ˆ Assessment procedures before bringing the product on the market.

ˆ CE marking of the product with guaranteed Lw (see Figure 7.2).

ˆ A written EG-declaration of conformity must be available.

ˆ Technical documentation (with measurements) must be available.

ˆ The documentation should be assessed by by a certified body (compa-

nies like Vincotte, SGS, etc.).

ˆ Periodical production inspections should be performed by certified bod-

ies.
The EG-declaration of conformity must contain the following data:
ˆ Name and address of the manufacturer or his authorized representative.

ˆ Name and address of the person who stores the technical documenta-
tion.

ˆ Detailed description of the equipment.

 125

ˆ Followed conformity assessment procedures and optionally the name

and address of the involved certifying body.

ˆ Measured sound power level of a machine that is representative for this

type of equipment.

ˆ Guaranteed sound power level of the equipment.

ˆ A reference to the EU 2000/14/EG guideline.

ˆ A declaration that this equipment is conform the prescriptions of the

guideline.

ˆ If applicable, the declaration(s) of conformity and references to other

community guidelines that are applied.

ˆ Place and data of the declaration.

ˆ Name, address and date of birth of the person who is authorized to sign
the declaration for the manufacturer or his authorized representative.
For the machines listed in Article 13, the first four measures are the same
as for those in Article 12. The last two requirements are less strict however :
ˆ The assessment of the technical documentation may be done by the
manufacturer of the machine.

ˆ The manufacturer can inspect the production himself.

Figure 7.1: Example of the acceptable sound power levels as described in

appendix 1 of the guideline 2000/14/EG.
126CHAPTER 7. DIRECTIVE 2000/14/EG : ’MACHINES IN OPEN AIR’

Figure 7.2: Example of a CE label with the guaranteed sound power level.
Chapter 8

Noise on the work floor

Deafness due to exposure to noise on the work floor is the most common
occupational diseases in the EU. The Belgian national Fund for occupational
diseases publishes every year statistics with different causes of occupational
diseases. From the graph in Figure 8.1 it can be seen that in Belgium deafness
took place number 1 in the causes of permanent unfitness for work.
To reduce the risk of exposure to noise, the EU has introduces a new
guideline on exposure of workers to noise in the nineteen eighties. On the
12th of May, 1986 the EEG guideline 86/188/EEG concerning protection of
employees against the risks of exposure to noise on the work floor was issued.
It is clear from Figure 8.1 that the introduction of a more stringent regulation
lead to an important reduction of the number of cases of deafness in the late
nineties. This 86/188/EEG directive will be discussed in the next paragraph.
Because it became clear that the acceptable noise levels in industry would
not lead to a further decrease of the number of deaf worker a new directive
was prepared in the early nineteen nineties. After more than ten years this
has lead to the EU guideline 2003/10/EG that is applicable at this moment.
In general the permissible noise levels on the work floor in the 2003/10/EG
directive are lower than before. The new directive will be discusses in Section
8.2.

8.1 Previous guideline

The guideline 86/188/EEG is accepted and took effect in Belgium through
the royal decree of 26.09.1991 (see Belgian state gazette of 14.11.1991). The
goal is to protect all employees against the hazards coming from exposure to
noise, for their hearing, health and safety. The guideline aims at reducing
the risks of exposure to a minimum level, taking into account the technical

127
128 CHAPTER 8. NOISE ON THE WORK FLOOR

Figure 8.1: List of the causes of permanent unfitness for work in the past 20
years. Source : Fund for occupational diseases.

development and the protection of measures to control the sound at the

source. When the exposure probably exceeds 85 dBA;

ˆ The employer must provide means to protect the hearing to his em-
ployees in a sufficient degree;

ˆ Exposed employees have the right to have a hearing examination.

ˆ The employees (or their representative in the enterprise) receive an

adequate information session or possibly education towards the risks of
exposure to noise.

When the daily exposure exceeds 90 dBA the following obligations must
be fulfilled :

ˆ The causes of the noise must be identified and a program for the re-
duction of the noise must be set up.
8.2. PRESENT GUIDELINE: DIRECTIVE 2003/10/EG 129

ˆ The work place must be indicated with appropriate signalization.

ˆ Individual hearing protection must be used.

Although this legislation is more strict than the older national regulation,
the admissible exposure levels are still much higher than the lower limit
where, at long exposure hearing impairment will occur (this threshold is 80
dB). Because of this a new European regulation was introduced with lower
action values : guideline 2003/10/EG.

8.2 Present guideline: directive 2003/10/EG

The European guideline 2003/10/EG Concerning the minimum prescriptions
on health and safety with regard to the exposure of employees to risks of
physical agents (noise) was converted into a national legislation on the 16th
of January 2006 (BS 15.02.2006).
The law is applicable to employers and employees and includes all ac-
tivities where employees can be exposed to risks related to noise on their
work.
Two exposure levels that are used as action- and limit values are defined
in the legislation :

ˆ (Daily exposure to noise) (LEX,8h ) (dB(A) re. 20 µPa) : this is the

time weighted average of the levels of exposure to noise on a normal
work day of 8 hours.

Te
LEX,8h = LAeq,Te + 10 log (8.1)
T0

where 2 !
Te 
1 pA (t)
Z
LAeq,Te = 10 log (8.2)
Te 0 p0
and T0 = 28800 seconds.

ˆ Weekly exposure to noise (LEX,8h ) : the time weighted average of the

daily levels of exposure to noise in an normal week of five working days
of 8 hours. !
m
1 X
Lw
EX,8h = 10 log 100.1(LEX,8h )k (8.3)
5 k=1

Three important values are fixed in the legislation :

130 CHAPTER 8. NOISE ON THE WORK FLOOR

Voice normal loud very loud shouting extreme

Level (dBA) 50 70 85 90 100
satisfaction + ± - -- ---
Risk slight nuissant small risk average risk important risk
inconvenience of deafness of deafness of deafness

Table 8.1: Qualitative assessment of the noise level on the work floor.

ˆ The lower action value : LEX,8h = 80dBA or a peak value of 112 Pa.

ˆ The upper action value : LEX,8h = 85dBA or a peak value of 140 Pa.

ˆ The limit value : LEX,8h = 87dBA or a peak value of 200 Pa. This
value may not be exceeded under any circumstances. Attention : this
value must be measured taking into account to the damping of the
means of hearing protection. This is different from the work method
in the previous guideline where hearing protection was not taken into
account.
In the context of the risk analysis and based on the formulated prevention
measures, the employer examines if employees can be exposed to risks related
to noise during their work. If it is shown that employees can be or are exposed
to risks related to noise, the employer assesses and if necessary measures the
level of exposure of the employees to this noise (the employer can potentially
attract an internal or external prevention advisor to do this). The employer
checks if the action and limit values are exceeded. A qualitative estimation
of the noise levels can be performed in a simply but effective way: one has a
conversation over a distance of one meter between source and receiver. The
degree with which the voice must be raised gives an indication of the sound
level (see Table 8.1).
When the upper action values are exceeded, the employer proceeds to the
forming and execution of a program of technical and organizational measures
to limit the exposure to noise to a minimum. A few possibilities that are
described in the legislation :
1. Alternative working methods that lead to less exposure to noise.

2. The choice of the appropriate tools, with regard to the work that needs
to be performed in order to produce the least noise as possible.

3. An adequate prevention and education of the employees to teach them

how to use tools correctly in order to limit the exposure to noise to a
minimum.
8.2. PRESENT GUIDELINE: DIRECTIVE 2003/10/EG 131

4. Technical measures to limit noise are taken :

(a) Pursuant air noise, especially by shielding, enclosure or covering

with sound absorbing material;
(b) Pursuant construction noise, especially damping or insulation;

5. Appropriate maintenance programs for work equipment, the shop floor

and the systems on the shop floor;

6. The organisation of work, in view of limiting the noise :

(a) Restriction on the duration and intensity of the exposure;

(b) Custom work schedules and a sufficient amount of breaks.

Moreover, the zone where the upper action value is exceeded is indicated
with custom signalisation (see Figure 8.2).
In no circumstances the exposure of the employee may exceed the limit
value. If, notwithstanding all precautions that were taken, it is shown that
the exposure exceeds the limit value, the employer must :

1. Immediately take action to reduce the exposure to a level below the

limit value for the exposure.

2. Determine the cause of the exceeded exposure

3. Adjust the protection- and prevention actions to prevent the problem

from occurring again.

Figure 8.2: Indication of the zone where the upper action value is exceeded.
132 CHAPTER 8. NOISE ON THE WORK FLOOR

If risks arising from the exposure to noise cannot be prevented in any

other way, appropriate, properly fitting individual hearing protection must
be made available to the employees :

ˆ When the lower action value is exceeded, hearing protection is made

available for the employees.

ˆ When the upper action value is exceeded, hearing protection must be

used.

The individual hearing protection is selected in such a way that the risk on
hearing impairment is eliminated or limited to a minimum (see further). The
employer is responsible for the application of the actions taken in this article
and takes care that the employees wear the hearing protection.
The employees that execute an activity with a risk due to noise, where the
exposure exceeds the lower action value, are subject to prior health examina-
tion (an examination of the hearing by means of a pre-emptive audiometric
examination, see further). The periodicity of the health examination is de-
termined as follows :

ˆ Yearly for employees who are exposed to a daily average exposure

equal or larger to 87 dB(A) or a peak sound pressure of 140 dBC;

ˆ Once every three years for employees who are exposed to an aver-
age daily exposure equal to or larger than 85 dB(A) or a peak sound
pressure of 137 dBC;

ˆ Once every five years for employees who are exposed to an average
daily exposure equal or larger than 80 dB(A) or a peak sound pressure
of 135 dBC.

8.3 Risk of hearing damage

Occupational deafness is permanent and irreversible hearing loss, caused by
ordinary working conditions. Certain types of occupational deafness may
be due to toxic products such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon disulfide,
benzene and lead. Others are due to brief exposure to intense sounds (e.g.
gunshots or explosions), wherein a rupture occurs of the basilar membrane
in the cochlea of the eardrum, or, in the case of an explosion, the ossicles are
affected.
8.3. RISK OF HEARING DAMAGE 133

In what follows we will consider occupational deafness due to noise. This

kind of deafness is bilateral (both ears) and usually symmetrical. It’s irre-
versible and does not evolve if there is no exposure to noise anymore. Occu-
pation deafness evolves according to the duration of exposure. First there is
a slight loss between 3 and 6 kHz, generally at 4 kHz. If exposure to noise
persists, the loss will get larger around the initial frequency : the loss can
amount to 20 to 40 dB, but is not observed by the employee because the
speech frequencies are involved to a lesser extent. Then the loss becomes
larger at low frequencies : the person starts to encounter difficulties in con-
versations in a noisy background or to use the phone. Finally, the loss can
progress to severe deafness, making each auditory communication difficult or
even impossible.
The risk of hearing loss can be calculated from the data in the inter-
national standard ISO1999:1990. Auditory data of employees which were
exposed for a long time to noise at the work floor, are processed in this stan-
dard. An extract of the standard is given in Figure 8.3. From this standard
appears clearly that the former directive, where a limit of 90 dBA was used,
still entailed a significant risk of hearing damage (20% risk at 35 years of
exposure).

Figure 8.3: Data from the ISO1999 standard in which the risk of hearing
damage is indicated in function of the level of exposure (different graphs)
and the number of years of exposure (x-axis).
134 CHAPTER 8. NOISE ON THE WORK FLOOR

A loss of auditory functions can lead to:

ˆ A social disability, when the person has difficulties to have a conversa-
tions.

ˆ Incapacity for work : if he is unfit to continue working.

ˆ Invalidity, if the suffered physiological loss is too large.

It is important to make a distinction between these three concepts and, in
particular, between the last two : incapacity for work is a relative concept,
while invalidity is assessed as absolute. Hereafter we will only focus on the
criteria for social disability and invalidity. The question arises which fre-
quencies should be used to measure disability or invalidity? Since the speech
frequencies are located between 250 or 4000 Hz, it would be logical to define
the average hearing deficiency as the average of the loss at the octave band
frequencies 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz. The most widely accepted scale w.r.t.
hearing disability which is based on that average, is that of the American
Academy of Ophtalmology and Otolaryngology:

disability = 1.25Db + 0.25Dm − 39 (8.4)

with Db and dm the hearing loss in the best ear and the average hearing
loss of the weakest ear respectively. So the disability is 0 if Db or Dm < 26
dB. Disability would therefore occur starting from a loss of 26 dB and would
reach 100% (full deafness) for a bilateral loss of 93 dB. In the calculation of
the average hearing loss is currently the loss at 500 Hz replaced by that at
3000 Hz. It has been attempted to justify this change by underlining that it
is not only the person’s ability to hear, but also to understand the words in
sound conditions that correspond to those of everyday life and not just in a
calm environment, which is important. The frequency of 3 kHz is increasingly
important as the rate of speech increases and as the the distortion due to
the background environment increases. Based on these frequencies one can
define the disability rate as :

Disability = 1.25Db + 0.25Dm − 39 (8.5)

so the disability is 0 if Db or if Dm < 35 dB. The handicap threshold should

therefore be increased to 35 dB as the hearing loss is calculated based on the
frequencies 1, 2 and 3 kHz. The Fund for Occupational Diseases in Belgium
has decided to choose the losses at 1, 2 and 3 kHz for the calculation of the
average loss. The scale for physical incapacity for work is the following :
50 to 55 dBA : 1 to 5 % incapacity for work
8.4. THE AUDIOMETRIC EXAMINATION 135

55 to 65 dBA : 5 to 10 % incapacity for work

65 to 75 dBA : 10 to 30 % incapacity for work

75 to 85 dBA : 30 to 55 % incapacity for work

75 to 100 dBA : 55 to 80 % incapacity for work

Note that a person can never be 100% incapable for work by deafness. A
person who in fact is socially affected by the sustained deafness, is therefore
not incapacitated (threshold of 50 dBA compared to 35 dBA for disability).

8.4 The audiometric examination

The audiogram is an objective measure of hearing loss or deafness. It is the
graphic representation of the hearing loss relative to the reference measured
with an audiometer. In this context, one speaks of the Bekesy audiometry.
This is a type of automatic tone audiometry. There is also speech audiom-
etry. This is done by testing speech intelligibility of one-syllable words, the
so-called PB-lists (PB stands for phonetically balanced). In the Bekesy au-
diometry, a device is used that automatically passes 7 test tones (500, 1000,
2000, 3000, 4000, 6000 and 8000 Hz) and this for both ears separately. The
subject presses a button when he hears the tone, he releases the button when
he does not hear any sound. After the button has been pressed, the intensity
decreases gradually. After the subject releases the button, the intensity in-
creases. This results in saw-tooth-shaped curve of the sound levels at which
the respondent reacted. For standardization, the device must be calibrated
on a so-called artificial ear. Audiograms of the automatic method can be
recorded with a pulsating sound or a continuous sound. The pulsating sound
is typically 260 ms on and 260 ms off. Tone audiometry learns us a lot about
the nature of the hearing loss. In audiometry, a bone conduction audiogram is
often used as an additional diagnosis. A vibrating plate mounted directly on
the skull is used instead of a loudspeaker (in the case of the air-transmission
audiogram). The vibration propagates through the head until it reaches the
cochlea. Some examples of audiograms are shown in Figure 8.4.
A number of diagnoses can be made from audiograms :

1. If the bone conduction audiogram is normal and the air conduction au-
diogram shows a significant loss, then the problem is probably situated
in the ear canal or in the middle ear. With such an audiogram, the
patient would, for example, suffer of otitis (ear infection).
136 CHAPTER 8. NOISE ON THE WORK FLOOR

2. If there is only low frequency loss, this indicates a malfunction of the

ossicles. This may be a consequence of otosclerosis.

3. A ’notch’ in the audiogram at higher frequencies is the beginning stage

of perception hearing loss and is usually a result of noise exposure.

4. Furthermore, one can also compare two audiograms that were obtained
with pulsed tones and continuous tones. The sensitivity to pulsed tones
appears to be higher than to continuous tones. This is called patho-
logical adaptation or ’tone-decay’ : a tone, initially heard, disappears.
When the variation between both audiograms is larger than 20 dB, it is
assumed that the condition is part of retro-cochlear nature. If the con-
tinuous diagram lies above the pulsating diagram, then this is probably
a sign that the subject attempts to simulate deafness.

Figure 8.4: Example of an audiogram of a normal hearing person and two

hearing-impaired persons. Source: www.kennislink.nl
8.4. THE AUDIOMETRIC EXAMINATION 137

sound level (in dBA) 85 87.5 90 92.5 95 97.5 100

% time (in %) 0% 44% 68% 82% 90% 96% %97

Table 8.2: Percentge of time of which the PPE must be worn to reduce the
exposure level to 85 dBA.

8.4.1 Personal hearing protection

When the risk of exposure to noise can not be reduced by technical or orga-
nizational measure, personal protective equipment (PPE) is made available
to reduce risk. There is a very wide range of PPEs, which are divided into
four groups (see Figure 8.5) :
ˆ The earmuff (attenuation 15 to 30 dBA),

ˆ The earplug (attenuation 15 to 25 dBA),

ˆ The ear gag (attenuation 10 to 15 dBA),

ˆ The ear clip (attenuation 10 to 15 dBA).

Although the attenuation of the PPE is more important, it seems in practice,

that comfort and covenience prevail. Indeed, if the comfort is not optimal,
workers will not wear the PPEs during the whole exposure time. Table 8.2
shows that at a sound pressure level of 95 dBA, the PPE needs to be worn
during 90% of the time in order to be effective (even if the attenuation is
very high).
Besides the comfort and convenience, there are a number of other param-
eters in the selection of PPEs :
ˆ Environmental conditions

ˆ Nature of work (free space)

ˆ Duration of exposure

ˆ Necessity to wear

ˆ Medical problems

ˆ CE certification (see directive EG 89/686)

ˆ Need of ability to communicate

ˆ Compatibility with other protective equipment

138 CHAPTER 8. NOISE ON THE WORK FLOOR

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 8.5: Personal hearing protection.

Chapter 9

Community noise

Under community noise (also called environmental noise, residential noise or

domestic noise) we understand outdoor noise emitted from human activities
including road traffic, rail traffic, air traffic and locations of industrial ac-
tivities. In this chapter the legislation concerning community noise will be
discussed. In 2002 a new EC directive for community noise was published :
2002/49/EC guideline. The aim of this directive is to commit EU Member
States to register and reduce environmental noise. The Member States are
responsible for the follow up of the legislation (the directive has therefore at
present no direct consequences for companies).

9.1 EC directive 2002/49/EC

Noise is one of the most important environmental problems in Europe. How-
ever, there is a lack of reliable data to determine noise in the different EU
member states. Data from the different states exist but due to the use of
different indicators a comparison between sources of noise is not possible.
The EC directive 2002/49/EC ’ relating to the assessment and management
of environmental noise’ has te following purposes:
1. The harmonization of noise indicators and assessment methods. For
this purpose two indicators were introduced which have to be used by
each of the EU member states :
1  Lday Levening +5 Lnight +10 
Lden = 10 log 12 ∗ 10− 10 + 4 ∗ 10− 10 + 8 ∗ 10− 10
24
(9.1)
whereby Lday , Levening and Lnight are the equivalent sound pressure
levels measured during the day, evening and night. Lden is used to
asses annoyance and Lnight to asses sleep disturbance.

139
140 CHAPTER 9. COMMUNITY NOISE

2. Noise mapping (see Figure 9.1 where the noise mapping of Netherland
is shown).

3. Making action plans to reduce the environmental noise.

4. To make this information accessible for public.

Figure 9.1: Noise map of Netherlands. Bron:

http://www.milieuennatuurcompendium.nl

The realization of the directive by the EU member states should happen

in two phases :

1. By 30 June 2007 all agglomerations with more than 250.000 inhabitants

and all road traffic with more than 6 million vehicles/year, rail traffic
with more than 60.000 trains/year and airports with more than 50.000
movements/year have to be measured (LDEN ) and noise maps have to
be made.
9.1. EC DIRECTIVE 2002/49/EC 141

2. By 30 June 2012 noise maps of all agglomerations (with more than

100.000 inhabitants), as well as road traffic with minimum 3 milion
vehicles/year, rail traffic with more tha 30 000 trains/year and airports
with minimum 50 000 movements/year should be available.

The next step in the directive is an information campaign for the public
about environmental noise and the effects. Finally, action plans are to be
made by the EU member states to avoid and limit environmental noise :

1. By 18 July 2008: large agglomerations (more than 250.000 inhabitants).

2. By 18 July 2013: all agglomerations (more than 100.000 inhabitants).

142 CHAPTER 9. COMMUNITY NOISE
Appendix A

Material properties

143
144 APPENDIX A. MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Table A.1: Properties of gasses, liquids and solids, Source : [6]

145
146 APPENDIX A. MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Table A.2: Mechanical properties of solids, Source : [6]

 147

Table A.3: Absorption coefficients.

148 APPENDIX A. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
149
150 APPENDIX A. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
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