UNIT=III  NOISE THEORY

1. Define noise.

            Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to interfere with proper
reception and reproduction of wanted signal.

2. Give the classification of noise.

            Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are External noise and internal noise.

External noise may be defined as that type of noise which is generated external to the
communication system. And it can be classified into

                        1. Atmospheric noise

                        2. Extraterrestrial noises

                        3. Man –made noises or industrial noises

Internal noise may be defined as that type of system which is generated internally or within the
communication system or receiver. it can be classified into 

                        1. Thermal noise

                        2. Shot noise

                        3. Transit time noise

                        4. Miscellaneous internal noise

3. What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their origin?

 The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and cosmic noise

            Solar noise is the electrical noise eminating from the sun.

            Cosmic noise is the noise received from the center part of our galaxy, other  

            Distant galaxies and other virtual point sources.

 

4. Define Atmospheric noise and industrial noise?

 Ø Atmospheric noise, which is also called static, is produced by lightning discharges in

thunderstorms and other natural electrical disturbances which occur in the atmosphere. 
 Ø The industrial noise or man-made noise is that type of noise which is produced by such
sources as automobiles and aircraft ignition, electrical motors, switch gears and leakage
from high voltage transmission lines and several other heavy electrical equipments. 

5. Define shot noise? [Nov-05, Apr-04]

 Ø Shot noises arises in active devices due to random behaviour of charge carriers. In
electron tubes, shot noise is generated due to random emission of electrons from
cathodes, whereas in semiconductor devices shot noise is generated due to random
diffusion of minority carriers or simply random generation and recombination of
electron-hole pairs. 

6. Define partition noise?

 Partition noise is generated in a circuit when a current has to divide between two or more
paths. This means that partition noise results from the random fluctuations in the division.

7. Define flicker noise (or) Low frequency noise.

 Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low audio frequencies.
Flicker noise is produced at low frequencies (below few KHz).This noise is also called as
flicker noise (1/f noise).

8. Define transit time of a transistor.

            Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electron to travel from emitter to the
collector.

9. Define Transit-Time noise or high frequency noise.

 It is generally observed in semiconductor devices, when transit-time of charge carriers

crossing a junction is comparable with time period of the signal. 
  Some charge carriers diffuse back to the source, this process gives rise to the input
admittance and it affects the conductance with increase in frequency. This conductance
produces transit time noise. 

10. Define Avalanche noise?

 The reverse bias characteristic of a diode shows a region where the reverse current
increases rapidly with a slight increase in magnitude of the reverse bias voltage. That is
voltage increase current also increases.
 This is because the holes and electrons in the depletion region gain sufficient energy from
reverse bias to ionize atoms by collision. This collision provides spikes in current in
avalanche region. This noise is called as avalanche noise.

11. Define Thermal noise?

 The thermal noise or white noise or Johnson noise is the random noise which is generated
in a resistor or the resistive component of complex impedance due to rapid and random
motion of the molecules, atoms and electrons.  

12. Write an expression for thermal noise generated in a resistor.

 The expression for maximum noise power output of a resistor may be given as

Where       K-Boltzmann’s constant=1.38x10-23Joule/deg.K

                  T-absolute temperature.

                   B-bandwidth of interest in Hz.

13. Explain White Noise.

 Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over a wide
frequency range. Such spectrum has all frequency components in equal portion, and is
therefore called white noise. The power spectral density of white noise is independent of
the operating frequency. 
  And it is also defined as noise in idealized form is known as white noise. This means that
in a communication system, the noise analysis is based on an idealized form of noise, is
white noise. 

14. Give the expression for noise voltage in a resistor.

            The mean –square value of thermal noise voltage is given by                                    Vn2 =
4 K T B R                                                                                

                        K – Boltz man constant

                        R – Resistance

                        T – Absolute temperature

                        B - Bandwidth

15. Define equivalent noise bandwidth of an ideal band pass system.

 Equivalent noise band width may be defined as the bandwidth of an ideal band pass
system which produces the same noise power as the actual system does.

16. Explain why thermal noise is also called as Johnson noise?

Thermal noise is also called as Johnson noise after the scientist J.B.Johnson who presented a
detailed investigation of it.

17. Define signal to noise ratio.

             Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the same point in a
system.

18. Define noise figure.

                                        S/ N at the input

             Nose figure F =

                                         S/ N at the output

 

S/N = Signal power / Noise Power

19. What is narrowband noise?

             The receiver of a communication system usually includes some provision for
preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a narrowband filter
whose bandwidth is large enough to pass modulated component of the received signal essentially
undistorted but not so large as to admit excessive noise through the receiver. The noise process
appearing at the output of such filter is called narrow band noise.

20. Give the representation of narrowband noise in terms of envelope 

       And phase components.

             Narrowband noise in terms of envelope and phase   components as                        

                  
The function r (t) and ψ (t) are called envelope and phase of n (t).

21. Define figure of merit?

 Ø The figure of merit’γ’may be defined as the ratio of o/p signal to noise ration to input
signal to noise ration of a receiver. 
 Ø 

22. What is the figure of merit of DSB-SC system?

 Ø The figure of merit of a DSB-SC system is 2. 

 
23. What is the figure of merit of SSB-SC system?

The figure of merit of an SSB-SC system is 1.

24. An amplifies operating over the frequency range from 18 to 20       MHz has a 10Kh
input resistor.  Calculate the RMS voltage at the input to this amplifier if the ambient
temperature is 27ºC.

Given data:-

R = 10 KΩ, K = 1.38X10-23J/K(Boltzman constant)

B.w – B = (18 – 20) that is (20 – 18) MHZ = 2MHz

T = 27ºC + 273 = 300ºK

The RMS voltage is given by the expression,

            √4RKTB = √4X10X103X1.38X10-23X2X106X300

             = √4X1.38X3X2X10-11 = 1.82X10-5V = 1.82µV.

25. Two resistors of 20kΩ and 50k are at room temperature of 15ºc       or 288k. For a given
B.w of 100KHz determine the thermal noise voltage generated by i).Each resistor, ii).The
two resistors in series, iii). The two resistors are in parallel.

1. thermal noise in First resistor

            Vn1 = √4KTBR1 = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X20X103.

            Vn1 = 5.6µV

            And in 2nd resistor

            Vn2 = √4KTBR2 = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X50X103

            Vn2 = 8.91µV.

ii. when two resistors in series

            Vnr = √4KTB (R1+R2)

                  = √4X1.38X10 -23X288X100X103X (20+50) X103.

                  = 10.55µV

iii. when two resistors are in parallel

            Vnr = √4KTB Rpar                       1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2  = (14 – 3) X 103

                  = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X14.3X103 = 4.7µV.

26. What is the signal-noise-ratio at the output of DSB-SC system 

      With coherent demodulation? [Nov-03]

27. Write the advantages of Super heterodyne receiver over TRF 

       Receivers?[April-04,Nov-04]

The super heterodyne receiver has the following advantages over TRF receivers.

1. Improved selectivity in terms of adjacent channels.

2. More uniform selectivity in terms of adjacent channels.
3. Improved receiver stability.
4. Higher gain per stage because IF amplifiers are operated at a lower frequency.
5. Uniform band width because of fixed intermediate frequency.

DESCRIPTIVE ANSWERS:

1. Define noise and write notes on shot noise?[Nov-04,05]

 “Noise” may be defined as an unwanted form of electrical signal or energy tends to

interface with the proper reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.
 For eg.  1.  In receivers several electrical disturbances produce noise and thus modifying
the required signal in an unwanted form.

             2. In TV Receivers noise may produce super imposed images.

                         3.  In pulse communication, noise may produce unwanted pulses or   

                              Cancel the required pulses.

Shot noise:

 Shot noises arises in active devices due to random behaviour of charge carriers.
 Eg. In electron tubes, shot noise generated due to the random emission of electrons from
cathodes.
 In semiconductor devices shot noise is generated due to the random diffusion of minority
carriers or simply random generation or recombination of electron- hole pairs.

 The current in electron devices (i.e. tubes or solid state device) flows in the form of
discrete pulses.
 Every time a charge carrier moves from one point to another (i.e. cathode to plate).  It
seems to be continuous but it is a discrete one.
 At lower voltages the electrons emitted by the cathode does not reach the anode, some
electrons remains inside the region between anode and cathode.  Hence this region is
called space charge region.
 When we take the value, i.e. total current i(t) it will be i(t)  = I0 + in(t)

            I0 à constant current is average or mean value of current i.e. current pulses at 

                     Every time.

            in(t) à Noise current .it fluctuates about the mean value I0.

This current in(t) is shot noise current and it is not visualized by normal instrument and it is
viewed by fast sweep oscilloscope.
  The fluctuation may be smoothened if the emission rate decreases because if emission
rate decreases the space charge is reduced and more electrons reach the plate properly.

Power density spectrum of shot Noise:

We know the shot noise current is given by i (t) = I0+in(t)

 And the function in(t) is the noise current and it is a random function. And this is a in
deterministic function. And we have to calculate the power density spectrum of this
indeterministic function.
 This noise is also approximated by using Gaussian process.
 We can treat the total diode current as the sum of current pulses and each pulse is formed
by the transit of an electron from the cathode, to the anode.
 The power density spectrum of statistically independent non-interacting random noise
current in(t) is expressed as

                                  Si(ω) = qI0

            q à Electronic charge, I0à Mean value of the current in amperes

That is leakage charge in current will be power spectral density of noise current.

 This power density spectrum is frequency independent.  This type of frequency

Independence is only up to a frequency range determined by the transit time of an
electron. Beyond this it is frequency dependent i.e. poles will vary.

 
0
 
 

 The transit time of an electron in a diode depends upon anode voltage V and may be
expressed as,
                   dà spacing between anode and the cathode

And the shot noise voltage is given by

The mean square noise component is proportional to the dc flowing and for most devices the
mean square, shot noise current is given by

Where Idc is the direct current in amperes,qe the magnitude of electron charge(=1.6x10-19C).and
Bn is the equivalent noise bandwidth in hertz.

2. Write short notes on Thermal noise. [Nov-04]

 Ø The thermal noise white noise or Johnson noise is the random noise which is generated
in a resistor or the resistive component due to random motion of electron (or) molecule
and atoms. 
 Ø The random noise voltage will not be a instant value; it will be a rms value. 
 Ø The noise power produced in a resistor is proportional to absolute temperature.  And
also the noise power is proportional to Band width over which the noise is measured. 
 The maximum power Pn is calculated as

                                   PnαT.B        (or)

                                  Pn=K.T.B

                                     Where K à Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 X 10-23J/k

                                               T à absolute temp

                                               B à Band width in Hz.

 If we are taking a resistive component, if we connect a d.c volt meter across any given
resistor at room temperature i.e. 270 C, then no voltage is displayed by a D.C volt meter.
 A very sensitive electronic component is used to display some reading.

                                                             (Thevenin’s equivalent Voltage model of

                                                                Noisy resister)

 

 Ø If we are taking a resistor R then the noise voltage is produced by the random moment
of electrons, within the resistor constituting a current.
 Ø When measuring over a long period of time, the as many electrons arrive at one end as
of other, if we are taking a random moment; the random voltage across the resistor is
measured at a temperature.

This random noise voltage is expressed in terms of rms value, rather than instantaneous value.

 According to maximum power transfer theorem, the power of noise voltage Vn to a load
Resistor RL = R, then

We know the noise power Pn = V2/(R+RL)                (P=V2/R)

            That is Pn = V2rms/(R+RL)

And W.k.T Vrms = Vm/√2 = Vn/√2

K à Boltzmann’s constant

R à Resistor

T à Temperature

B à Bandwidth B over which noise is being measured.

 Norton’s theorem may be used to find an equivalent current model of a noisy resistor.

If we take the current model of noisy’s resistor then

 
 

 By using G = 1/R the rms noise current In for current model of a noisy resistor is
expressed as

                                                    In2 = 4GKTB

Addition of noise due to several sources in series:

 Let us consider the thermal noise for sources R1,R2,R3 etc in series producing noise
voltage Vn1,Vn2,Vn3 etc then w.k.t the rms voltage of R will be  

Addition of noise due to several sources in parallel:

 Let us consider the thermal noise source is resistors R1,R2,R3 are connected in parallel
then the noise rms voltage will given by  

3. Write notes on Spectral densities

 Ø We know about the power spectral density of a noise wave form which will be a
random one and not able to predetermined. 
 That means the total average Power is equal to the product of power spectral density and
Bandwidth.
 If we are calculating the power spectral density of the noise current due to free electrons
is given by

 
 Where K à Boltzmann’s constant

            Α à average number of collision/second

            T à Temperature in degrees Kelvin.

            G à Conductance of the conducting medium.

 
  

 
  

 If we take the variation in power density then the Power density spectrum is frequency
Independent is almost constant in the frequency range.
 That is the range covers almost all the practical applications in communication systems. 
So for all practical purposes the Si(ω) is frequency Independent and constant.  So it is
represented as

                                                    Si (ω) = 2KTG

 So the contribution of any circuit is determined by the Bandwidth of the circuit.

Thermal noise has a power density spectrum which is constant at all frequencies
hence it is also referred to as white noise it is also referred to as Johnson noise after
the scientist J.B.Johnson who inversed this details.

4. Derive the expression for thermal noise using power spectrum     

    Density.

 For calculating the expression of noise power by using power spectral density we are
taking the voltage model and current model of the Resistor circuit.
 Here the resistance source is represented interms of Thevenin’s voltage source or
Norton’s current source.
 And we know that the noise voltage generated by a resistor is given as

            Vn(t) = in(t).R

 Now since the power density spectrum is a function of the square of voltage or current,
the relationship between the power density spectrum Si(ω) as Sv(ω) with in(t) and Vn(t) is
expressed as

Therefore Sv(ω) = R2Si(ω)

W.k.T Si (ω) = 2KTG            (ω /α à is constant)

            Sv (ω) = 2KTGR2

            Sv (ω) = 2KT (1/R)R2         (G=1/R)

            Sv (ω) = 2KTR

 W.k.T the total power “P” in terms of power spectral density spectrum S(ω) is given as

         à (Power and Psd relation formula by F.T)

And it is changed as is noise power in terms of power spectral density is given as

                    à For infinite Band width------ (1)

 If we are having a finite Bandwidth form (-∆f to ∆f)

Then Pn = Sv (ω).B

               = 2KTR. (2∆f)

             Pn = 4KTR∆f -------- (2)

Therefore noise voltage and power relationship is

            Pn α Vn2

Equation 1, 2, 3 are the noise power voltage using psd.

5. Calculate the thermal noise for a single noise source.

 Ø If we are having a single noise source then 

Due to that single source the output noise voltage Vno(t) is determined.

W.k.T   Vni (t) à input noise voltage,

            Sni (t) à input power spectral density

            Vno (t) à output noise voltage

            Sno (t) à output power spectral density

            H (ω) à transfer function.

  Relationship between input and output psd is

            Sno (ω) = |H (ω) |2 Sni (ω) d ω

 The output noise power P0 may be calculated by integrating output power spectral density
Sno(ω )

             Power is related to mean square value V2rms

            Therefore

Equation (1) and (2) is the single source noise power and voltage using power spectral density

6. Calculate the Thermal noise in RC circuits.

 Let us consider an RC Circuit, and let us obtain the equivalent Circuit of noiseless
Resistance, by considering a Thevenin’s model.

    
    

 So a noise source is connected in seriously to a Resistor. We know the power spectrum

density of an Resistor with input noise voltage is

            Sni (ω) = 2KTR.

 This input noise source is passed through the RC filter.  So if we are finding the transfer
function of RC filter it will be

If we take the conjugate then

 

Then the next step is the calculation of output power spectral density

            Sno (ω) = |H (ω) |2 Sni(ω )

            Sno (ω) = 1/ (1+ ω 2R2C2) x 2KTR ------- (1)

 For calculating output noise power from power spectral density, the next step is     

tan-10 = 0, tan-1 α = Π/2

And noise voltage interms of P0 is

P0 α V02 and V0 = √P0

There fore

If we calculate the thermal noise for multiple noise sources then the power spectrum density due
to several sources are

            Sy (ω) = Sy1 (ω) + Sy2 (ω) +……..+Syn (ω)

 
7. Write notes on White noise.

                   (OR)

     Explain about white noise.

 Noise in an idealized form is known as white noise.

 As we know that white light consists of all colour frequencies, in the same manner, white
noise contains all frequencies in equal amount. 
 The power density spectrum of a white noise is independent of frequency.  This means
that white noise consists of all the frequency components in equal amount.
 If we are taking that is specifying the Gaussian distribution in terms of white noise then it
is called as white Gaussian noise.
 The power spectral density of white noise is expressed as

            (Half the power for +ve frequencies, half the power 

                                          Will be for –ve frequencies)

 The dimensions of N0 are in watts per Hertz. The parameter N0 is usually referenced to
the input stage of the receiver of a communication system. It may be expressed as

                               N0=kTe

 Where k is the Boltzmann constant and Te is the Equivalent noise temperature of the
receiver.
 The equivalent noise temperature of a system is defined as the temperature at which
a noisy resistor has to maintained such that, by connecting the resistor to the input
of a noiseless version of the system, it produces some available noise power at the
output of the system as that produced by all the sources of noise in the actual
system.
 The important feature of the equivalent noise temperature is that it depends only on the
parameters of the system.
 Since the autocorrelation function is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral
density, it follows that for white noise

 
 

 That is auto correlation function of white noise consists of a delta function weighted by
the factor N0/2 and occurring at t=0, as in the figure. If the white noise W (t) is Gaussian
then two samples are statistically independent. In a sense, White Gaussian noise
represents the ultimate in “randomness”.
 White noise has infinite average power and as such, it is not physically realizable.
 The utility of a white noise process is parallel to that of an impulse function analysis of
linear systems. We may state therefore, that as long as the bandwidth of a noise process at
the input of a system is appreciably larger than that of the system itself, then we may
model the noise process as white noise.
 Ideal low pass filtered white noise
  Suppose that a white Gaussian noise w(t) of zero mean and power spectral density N0/2 is
applied to an ideal low pass filter of band width B and pass band magnitude response of
one. The power spectral density of the noise n(t) appearing at the filter output is therefore

                      

The auto correlation function of n(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral
density

The autocorrelation function is plotted.RN (t) has its maximum value of N0B at the origin and it
passes through zero at t = ± k/2B, Where k=1, 2, 3………

    
  
   
 

 
 

 Since the input noise w (t) is Gaussian, it follows that the band-limited noise n (t) at the
filter o/p is also Gaussian. Suppose now that n (t) is sampled at the rate of 2B times per
second. 
 The joint probability density function of a set of noise samples obtained in this way is
equal to the product of the individual probability density functions.

8. Write notes on Noise Equivalent Band Width.

With the help of equivalent Band width, the noise power can be specified at the output of linear
band pass system.

 Let us consider a linear band pass system; the system is excited by an input noise voltage
source Vni (t) producing an o/p Vno (t).Let H (ω) be the transfer function of linear band
pas system. The parameter | H (ω) |2, the square of the transfer function is plotted.

                                                                                                (Linear band pass system)

 In the above figure the negative half of the curve is symmetrical about the vertical axis
and hence the positive half of the plot | H (ω) |2 has beens shown.
 We know that the power spectrum density of noise voltage at the input and power
spectrum density at the output are related as
                                        Sno (ω) = Sni (ω).| H (ω) |2
                          
Sni (ω) à input power spectral density

                        Sno (ω) à output power spectral density

 The mean square value of output noise signal, that is o/p noise power P0 may be
evaluated simply by integrating Sn0(ω) over the band width under consideration, that is

For practical purpose, the input noise power spectrum density is taken as constant with
frequency. Let this constant value be denoted by ‘C’.

            Hence,    Sni (ω) =C

Thus the output noise power is given by

            And therefore                 

Area under the curve | H (ω) |2

 The ideal band pass system having the characteristics. The area under this ideal
rectangular characteristic is given by AxBN.
 Here A=| H (ω) |2

Equating the areas of the actual and ideal systems, we get

From above equation, the expression for equivalent noise bandwidth is given as

That is

              BN=Area under the | H (ω) |2 curve

                    Maximum value of the | H (ω) |2 curve

 
Then, the output noise power may be obtained as

Where C is the constant equal to the power spectrum density of noise voltage at the input of the
system.Hence, equivalent noise band width may be defined as follows:

“Equivalent noise bandwidth may be defined as the Bandwidth of an ideal band pass system
which produces some noise power as the actual system does”.

Likewise we can able to calculate the equivalent Bandwidth of Low pass filter.

Available power:

 The available power of any source may be defined as the maximum power which can be
drawn from the source.

9. Write short notes on signal-to-noise ratio?

The ratio of signal power to the associated noise power is defined as signal to noise ratio. In
other words, signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the
same point in the system.

It is represented as (S/N)

And

S =Power spectrum density of signal voltage

N   Power spectrum density of noise voltage

 In an ideal noiseless system the input S/N ratio and output S/N ratio are identical.  But for
a practical system there will be some noise included in the inside of the circuit.  So there
must be change in input and output S/N noise level.  In fact the comparison of S/N ratio
at the input and the output of any two port network gives the noise indication of that
network.

10. Define Narrow band noise and explain the representation of 

      Narrow Band Noise in terms of In-Phase and Quadrature 

      Components and envelope and phase components.[Nov-03]

 The receiver of a communication system usually includes some provision for

preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a narrow band
filter whose band width is just large enough to pass the modulated component of the
 received signal essentially undistorted but not so large as to admit excessive noise
through the receiver.
  The noise process appearing at the output of such a filter is called as Narrow band noise. 
And this noise is concentrated at mid frequencies such as ±fC.

 
  

 To analyze the effects of narrow band noise on the performance of a communication

system, we need a mathematical representation of it. Depending on the application of
interest, there are two specific representations of narrow band noise.
 The narrow band noise is represented in terms of a pair of components called the In-
phase and Quadrature components.
 The narrow band noise is defined in terms of two other components called the envelope
and phase.

Representation of Narrow Band noise in terms of In-phase and Quadrature components:

 Considering a narrow band noise n(t) of band width 2B centered on frequency fC .And we
may represent n(t) in the canonical(standard)form:

                       n (t) = nI (t) cos (2πfct) – nQ (t)sin(2πfct)

Where nI (t) à In-phase component

            nQ (t) à Quadrature component

Both nI (t) and nQ (t) are low pass signals. Except the mid band frequency fC,these two
components are fully representative of the narrow band noise n(t).Given the narrow band noise n
(t), we may extract its in-phase and Quadrature components by using low pass filters. It is
assumed that the two low pass filters used in this scheme are ideal, each having a band width
equal to B.

 The in-phase and Quadrature components having the following properties:

1. The in-phase component nI (t) and nQ (t) of narrow band noise n (t) have zero mean.

2.  If n (t) is Gaussian then nI (t) and nQ (t) are Gaussian

3.  If n (t) is stationary then nI (t) and nQ(t) are jointly stationary

4.  Both nI (t) and nQ (t) have same power spectral density, which is related to the 

     Power spectral density SN (f) of the narrow band noise n (t).

5.  nI (t) and nQ (t) having same variance as the narrow band noise n (t).

6.  The cross – spectral density of the nI (t) and nQ (t) is purely imaginary.

7.  If narrow band noise n (t) is Gaussian with Zero mean and a power spectrum 

     Density SN (t) is symmetric about the mid frequency fC, then the in-phase  

     Component nQ (t) are statistically impendent.

 For example if we consider a white Gaussian noise of zero mean and power spectral
density N0/2, which is passed through an ideal band pass filter of pass band magnitude
response equal to one, mid band frequency fC, and band width 2B.And to determine the
auto correlation function of n (t) and its in-phase and Quadrature components we are
taking the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral density. And finally the auto
correlation function of in-phase and Quadrature components are RNI(t)=RNQ
(t)=2N0Bsinc(2Bt)

Representation of Narrow Band noise in terms of Envelope and Phase components:

 We know that the Representation of a narrow band noise n (t) in terms of in-phase and
Quadrature components. We may also represent the noise n (t) in terms of its envelope
and phase components.

            n (t) = r (t) cos [2πfCt+y(t)]

Where

The function r(t) à envelope of n(t), y(t) à phase of n(t)

We may also represent that

            n (t) = nc (t) Coswct – nS (t) Sinwct

                      nc (t) à In phase

                      ns (t) à Quadrature Component.

The envelope r(t) and phase y(t) are both sample functions of low pass random processes. The
time interval between two successive peaks of the envelope r(t) is approximately 1/B,Where 2B
is the band width of the narrow band noise n(t).

 The probability distributions of r(t) and y(t) may be obtained from those of nI(t) and
nQ(t).Let NI and NQ denote the random variables obtained by observing the random
processes represented by the sample functions nI(t) and nQ(t) respectively. We note that
NI and NQ are independent Gaussian random variables of zero mean and  variance s2,and
so we may express their joint probability density function by

 Accordingly the probability of the joint event that NI lies between

      nI and nI+d nI and NQ lies between nQ and nQ+d nQ is given by,

    
    

 
 

By using the coordinate system representation of narrow band noise

In a limiting sense, we may equate the two incremental areas shown shaded in figure (a) and thus
we may write

 Now let R and y denote the random variables obtained by observing the random
processes represented by the envelope r (t) and phase y(t) respectively. Substituting the
equation (3),(4),(5) in equation(2),we find that the probability of the random variables R
and y lying jointly inside the shaded area of the figure(b) is equal to

 That is the joint probability density function of R and y is

 This probability density function is independent of the angle ,which means that the
random variables R,  are statistically independent. We may thus express fR, (r, ) as the
product of fR(r) and fy().In particular, the random variable  representing phase is
uniformly distributed inside the range 0 to 2p,as shown by
 

        This leaves the probability density function of the random variable R as

 Where s2 is the variance of the original narrow band noise n(t).A random variable having
the probability density function of equation(9) is said to be Rayleigh distribution. if we
represent in graphical representation then

                           fV(v) =s fR (r)

 Then we may rewrite the ray Leigh distribution of equation(9)in the normalized form

Unlike Gaussian distribution, ray Leigh distribution is zero for negative values of v.This is
because the envelope r(t) can assume only non negative values.

11. Explain about sine wave plus narrow band noise?       

 If we add the sinusoidal wave A Cos (2pfCt) to the narrow band noise n(t),where A and fC
both constsnts.We assume that the frequency of the sinusoidal wave is the same as the
nominal carrier frequency of the noise. A sample function of the sinusoidal wave plus
noise is then expressed by

                        x (t) = A Cos(2pfCt)+n(t)------(1)

Where A is the carrier amplitude.

 Representing  the narrow band noise n(t) in terms of its in-phase and Quadrature
components, we may write

 
 

We assume that n(t) is Gaussian with zero mean and variance s2.accordingly we may state the
following:

1. Both nI’(t) and nQ(t) are Gaussian and statistically independent.

2. The mean of nI’(t) is A and that nQ(t) is zero.
3. The variance of both nI’(t)and nQ(t) is s2.

 We may therefore express the joint probability density function of the random variables
NI’ and NQ,corresponding to nI’(t) and nQ(t),as follows:

 Let r(t)denote the envelope of x(t) andy(t) denote its phase. from equation(2) we thus find
that

 For the derivation of the ray Leigh distribution, we find that the joint probability density
function of the random variables R and y,corresponding to r(t) and  y(t) for some fixed
time t,is given by

Here R and y are dependent random variables for nonzero values of the amplitude A of the
sinusoidal wave component. To determine the probability density function we have to integrate
the equation (7) over all possible values of y obtaining the marginal density,

 
 

The integral in the right hand side of equation (8) can be identified in terms of the defining
integral for the m modified Bessel function of the first kind of zero order that
is,                               

 Thus,x=Ar/s2,and we may rewrite the equation(8) as,

 
          

This relation is called the Rician distribution.when we simplifying,

 
                                
fV(v) =s fR (r)

Then we may express the Rician distribution of equation (10) in the normalized form

When a is zero, the rician distribution reduces to the ray Leigh distribution.

 
12. Explain the characteristics of superhetrodyne receivers?

      [Nov-04,05][April-04]

 In a broadcasting system, irrespective of whether it is based on AM or FM, the receiver

not only has the task of demodulating the incoming modulated signal, but it is also
required to perform some other system functions.

1.  Carrier – frequency tuning à to select desired signal

2.  Filtering – To separate the desired signal.

3.  Amplification à which is intended to compensate the loss of signal power during
transmission.

 The super heterodyne Receiver is a special type of receiver which is particularly used in
all radio and T.V receivers.
 The receiver consists of a RF section a mixer and local OSC, an intermediate – frequency
(IF) section, Demodulator and power amplifier.  and there is separate frequency ranges
available for AM and FM

                                                AM Radio                                           FM Radio

RF carrier range             0.535 – 1.605MHZ                                      88-108MHZ

Midband frequency of

IF section                       0.455MHz                                                    10.7MHz

IF B.W                                       10KHz                                                         200KHz

Antenna
 

If we take the Block diagram of a AM super heterodyne Receiver,

 

 The incoming amplitude modulated wave is picked by the receiving antenna and
amplified and tuned to the particular incoming carrier frequency by RF section.
 The combination of mixer and Local Oscillator provides a heterodyning function, where
by the incoming signal is converted into predetermine fixed intermediate frequency,
usually lower than the incoming carrier frequency.
 This frequency translation is achieved without disturbing the relation of the sidebands to
the carrier

 Therefore fIF = fLO– fRF

            FLO à Local oscillation frequency,

            FRF à Incoming carrier frequency from RF section.

 Normally the mixer – Local oscillation is called as first detector and Demodulator is the
2nd detector.
  This IF section provides best selectivity in the receiver and this will be detected by an
envelope detector and the message signal is amplified and given to Loud Speaker.
 The basic difference between AM and FM super heterodyne Receiver is in FM detectors
we are using amplitude limiters and frequency discriminator because in FM we are
making the amplitude as constant.  So any change in amplitude will be limited by
amplitude Limiter.  The other functions are same.

13. Write short notes on Signal to noise ratio.

SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio):

 Signal to noise ratio is nothing but signal power to the noise power.
 We know that in a communication system, the message signal travels from the transmitter
to the receiver through a medium called channel.
 Now, noise is present in every communication system, in fact the channel introduces an
additive noise in the message signal and thus the message which is received at the
receiver is distorted.  Since the receivers receives both the message and noise signal.
 And the o/p contains the noise by the reproduction of message signal with noise.
 So we are calculating the signal power and noise power.  And the noise calculation in
common system is carried out in the form of figure of merit (g).
 The figure of merit ‘g’ may be defined as the ratio of o/p signal to noise ratio to input
signal to noise ratio to input signal to noise ratio of the receiver.

If g à is high, noise will be low.

 
 

 For calculating figure of merit we are taking the following assumptions as

i. Channel noise is always Gaussian that is independent on frequency that is constant.

ii. Channel noise is always additive, that is addition of signal x(t) and noise n(t)

iii. The i/p to the Demodulator is a Band pass noise.

14. Explain the noise in DSB-SC receiver using synchronous or 

      Coherent detection?[April-04]

                                              (OR)

     Calculate the figure of merit g for a DSB-SC system?

 We know that the DSB-Sc system uses coherent (or) synchronous detection scheme at the
receiver and figure shows the block diagram of DSB-SC System from noise point of
view.  and then we calculate the figure of merit as

S0ào/p Signal power, N0 à o/p Noise power at detector

Siài/p signal power, Ni à i/p Noise power at detector

 We know that we are detecting our original signal by synchronous detection method,
where as it is multiplied with a local Oscillator frequency which is in same phase with the
DSB-Sc signal i/p carrier frequency.

 In order to calculate the figure of merit in noise analysis we have to calculate the i/p and
o/p signal power, i/p and o/p noise power.

i. Input Signal Power:

 W.k.T the modulated DSB – SC signal is S(t) = x(t) Cos wct

And the signal power is the mean square value of x (t)

Hence

             Si=mean square value of S (t)

                      (Neglecting higher frequency terms) 

ii. Input Noise power Ni:

 The noise at the input of the receiver is a Gaussian noise in nature and this noise is passed
through the Band Pass filter.

 Then the o/p of Band pass filter is converted as Band pass noise and the band pass noise
is given as,

And the input noise power is calculated as,

 
  Neglecting higher order terms and equating the inphase component and Quadrature
component.

iii. output signal power:

 W.k.T the DSB-SC signal at i/p is multiplied with synchronous carrier Coswct.  Thus the
signal at the multiplier output is

            So (t) = e (t) = x (t) Coswct. Coswct

The signal is passed through Low Pass Filter are higher order terms is reduced.

The o/p signal power is calculated by mean square values.

              S0 = mean square value of S0(t)

iv. Output noise power:

 Now we will find the o/p noise power from detector.

 The i/p noise from narrow band filter is narrow band noise is multiplied with locally
generated carrier.

The o/p noise n0(t) is

 
When this signal is passed through Low pass filter, the higher order frequencies are neglected,
then

 O/p noise power N0 will be

  N0 = mean square value of no (t)

15. Explain the noise in SSB-SC receiver using

      Coherent detection?

                                              (OR)

     Calculate the figure of merit g for a SSB-SC system?

Noise in SSB – SC system using coherent detection:

 W.k.T the receiver of an SSB-SC System is similar to that for DSB-Sc system using
coherent Detection.

The only difference between DSB – SC and SSB –Sc system is Bandwidth is reduced halfely
compare to DSB –SC system.

So the evaluation procedure of figure of merit is similar to that of the DSB –SC system.
 

S0ào/p Signal power, N0 à o/p Noise power at detector

Siài/p signal power, Ni à i/p Noise power at detector

i. Input signal power:

 W.k.T the incoming signal to the SSB-SC receiver may be expressed as

            S (t) SSB = x (t) Coswct ± xh (t) Sinwct

And xh (t) à Hilbert transform

 I.e. we know the o/p of SSB system is the single side band and carrier suppressed o/p i.e.
o/p is à Cos(wc –wm) t à this means the upper sideband is suppressed.

(Or)  o/p = Cos (wc+wm) t à this means lower side band is suppressed.

Therefore Cos (wc –wm) t = CoswmCoswct + SinwmSinwctà  1

                  Cos (wc +wm) t = CoswmCoswct - SinwmSinwctà  2

 When we are combining both the equations

S (t)SSB =CoswmCoswct ± SinwmSinwct

 

 (+) represents lower sideband, (-) indicates upper sideband.

i.e.  Sinwmt = Cos (wm – π/2)

       SinwCt = Cos (wCt – π/2)

 π/2 indicates the phase shift.

 So the general expression is

                  S (t) SSB = x (t) CoswCt ± xh (t) SinwCt

Where x (t) = Coswmt, xh (t) = Phase shift of Coswmt and (+) signal corresponds to LSB and (-)
corresponds to USB

The I/p signal power   Si = mean square value of S(t) 

 
I/p noise power Ni:

 The noise power is same as DSB-SC system.  So according to the o/p of Band pass filter,
the noise is represented as,

And the input noise power is calculated as,

 Neglecting higher order terms and equating the inphase component and Quadrature
component.

O/p signal power (S0):

 W.k.T the incoming SSB signal is multiplied by a synchronous local carrier Coswct.

There fore O/p will be

e (t) = S0 (t) =(x (t) Coswct ± xh (t) Sinwct).Coswct

e (t) = S0 (t) =x (t) Cos2wct ± xh (t) Sinwct.Coswct

 O/p noise power No:

  W.k.T the o/p noise power is calculated as same as DSB-SC.

The input band pass noise is multiplied with synchronous carrier signal Coswct.

Therefore the multiplied signal nd (t) = ni (t). Coswct

nd (t) = [nc (t) Coswct – nS (t) Sinwct].Coswct

nd (t) = n0 (t) =nc (t) Cos2wct – nS (t) Sinwct.Coswct

 There fore the figure of merit of SSB-SC is

 From the figure of merit value of DSB-SC and SSB-SC we may note that there is no
improvement because DSB-SC having better SNR but i/p noise power is twice that of
SSB.And SSB – having Less SNR compare to DSB – SC.

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UNIT=III  NOISE THEORY

1. Define noise.

            Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to interfere with proper
reception and reproduction of wanted signal.

2. Give the classification of noise.

            Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are External noise and internal noise.

External noise may be defined as that type of noise which is generated external to the
communication system. And it can be classified into

                        1. Atmospheric noise

                        2. Extraterrestrial noises

                        3. Man –made noises or industrial noises

Internal noise may be defined as that type of system which is generated internally or within the
communication system or receiver. it can be classified into 

                        1. Thermal noise

                        2. Shot noise

                        3. Transit time noise

                        4. Miscellaneous internal noise

3. What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their origin?

 The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and cosmic noise

            Solar noise is the electrical noise eminating from the sun.

            Cosmic noise is the noise received from the center part of our galaxy, other  

            Distant galaxies and other virtual point sources.

 

4. Define Atmospheric noise and industrial noise?

 Ø Atmospheric noise, which is also called static, is produced by lightning discharges in

thunderstorms and other natural electrical disturbances which occur in the atmosphere. 
 Ø The industrial noise or man-made noise is that type of noise which is produced by such
sources as automobiles and aircraft ignition, electrical motors, switch gears and leakage
from high voltage transmission lines and several other heavy electrical equipments. 

5. Define shot noise? [Nov-05, Apr-04]

 Ø Shot noises arises in active devices due to random behaviour of charge carriers. In
electron tubes, shot noise is generated due to random emission of electrons from
cathodes, whereas in semiconductor devices shot noise is generated due to random
diffusion of minority carriers or simply random generation and recombination of
electron-hole pairs. 

6. Define partition noise?

 Partition noise is generated in a circuit when a current has to divide between two or more
paths. This means that partition noise results from the random fluctuations in the division.

7. Define flicker noise (or) Low frequency noise.

 Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low audio frequencies.
Flicker noise is produced at low frequencies (below few KHz).This noise is also called as
flicker noise (1/f noise).

8. Define transit time of a transistor.

            Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electron to travel from emitter to the
collector.

9. Define Transit-Time noise or high frequency noise.

 It is generally observed in semiconductor devices, when transit-time of charge carriers

crossing a junction is comparable with time period of the signal. 
  Some charge carriers diffuse back to the source, this process gives rise to the input
admittance and it affects the conductance with increase in frequency. This conductance
produces transit time noise. 

10. Define Avalanche noise?

 The reverse bias characteristic of a diode shows a region where the reverse current
increases rapidly with a slight increase in magnitude of the reverse bias voltage. That is
voltage increase current also increases.
 This is because the holes and electrons in the depletion region gain sufficient energy from
reverse bias to ionize atoms by collision. This collision provides spikes in current in
avalanche region. This noise is called as avalanche noise.

11. Define Thermal noise?

 The thermal noise or white noise or Johnson noise is the random noise which is generated
in a resistor or the resistive component of complex impedance due to rapid and random
motion of the molecules, atoms and electrons.  

12. Write an expression for thermal noise generated in a resistor.

 The expression for maximum noise power output of a resistor may be given as

Where       K-Boltzmann’s constant=1.38x10-23Joule/deg.K

                  T-absolute temperature.

                   B-bandwidth of interest in Hz.

13. Explain White Noise.

 Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over a wide
frequency range. Such spectrum has all frequency components in equal portion, and is
therefore called white noise. The power spectral density of white noise is independent of
the operating frequency. 
  And it is also defined as noise in idealized form is known as white noise. This means that
in a communication system, the noise analysis is based on an idealized form of noise, is
white noise. 

14. Give the expression for noise voltage in a resistor.

            The mean –square value of thermal noise voltage is given by                                    Vn2 =
4 K T B R                                                                                

                        K – Boltz man constant

                        R – Resistance

                        T – Absolute temperature

                        B - Bandwidth

15. Define equivalent noise bandwidth of an ideal band pass system.

 Equivalent noise band width may be defined as the bandwidth of an ideal band pass
system which produces the same noise power as the actual system does.

16. Explain why thermal noise is also called as Johnson noise?

Thermal noise is also called as Johnson noise after the scientist J.B.Johnson who presented a
detailed investigation of it.

17. Define signal to noise ratio.

             Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the same point in a
system.

18. Define noise figure.

                                        S/ N at the input

             Nose figure F =

                                         S/ N at the output

 

S/N = Signal power / Noise Power

19. What is narrowband noise?

             The receiver of a communication system usually includes some provision for
preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a narrowband filter
whose bandwidth is large enough to pass modulated component of the received signal essentially
undistorted but not so large as to admit excessive noise through the receiver. The noise process
appearing at the output of such filter is called narrow band noise.

20. Give the representation of narrowband noise in terms of envelope 

       And phase components.

             Narrowband noise in terms of envelope and phase   components as                        

                  
The function r (t) and ψ (t) are called envelope and phase of n (t).

21. Define figure of merit?

 Ø The figure of merit’γ’may be defined as the ratio of o/p signal to noise ration to input
signal to noise ration of a receiver. 
 Ø 

22. What is the figure of merit of DSB-SC system?

 Ø The figure of merit of a DSB-SC system is 2. 

 
23. What is the figure of merit of SSB-SC system?

The figure of merit of an SSB-SC system is 1.

24. An amplifies operating over the frequency range from 18 to 20       MHz has a 10Kh
input resistor.  Calculate the RMS voltage at the input to this amplifier if the ambient
temperature is 27ºC.

Given data:-

R = 10 KΩ, K = 1.38X10-23J/K(Boltzman constant)

B.w – B = (18 – 20) that is (20 – 18) MHZ = 2MHz

T = 27ºC + 273 = 300ºK

The RMS voltage is given by the expression,

            √4RKTB = √4X10X103X1.38X10-23X2X106X300

             = √4X1.38X3X2X10-11 = 1.82X10-5V = 1.82µV.

25. Two resistors of 20kΩ and 50k are at room temperature of 15ºc       or 288k. For a given
B.w of 100KHz determine the thermal noise voltage generated by i).Each resistor, ii).The
two resistors in series, iii). The two resistors are in parallel.

1. thermal noise in First resistor

            Vn1 = √4KTBR1 = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X20X103.

            Vn1 = 5.6µV

            And in 2nd resistor

            Vn2 = √4KTBR2 = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X50X103

            Vn2 = 8.91µV.

ii. when two resistors in series

            Vnr = √4KTB (R1+R2)

                  = √4X1.38X10 -23X288X100X103X (20+50) X103.

                  = 10.55µV

iii. when two resistors are in parallel

            Vnr = √4KTB Rpar                       1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2  = (14 – 3) X 103

                  = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X14.3X103 = 4.7µV.

26. What is the signal-noise-ratio at the output of DSB-SC system 

      With coherent demodulation? [Nov-03]

27. Write the advantages of Super heterodyne receiver over TRF 

       Receivers?[April-04,Nov-04]

The super heterodyne receiver has the following advantages over TRF receivers.

1. Improved selectivity in terms of adjacent channels.

2. More uniform selectivity in terms of adjacent channels.
3. Improved receiver stability.
4. Higher gain per stage because IF amplifiers are operated at a lower frequency.
5. Uniform band width because of fixed intermediate frequency.

DESCRIPTIVE ANSWERS:

1. Define noise and write notes on shot noise?[Nov-04,05]

 “Noise” may be defined as an unwanted form of electrical signal or energy tends to

interface with the proper reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.
 For eg.  1.  In receivers several electrical disturbances produce noise and thus modifying
the required signal in an unwanted form.

             2. In TV Receivers noise may produce super imposed images.

                         3.  In pulse communication, noise may produce unwanted pulses or   

                              Cancel the required pulses.

Shot noise:

 Shot noises arises in active devices due to random behaviour of charge carriers.
 Eg. In electron tubes, shot noise generated due to the random emission of electrons from
cathodes.
 In semiconductor devices shot noise is generated due to the random diffusion of minority
carriers or simply random generation or recombination of electron- hole pairs.

 The current in electron devices (i.e. tubes or solid state device) flows in the form of
discrete pulses.
 Every time a charge carrier moves from one point to another (i.e. cathode to plate).  It
seems to be continuous but it is a discrete one.
 At lower voltages the electrons emitted by the cathode does not reach the anode, some
electrons remains inside the region between anode and cathode.  Hence this region is
called space charge region.
 When we take the value, i.e. total current i(t) it will be i(t)  = I0 + in(t)

            I0 à constant current is average or mean value of current i.e. current pulses at 

                     Every time.

            in(t) à Noise current .it fluctuates about the mean value I0.

This current in(t) is shot noise current and it is not visualized by normal instrument and it is
viewed by fast sweep oscilloscope.
  The fluctuation may be smoothened if the emission rate decreases because if emission
rate decreases the space charge is reduced and more electrons reach the plate properly.

Power density spectrum of shot Noise:

We know the shot noise current is given by i (t) = I0+in(t)

 And the function in(t) is the noise current and it is a random function. And this is a in
deterministic function. And we have to calculate the power density spectrum of this
indeterministic function.
 This noise is also approximated by using Gaussian process.
 We can treat the total diode current as the sum of current pulses and each pulse is formed
by the transit of an electron from the cathode, to the anode.
 The power density spectrum of statistically independent non-interacting random noise
current in(t) is expressed as

                                  Si(ω) = qI0

            q à Electronic charge, I0à Mean value of the current in amperes

That is leakage charge in current will be power spectral density of noise current.

 This power density spectrum is frequency independent.  This type of frequency

Independence is only up to a frequency range determined by the transit time of an
electron. Beyond this it is frequency dependent i.e. poles will vary.

 
0
 
 

 The transit time of an electron in a diode depends upon anode voltage V and may be
expressed as,
                   dà spacing between anode and the cathode

And the shot noise voltage is given by

The mean square noise component is proportional to the dc flowing and for most devices the
mean square, shot noise current is given by

Where Idc is the direct current in amperes,qe the magnitude of electron charge(=1.6x10-19C).and
Bn is the equivalent noise bandwidth in hertz.

2. Write short notes on Thermal noise. [Nov-04]

 Ø The thermal noise white noise or Johnson noise is the random noise which is generated
in a resistor or the resistive component due to random motion of electron (or) molecule
and atoms. 
 Ø The random noise voltage will not be a instant value; it will be a rms value. 
 Ø The noise power produced in a resistor is proportional to absolute temperature.  And
also the noise power is proportional to Band width over which the noise is measured. 
 The maximum power Pn is calculated as

                                   PnαT.B        (or)

                                  Pn=K.T.B

                                     Where K à Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 X 10-23J/k

                                               T à absolute temp

                                               B à Band width in Hz.

 If we are taking a resistive component, if we connect a d.c volt meter across any given
resistor at room temperature i.e. 270 C, then no voltage is displayed by a D.C volt meter.
 A very sensitive electronic component is used to display some reading.

                                                             (Thevenin’s equivalent Voltage model of

                                                                Noisy resister)

 

 Ø If we are taking a resistor R then the noise voltage is produced by the random moment
of electrons, within the resistor constituting a current.
 Ø When measuring over a long period of time, the as many electrons arrive at one end as
of other, if we are taking a random moment; the random voltage across the resistor is
measured at a temperature.

This random noise voltage is expressed in terms of rms value, rather than instantaneous value.

 According to maximum power transfer theorem, the power of noise voltage Vn to a load
Resistor RL = R, then

We know the noise power Pn = V2/(R+RL)                (P=V2/R)

            That is Pn = V2rms/(R+RL)

And W.k.T Vrms = Vm/√2 = Vn/√2

K à Boltzmann’s constant

R à Resistor

T à Temperature

B à Bandwidth B over which noise is being measured.

 Norton’s theorem may be used to find an equivalent current model of a noisy resistor.

If we take the current model of noisy’s resistor then

 
 

 By using G = 1/R the rms noise current In for current model of a noisy resistor is
expressed as

                                                    In2 = 4GKTB

Addition of noise due to several sources in series:

 Let us consider the thermal noise for sources R1,R2,R3 etc in series producing noise
voltage Vn1,Vn2,Vn3 etc then w.k.t the rms voltage of R will be  

Addition of noise due to several sources in parallel:

 Let us consider the thermal noise source is resistors R1,R2,R3 are connected in parallel
then the noise rms voltage will given by  

3. Write notes on Spectral densities

 Ø We know about the power spectral density of a noise wave form which will be a
random one and not able to predetermined. 
 That means the total average Power is equal to the product of power spectral density and
Bandwidth.
 If we are calculating the power spectral density of the noise current due to free electrons
is given by

 
 Where K à Boltzmann’s constant

            Α à average number of collision/second

            T à Temperature in degrees Kelvin.

            G à Conductance of the conducting medium.

 
  

 
  

 If we take the variation in power density then the Power density spectrum is frequency
Independent is almost constant in the frequency range.
 That is the range covers almost all the practical applications in communication systems. 
So for all practical purposes the Si(ω) is frequency Independent and constant.  So it is
represented as

                                                    Si (ω) = 2KTG

 So the contribution of any circuit is determined by the Bandwidth of the circuit.

Thermal noise has a power density spectrum which is constant at all frequencies
hence it is also referred to as white noise it is also referred to as Johnson noise after
the scientist J.B.Johnson who inversed this details.

4. Derive the expression for thermal noise using power spectrum     

    Density.

 For calculating the expression of noise power by using power spectral density we are
taking the voltage model and current model of the Resistor circuit.
 Here the resistance source is represented interms of Thevenin’s voltage source or
Norton’s current source.
 And we know that the noise voltage generated by a resistor is given as

            Vn(t) = in(t).R

 Now since the power density spectrum is a function of the square of voltage or current,
the relationship between the power density spectrum Si(ω) as Sv(ω) with in(t) and Vn(t) is
expressed as

Therefore Sv(ω) = R2Si(ω)

W.k.T Si (ω) = 2KTG            (ω /α à is constant)

            Sv (ω) = 2KTGR2

            Sv (ω) = 2KT (1/R)R2         (G=1/R)

            Sv (ω) = 2KTR

 W.k.T the total power “P” in terms of power spectral density spectrum S(ω) is given as

         à (Power and Psd relation formula by F.T)

And it is changed as is noise power in terms of power spectral density is given as

                    à For infinite Band width------ (1)

 If we are having a finite Bandwidth form (-∆f to ∆f)

Then Pn = Sv (ω).B

               = 2KTR. (2∆f)

             Pn = 4KTR∆f -------- (2)

Therefore noise voltage and power relationship is

            Pn α Vn2

Equation 1, 2, 3 are the noise power voltage using psd.

5. Calculate the thermal noise for a single noise source.

 Ø If we are having a single noise source then 

Due to that single source the output noise voltage Vno(t) is determined.

W.k.T   Vni (t) à input noise voltage,

            Sni (t) à input power spectral density

            Vno (t) à output noise voltage

            Sno (t) à output power spectral density

            H (ω) à transfer function.

  Relationship between input and output psd is

            Sno (ω) = |H (ω) |2 Sni (ω) d ω

 The output noise power P0 may be calculated by integrating output power spectral density
Sno(ω )

             Power is related to mean square value V2rms

            Therefore

Equation (1) and (2) is the single source noise power and voltage using power spectral density

6. Calculate the Thermal noise in RC circuits.

 Let us consider an RC Circuit, and let us obtain the equivalent Circuit of noiseless
Resistance, by considering a Thevenin’s model.

    
    

 So a noise source is connected in seriously to a Resistor. We know the power spectrum

density of an Resistor with input noise voltage is

            Sni (ω) = 2KTR.

 This input noise source is passed through the RC filter.  So if we are finding the transfer
function of RC filter it will be

If we take the conjugate then

 

Then the next step is the calculation of output power spectral density

            Sno (ω) = |H (ω) |2 Sni(ω )

            Sno (ω) = 1/ (1+ ω 2R2C2) x 2KTR ------- (1)

 For calculating output noise power from power spectral density, the next step is     

tan-10 = 0, tan-1 α = Π/2

And noise voltage interms of P0 is

P0 α V02 and V0 = √P0

There fore

If we calculate the thermal noise for multiple noise sources then the power spectrum density due
to several sources are

            Sy (ω) = Sy1 (ω) + Sy2 (ω) +……..+Syn (ω)

 
7. Write notes on White noise.

                   (OR)

     Explain about white noise.

 Noise in an idealized form is known as white noise.

 As we know that white light consists of all colour frequencies, in the same manner, white
noise contains all frequencies in equal amount. 
 The power density spectrum of a white noise is independent of frequency.  This means
that white noise consists of all the frequency components in equal amount.
 If we are taking that is specifying the Gaussian distribution in terms of white noise then it
is called as white Gaussian noise.
 The power spectral density of white noise is expressed as

            (Half the power for +ve frequencies, half the power 

                                          Will be for –ve frequencies)

 The dimensions of N0 are in watts per Hertz. The parameter N0 is usually referenced to
the input stage of the receiver of a communication system. It may be expressed as

                               N0=kTe

 Where k is the Boltzmann constant and Te is the Equivalent noise temperature of the
receiver.
 The equivalent noise temperature of a system is defined as the temperature at which
a noisy resistor has to maintained such that, by connecting the resistor to the input
of a noiseless version of the system, it produces some available noise power at the
output of the system as that produced by all the sources of noise in the actual
system.
 The important feature of the equivalent noise temperature is that it depends only on the
parameters of the system.
 Since the autocorrelation function is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral
density, it follows that for white noise

 
 

 That is auto correlation function of white noise consists of a delta function weighted by
the factor N0/2 and occurring at t=0, as in the figure. If the white noise W (t) is Gaussian
then two samples are statistically independent. In a sense, White Gaussian noise
represents the ultimate in “randomness”.
 White noise has infinite average power and as such, it is not physically realizable.
 The utility of a white noise process is parallel to that of an impulse function analysis of
linear systems. We may state therefore, that as long as the bandwidth of a noise process at
the input of a system is appreciably larger than that of the system itself, then we may
model the noise process as white noise.
 Ideal low pass filtered white noise
  Suppose that a white Gaussian noise w(t) of zero mean and power spectral density N0/2 is
applied to an ideal low pass filter of band width B and pass band magnitude response of
one. The power spectral density of the noise n(t) appearing at the filter output is therefore

                      

The auto correlation function of n(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral
density

The autocorrelation function is plotted.RN (t) has its maximum value of N0B at the origin and it
passes through zero at t = ± k/2B, Where k=1, 2, 3………

    
  
   
 

 
 

 Since the input noise w (t) is Gaussian, it follows that the band-limited noise n (t) at the
filter o/p is also Gaussian. Suppose now that n (t) is sampled at the rate of 2B times per
second. 
 The joint probability density function of a set of noise samples obtained in this way is
equal to the product of the individual probability density functions.

8. Write notes on Noise Equivalent Band Width.

With the help of equivalent Band width, the noise power can be specified at the output of linear
band pass system.

 Let us consider a linear band pass system; the system is excited by an input noise voltage
source Vni (t) producing an o/p Vno (t).Let H (ω) be the transfer function of linear band
pas system. The parameter | H (ω) |2, the square of the transfer function is plotted.

                                                                                                (Linear band pass system)

 In the above figure the negative half of the curve is symmetrical about the vertical axis
and hence the positive half of the plot | H (ω) |2 has beens shown.
 We know that the power spectrum density of noise voltage at the input and power
spectrum density at the output are related as
                                        Sno (ω) = Sni (ω).| H (ω) |2
                          
Sni (ω) à input power spectral density

                        Sno (ω) à output power spectral density

 The mean square value of output noise signal, that is o/p noise power P0 may be
evaluated simply by integrating Sn0(ω) over the band width under consideration, that is

For practical purpose, the input noise power spectrum density is taken as constant with
frequency. Let this constant value be denoted by ‘C’.

            Hence,    Sni (ω) =C

Thus the output noise power is given by

            And therefore                 

Area under the curve | H (ω) |2

 The ideal band pass system having the characteristics. The area under this ideal
rectangular characteristic is given by AxBN.
 Here A=| H (ω) |2

Equating the areas of the actual and ideal systems, we get

From above equation, the expression for equivalent noise bandwidth is given as

That is

              BN=Area under the | H (ω) |2 curve

                    Maximum value of the | H (ω) |2 curve

 
Then, the output noise power may be obtained as

Where C is the constant equal to the power spectrum density of noise voltage at the input of the
system.Hence, equivalent noise band width may be defined as follows:

“Equivalent noise bandwidth may be defined as the Bandwidth of an ideal band pass system
which produces some noise power as the actual system does”.

Likewise we can able to calculate the equivalent Bandwidth of Low pass filter.

Available power:

 The available power of any source may be defined as the maximum power which can be
drawn from the source.

9. Write short notes on signal-to-noise ratio?

The ratio of signal power to the associated noise power is defined as signal to noise ratio. In
other words, signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the
same point in the system.

It is represented as (S/N)

And

S =Power spectrum density of signal voltage

N   Power spectrum density of noise voltage

 In an ideal noiseless system the input S/N ratio and output S/N ratio are identical.  But for
a practical system there will be some noise included in the inside of the circuit.  So there
must be change in input and output S/N noise level.  In fact the comparison of S/N ratio
at the input and the output of any two port network gives the noise indication of that
network.

10. Define Narrow band noise and explain the representation of 

      Narrow Band Noise in terms of In-Phase and Quadrature 

      Components and envelope and phase components.[Nov-03]

 The receiver of a communication system usually includes some provision for

preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a narrow band
filter whose band width is just large enough to pass the modulated component of the
 received signal essentially undistorted but not so large as to admit excessive noise
through the receiver.
  The noise process appearing at the output of such a filter is called as Narrow band noise. 
And this noise is concentrated at mid frequencies such as ±fC.

 
  

 To analyze the effects of narrow band noise on the performance of a communication

system, we need a mathematical representation of it. Depending on the application of
interest, there are two specific representations of narrow band noise.
 The narrow band noise is represented in terms of a pair of components called the In-
phase and Quadrature components.
 The narrow band noise is defined in terms of two other components called the envelope
and phase.

Representation of Narrow Band noise in terms of In-phase and Quadrature components:

 Considering a narrow band noise n(t) of band width 2B centered on frequency fC .And we
may represent n(t) in the canonical(standard)form:

                       n (t) = nI (t) cos (2πfct) – nQ (t)sin(2πfct)

Where nI (t) à In-phase component

            nQ (t) à Quadrature component

Both nI (t) and nQ (t) are low pass signals. Except the mid band frequency fC,these two
components are fully representative of the narrow band noise n(t).Given the narrow band noise n
(t), we may extract its in-phase and Quadrature components by using low pass filters. It is
assumed that the two low pass filters used in this scheme are ideal, each having a band width
equal to B.

 The in-phase and Quadrature components having the following properties:

1. The in-phase component nI (t) and nQ (t) of narrow band noise n (t) have zero mean.

2.  If n (t) is Gaussian then nI (t) and nQ (t) are Gaussian

3.  If n (t) is stationary then nI (t) and nQ(t) are jointly stationary

4.  Both nI (t) and nQ (t) have same power spectral density, which is related to the 

     Power spectral density SN (f) of the narrow band noise n (t).

5.  nI (t) and nQ (t) having same variance as the narrow band noise n (t).

6.  The cross – spectral density of the nI (t) and nQ (t) is purely imaginary.

7.  If narrow band noise n (t) is Gaussian with Zero mean and a power spectrum 

     Density SN (t) is symmetric about the mid frequency fC, then the in-phase  

     Component nQ (t) are statistically impendent.

 For example if we consider a white Gaussian noise of zero mean and power spectral
density N0/2, which is passed through an ideal band pass filter of pass band magnitude
response equal to one, mid band frequency fC, and band width 2B.And to determine the
auto correlation function of n (t) and its in-phase and Quadrature components we are
taking the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral density. And finally the auto
correlation function of in-phase and Quadrature components are RNI(t)=RNQ
(t)=2N0Bsinc(2Bt)

Representation of Narrow Band noise in terms of Envelope and Phase components:

 We know that the Representation of a narrow band noise n (t) in terms of in-phase and
Quadrature components. We may also represent the noise n (t) in terms of its envelope
and phase components.

            n (t) = r (t) cos [2πfCt+y(t)]

Where

The function r(t) à envelope of n(t), y(t) à phase of n(t)

We may also represent that

            n (t) = nc (t) Coswct – nS (t) Sinwct

                      nc (t) à In phase

                      ns (t) à Quadrature Component.

The envelope r(t) and phase y(t) are both sample functions of low pass random processes. The
time interval between two successive peaks of the envelope r(t) is approximately 1/B,Where 2B
is the band width of the narrow band noise n(t).

 The probability distributions of r(t) and y(t) may be obtained from those of nI(t) and
nQ(t).Let NI and NQ denote the random variables obtained by observing the random
processes represented by the sample functions nI(t) and nQ(t) respectively. We note that
NI and NQ are independent Gaussian random variables of zero mean and  variance s2,and
so we may express their joint probability density function by

 Accordingly the probability of the joint event that NI lies between

      nI and nI+d nI and NQ lies between nQ and nQ+d nQ is given by,

    
    

 
 

By using the coordinate system representation of narrow band noise

In a limiting sense, we may equate the two incremental areas shown shaded in figure (a) and thus
we may write

 Now let R and y denote the random variables obtained by observing the random
processes represented by the envelope r (t) and phase y(t) respectively. Substituting the
equation (3),(4),(5) in equation(2),we find that the probability of the random variables R
and y lying jointly inside the shaded area of the figure(b) is equal to

 That is the joint probability density function of R and y is

 This probability density function is independent of the angle ,which means that the
random variables R,  are statistically independent. We may thus express fR, (r, ) as the
product of fR(r) and fy().In particular, the random variable  representing phase is
uniformly distributed inside the range 0 to 2p,as shown by
 

        This leaves the probability density function of the random variable R as

 Where s2 is the variance of the original narrow band noise n(t).A random variable having
the probability density function of equation(9) is said to be Rayleigh distribution. if we
represent in graphical representation then

                           fV(v) =s fR (r)

 Then we may rewrite the ray Leigh distribution of equation(9)in the normalized form

Unlike Gaussian distribution, ray Leigh distribution is zero for negative values of v.This is
because the envelope r(t) can assume only non negative values.

11. Explain about sine wave plus narrow band noise?       

 If we add the sinusoidal wave A Cos (2pfCt) to the narrow band noise n(t),where A and fC
both constsnts.We assume that the frequency of the sinusoidal wave is the same as the
nominal carrier frequency of the noise. A sample function of the sinusoidal wave plus
noise is then expressed by

                        x (t) = A Cos(2pfCt)+n(t)------(1)

Where A is the carrier amplitude.

 Representing  the narrow band noise n(t) in terms of its in-phase and Quadrature
components, we may write

 
 

We assume that n(t) is Gaussian with zero mean and variance s2.accordingly we may state the
following:

1. Both nI’(t) and nQ(t) are Gaussian and statistically independent.

2. The mean of nI’(t) is A and that nQ(t) is zero.
3. The variance of both nI’(t)and nQ(t) is s2.

 We may therefore express the joint probability density function of the random variables
NI’ and NQ,corresponding to nI’(t) and nQ(t),as follows:

 Let r(t)denote the envelope of x(t) andy(t) denote its phase. from equation(2) we thus find
that

 For the derivation of the ray Leigh distribution, we find that the joint probability density
function of the random variables R and y,corresponding to r(t) and  y(t) for some fixed
time t,is given by

Here R and y are dependent random variables for nonzero values of the amplitude A of the
sinusoidal wave component. To determine the probability density function we have to integrate
the equation (7) over all possible values of y obtaining the marginal density,

 
 

The integral in the right hand side of equation (8) can be identified in terms of the defining
integral for the m modified Bessel function of the first kind of zero order that
is,                               

 Thus,x=Ar/s2,and we may rewrite the equation(8) as,

 
          

This relation is called the Rician distribution.when we simplifying,

 
                                
fV(v) =s fR (r)

Then we may express the Rician distribution of equation (10) in the normalized form

When a is zero, the rician distribution reduces to the ray Leigh distribution.

 
12. Explain the characteristics of superhetrodyne receivers?

      [Nov-04,05][April-04]

 In a broadcasting system, irrespective of whether it is based on AM or FM, the receiver

not only has the task of demodulating the incoming modulated signal, but it is also
required to perform some other system functions.

1.  Carrier – frequency tuning à to select desired signal

2.  Filtering – To separate the desired signal.

3.  Amplification à which is intended to compensate the loss of signal power during
transmission.

 The super heterodyne Receiver is a special type of receiver which is particularly used in
all radio and T.V receivers.
 The receiver consists of a RF section a mixer and local OSC, an intermediate – frequency
(IF) section, Demodulator and power amplifier.  and there is separate frequency ranges
available for AM and FM

                                                AM Radio                                           FM Radio

RF carrier range             0.535 – 1.605MHZ                                      88-108MHZ

Midband frequency of

IF section                       0.455MHz                                                    10.7MHz

IF B.W                                       10KHz                                                         200KHz

Antenna
 

If we take the Block diagram of a AM super heterodyne Receiver,

 

 The incoming amplitude modulated wave is picked by the receiving antenna and
amplified and tuned to the particular incoming carrier frequency by RF section.
 The combination of mixer and Local Oscillator provides a heterodyning function, where
by the incoming signal is converted into predetermine fixed intermediate frequency,
usually lower than the incoming carrier frequency.
 This frequency translation is achieved without disturbing the relation of the sidebands to
the carrier

 Therefore fIF = fLO– fRF

            FLO à Local oscillation frequency,

            FRF à Incoming carrier frequency from RF section.

 Normally the mixer – Local oscillation is called as first detector and Demodulator is the
2nd detector.
  This IF section provides best selectivity in the receiver and this will be detected by an
envelope detector and the message signal is amplified and given to Loud Speaker.
 The basic difference between AM and FM super heterodyne Receiver is in FM detectors
we are using amplitude limiters and frequency discriminator because in FM we are
making the amplitude as constant.  So any change in amplitude will be limited by
amplitude Limiter.  The other functions are same.

13. Write short notes on Signal to noise ratio.

SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio):

 Signal to noise ratio is nothing but signal power to the noise power.
 We know that in a communication system, the message signal travels from the transmitter
to the receiver through a medium called channel.
 Now, noise is present in every communication system, in fact the channel introduces an
additive noise in the message signal and thus the message which is received at the
receiver is distorted.  Since the receivers receives both the message and noise signal.
 And the o/p contains the noise by the reproduction of message signal with noise.
 So we are calculating the signal power and noise power.  And the noise calculation in
common system is carried out in the form of figure of merit (g).
 The figure of merit ‘g’ may be defined as the ratio of o/p signal to noise ratio to input
signal to noise ratio to input signal to noise ratio of the receiver.

If g à is high, noise will be low.

 
 

 For calculating figure of merit we are taking the following assumptions as

i. Channel noise is always Gaussian that is independent on frequency that is constant.

ii. Channel noise is always additive, that is addition of signal x(t) and noise n(t)

iii. The i/p to the Demodulator is a Band pass noise.

14. Explain the noise in DSB-SC receiver using synchronous or 

      Coherent detection?[April-04]

                                              (OR)

     Calculate the figure of merit g for a DSB-SC system?

 We know that the DSB-Sc system uses coherent (or) synchronous detection scheme at the
receiver and figure shows the block diagram of DSB-SC System from noise point of
view.  and then we calculate the figure of merit as

S0ào/p Signal power, N0 à o/p Noise power at detector

Siài/p signal power, Ni à i/p Noise power at detector

 We know that we are detecting our original signal by synchronous detection method,
where as it is multiplied with a local Oscillator frequency which is in same phase with the
DSB-Sc signal i/p carrier frequency.

 In order to calculate the figure of merit in noise analysis we have to calculate the i/p and
o/p signal power, i/p and o/p noise power.

i. Input Signal Power:

 W.k.T the modulated DSB – SC signal is S(t) = x(t) Cos wct

And the signal power is the mean square value of x (t)

Hence

             Si=mean square value of S (t)

                      (Neglecting higher frequency terms) 

ii. Input Noise power Ni:

 The noise at the input of the receiver is a Gaussian noise in nature and this noise is passed
through the Band Pass filter.

 Then the o/p of Band pass filter is converted as Band pass noise and the band pass noise
is given as,

And the input noise power is calculated as,

 
  Neglecting higher order terms and equating the inphase component and Quadrature
component.

iii. output signal power:

 W.k.T the DSB-SC signal at i/p is multiplied with synchronous carrier Coswct.  Thus the
signal at the multiplier output is

            So (t) = e (t) = x (t) Coswct. Coswct

The signal is passed through Low Pass Filter are higher order terms is reduced.

The o/p signal power is calculated by mean square values.

              S0 = mean square value of S0(t)

iv. Output noise power:

 Now we will find the o/p noise power from detector.

 The i/p noise from narrow band filter is narrow band noise is multiplied with locally
generated carrier.

The o/p noise n0(t) is

 
When this signal is passed through Low pass filter, the higher order frequencies are neglected,
then

 O/p noise power N0 will be

  N0 = mean square value of no (t)

15. Explain the noise in SSB-SC receiver using

      Coherent detection?

                                              (OR)

     Calculate the figure of merit g for a SSB-SC system?

Noise in SSB – SC system using coherent detection:

 W.k.T the receiver of an SSB-SC System is similar to that for DSB-Sc system using
coherent Detection.

The only difference between DSB – SC and SSB –Sc system is Bandwidth is reduced halfely
compare to DSB –SC system.

So the evaluation procedure of figure of merit is similar to that of the DSB –SC system.
 

S0ào/p Signal power, N0 à o/p Noise power at detector

Siài/p signal power, Ni à i/p Noise power at detector

i. Input signal power:

 W.k.T the incoming signal to the SSB-SC receiver may be expressed as

            S (t) SSB = x (t) Coswct ± xh (t) Sinwct

And xh (t) à Hilbert transform

 I.e. we know the o/p of SSB system is the single side band and carrier suppressed o/p i.e.
o/p is à Cos(wc –wm) t à this means the upper sideband is suppressed.

(Or)  o/p = Cos (wc+wm) t à this means lower side band is suppressed.

Therefore Cos (wc –wm) t = CoswmCoswct + SinwmSinwctà  1

                  Cos (wc +wm) t = CoswmCoswct - SinwmSinwctà  2

 When we are combining both the equations

S (t)SSB =CoswmCoswct ± SinwmSinwct

 

 (+) represents lower sideband, (-) indicates upper sideband.

i.e.  Sinwmt = Cos (wm – π/2)

       SinwCt = Cos (wCt – π/2)

 π/2 indicates the phase shift.

 So the general expression is

                  S (t) SSB = x (t) CoswCt ± xh (t) SinwCt

Where x (t) = Coswmt, xh (t) = Phase shift of Coswmt and (+) signal corresponds to LSB and (-)
corresponds to USB

The I/p signal power   Si = mean square value of S(t) 

 
I/p noise power Ni:

 The noise power is same as DSB-SC system.  So according to the o/p of Band pass filter,
the noise is represented as,

And the input noise power is calculated as,

 Neglecting higher order terms and equating the inphase component and Quadrature
component.

O/p signal power (S0):

 W.k.T the incoming SSB signal is multiplied by a synchronous local carrier Coswct.

There fore O/p will be

e (t) = S0 (t) =(x (t) Coswct ± xh (t) Sinwct).Coswct

e (t) = S0 (t) =x (t) Cos2wct ± xh (t) Sinwct.Coswct

 O/p noise power No:

  W.k.T the o/p noise power is calculated as same as DSB-SC.

The input band pass noise is multiplied with synchronous carrier signal Coswct.

Therefore the multiplied signal nd (t) = ni (t). Coswct

nd (t) = [nc (t) Coswct – nS (t) Sinwct].Coswct

nd (t) = n0 (t) =nc (t) Cos2wct – nS (t) Sinwct.Coswct

 There fore the figure of merit of SSB-SC is

 From the figure of merit value of DSB-SC and SSB-SC we may note that there is no
improvement because DSB-SC having better SNR but i/p noise power is twice that of
SSB.And SSB – having Less SNR compare to DSB – SC.

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UNIT=III  NOISE THEORY

1. Define noise.

            Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to interfere with proper
reception and reproduction of wanted signal.

2. Give the classification of noise.

            Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are External noise and internal noise.

External noise may be defined as that type of noise which is generated external to the
communication system. And it can be classified into

                        1. Atmospheric noise

                        2. Extraterrestrial noises

                        3. Man –made noises or industrial noises

Internal noise may be defined as that type of system which is generated internally or within the
communication system or receiver. it can be classified into 

                        1. Thermal noise

                        2. Shot noise

                        3. Transit time noise

                        4. Miscellaneous internal noise

3. What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their origin?

 The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and cosmic noise

            Solar noise is the electrical noise eminating from the sun.

            Cosmic noise is the noise received from the center part of our galaxy, other  

            Distant galaxies and other virtual point sources.

 

4. Define Atmospheric noise and industrial noise?

 Ø Atmospheric noise, which is also called static, is produced by lightning discharges in

thunderstorms and other natural electrical disturbances which occur in the atmosphere. 
 Ø The industrial noise or man-made noise is that type of noise which is produced by such
sources as automobiles and aircraft ignition, electrical motors, switch gears and leakage
from high voltage transmission lines and several other heavy electrical equipments. 

5. Define shot noise? [Nov-05, Apr-04]

 Ø Shot noises arises in active devices due to random behaviour of charge carriers. In
electron tubes, shot noise is generated due to random emission of electrons from
cathodes, whereas in semiconductor devices shot noise is generated due to random
diffusion of minority carriers or simply random generation and recombination of
electron-hole pairs. 

6. Define partition noise?

 Partition noise is generated in a circuit when a current has to divide between two or more
paths. This means that partition noise results from the random fluctuations in the division.

7. Define flicker noise (or) Low frequency noise.

 Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low audio frequencies.
Flicker noise is produced at low frequencies (below few KHz).This noise is also called as
flicker noise (1/f noise).

8. Define transit time of a transistor.

            Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electron to travel from emitter to the
collector.

9. Define Transit-Time noise or high frequency noise.

 It is generally observed in semiconductor devices, when transit-time of charge carriers

crossing a junction is comparable with time period of the signal. 
  Some charge carriers diffuse back to the source, this process gives rise to the input
admittance and it affects the conductance with increase in frequency. This conductance
produces transit time noise. 

10. Define Avalanche noise?

 The reverse bias characteristic of a diode shows a region where the reverse current
increases rapidly with a slight increase in magnitude of the reverse bias voltage. That is
voltage increase current also increases.
 This is because the holes and electrons in the depletion region gain sufficient energy from
reverse bias to ionize atoms by collision. This collision provides spikes in current in
avalanche region. This noise is called as avalanche noise.

11. Define Thermal noise?

 The thermal noise or white noise or Johnson noise is the random noise which is generated
in a resistor or the resistive component of complex impedance due to rapid and random
motion of the molecules, atoms and electrons.  

12. Write an expression for thermal noise generated in a resistor.

 The expression for maximum noise power output of a resistor may be given as

Where       K-Boltzmann’s constant=1.38x10-23Joule/deg.K

                  T-absolute temperature.

                   B-bandwidth of interest in Hz.

13. Explain White Noise.

 Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over a wide
frequency range. Such spectrum has all frequency components in equal portion, and is
therefore called white noise. The power spectral density of white noise is independent of
the operating frequency. 
  And it is also defined as noise in idealized form is known as white noise. This means that
in a communication system, the noise analysis is based on an idealized form of noise, is
white noise. 

14. Give the expression for noise voltage in a resistor.

            The mean –square value of thermal noise voltage is given by                                    Vn2 =
4 K T B R                                                                                

                        K – Boltz man constant

                        R – Resistance

                        T – Absolute temperature

                        B - Bandwidth

15. Define equivalent noise bandwidth of an ideal band pass system.

 Equivalent noise band width may be defined as the bandwidth of an ideal band pass
system which produces the same noise power as the actual system does.

16. Explain why thermal noise is also called as Johnson noise?

Thermal noise is also called as Johnson noise after the scientist J.B.Johnson who presented a
detailed investigation of it.

17. Define signal to noise ratio.

             Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the same point in a
system.

18. Define noise figure.

                                        S/ N at the input

             Nose figure F =

                                         S/ N at the output

 

S/N = Signal power / Noise Power

19. What is narrowband noise?

             The receiver of a communication system usually includes some provision for
preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a narrowband filter
whose bandwidth is large enough to pass modulated component of the received signal essentially
undistorted but not so large as to admit excessive noise through the receiver. The noise process
appearing at the output of such filter is called narrow band noise.

20. Give the representation of narrowband noise in terms of envelope 

       And phase components.

             Narrowband noise in terms of envelope and phase   components as                        

                  
The function r (t) and ψ (t) are called envelope and phase of n (t).

21. Define figure of merit?

 Ø The figure of merit’γ’may be defined as the ratio of o/p signal to noise ration to input
signal to noise ration of a receiver. 
 Ø 

22. What is the figure of merit of DSB-SC system?

 Ø The figure of merit of a DSB-SC system is 2. 

 
23. What is the figure of merit of SSB-SC system?

The figure of merit of an SSB-SC system is 1.

24. An amplifies operating over the frequency range from 18 to 20       MHz has a 10Kh
input resistor.  Calculate the RMS voltage at the input to this amplifier if the ambient
temperature is 27ºC.

Given data:-

R = 10 KΩ, K = 1.38X10-23J/K(Boltzman constant)

B.w – B = (18 – 20) that is (20 – 18) MHZ = 2MHz

T = 27ºC + 273 = 300ºK

The RMS voltage is given by the expression,

            √4RKTB = √4X10X103X1.38X10-23X2X106X300

             = √4X1.38X3X2X10-11 = 1.82X10-5V = 1.82µV.

25. Two resistors of 20kΩ and 50k are at room temperature of 15ºc       or 288k. For a given
B.w of 100KHz determine the thermal noise voltage generated by i).Each resistor, ii).The
two resistors in series, iii). The two resistors are in parallel.

1. thermal noise in First resistor

            Vn1 = √4KTBR1 = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X20X103.

            Vn1 = 5.6µV

            And in 2nd resistor

            Vn2 = √4KTBR2 = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X50X103

            Vn2 = 8.91µV.

ii. when two resistors in series

            Vnr = √4KTB (R1+R2)

                  = √4X1.38X10 -23X288X100X103X (20+50) X103.

                  = 10.55µV

iii. when two resistors are in parallel

            Vnr = √4KTB Rpar                       1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2  = (14 – 3) X 103

                  = √4X1.38X10-23X288X100X103X14.3X103 = 4.7µV.

26. What is the signal-noise-ratio at the output of DSB-SC system 

      With coherent demodulation? [Nov-03]

27. Write the advantages of Super heterodyne receiver over TRF 

       Receivers?[April-04,Nov-04]

The super heterodyne receiver has the following advantages over TRF receivers.

1. Improved selectivity in terms of adjacent channels.

2. More uniform selectivity in terms of adjacent channels.
3. Improved receiver stability.
4. Higher gain per stage because IF amplifiers are operated at a lower frequency.
5. Uniform band width because of fixed intermediate frequency.

DESCRIPTIVE ANSWERS:

1. Define noise and write notes on shot noise?[Nov-04,05]

 “Noise” may be defined as an unwanted form of electrical signal or energy tends to

interface with the proper reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.
 For eg.  1.  In receivers several electrical disturbances produce noise and thus modifying
the required signal in an unwanted form.

             2. In TV Receivers noise may produce super imposed images.

                         3.  In pulse communication, noise may produce unwanted pulses or   

                              Cancel the required pulses.

Shot noise:

 Shot noises arises in active devices due to random behaviour of charge carriers.
 Eg. In electron tubes, shot noise generated due to the random emission of electrons from
cathodes.
 In semiconductor devices shot noise is generated due to the random diffusion of minority
carriers or simply random generation or recombination of electron- hole pairs.

 The current in electron devices (i.e. tubes or solid state device) flows in the form of
discrete pulses.
 Every time a charge carrier moves from one point to another (i.e. cathode to plate).  It
seems to be continuous but it is a discrete one.
 At lower voltages the electrons emitted by the cathode does not reach the anode, some
electrons remains inside the region between anode and cathode.  Hence this region is
called space charge region.
 When we take the value, i.e. total current i(t) it will be i(t)  = I0 + in(t)

            I0 à constant current is average or mean value of current i.e. current pulses at 

                     Every time.

            in(t) à Noise current .it fluctuates about the mean value I0.

This current in(t) is shot noise current and it is not visualized by normal instrument and it is
viewed by fast sweep oscilloscope.
  The fluctuation may be smoothened if the emission rate decreases because if emission
rate decreases the space charge is reduced and more electrons reach the plate properly.

Power density spectrum of shot Noise:

We know the shot noise current is given by i (t) = I0+in(t)

 And the function in(t) is the noise current and it is a random function. And this is a in
deterministic function. And we have to calculate the power density spectrum of this
indeterministic function.
 This noise is also approximated by using Gaussian process.
 We can treat the total diode current as the sum of current pulses and each pulse is formed
by the transit of an electron from the cathode, to the anode.
 The power density spectrum of statistically independent non-interacting random noise
current in(t) is expressed as

                                  Si(ω) = qI0

            q à Electronic charge, I0à Mean value of the current in amperes

That is leakage charge in current will be power spectral density of noise current.

 This power density spectrum is frequency independent.  This type of frequency

Independence is only up to a frequency range determined by the transit time of an
electron. Beyond this it is frequency dependent i.e. poles will vary.

 
0
 
 

 The transit time of an electron in a diode depends upon anode voltage V and may be
expressed as,
                   dà spacing between anode and the cathode

And the shot noise voltage is given by

The mean square noise component is proportional to the dc flowing and for most devices the
mean square, shot noise current is given by

Where Idc is the direct current in amperes,qe the magnitude of electron charge(=1.6x10-19C).and
Bn is the equivalent noise bandwidth in hertz.

2. Write short notes on Thermal noise. [Nov-04]

 Ø The thermal noise white noise or Johnson noise is the random noise which is generated
in a resistor or the resistive component due to random motion of electron (or) molecule
and atoms. 
 Ø The random noise voltage will not be a instant value; it will be a rms value. 
 Ø The noise power produced in a resistor is proportional to absolute temperature.  And
also the noise power is proportional to Band width over which the noise is measured. 
 The maximum power Pn is calculated as

                                   PnαT.B        (or)

                                  Pn=K.T.B

                                     Where K à Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 X 10-23J/k

                                               T à absolute temp

                                               B à Band width in Hz.

 If we are taking a resistive component, if we connect a d.c volt meter across any given
resistor at room temperature i.e. 270 C, then no voltage is displayed by a D.C volt meter.
 A very sensitive electronic component is used to display some reading.

                                                             (Thevenin’s equivalent Voltage model of

                                                                Noisy resister)

 

 Ø If we are taking a resistor R then the noise voltage is produced by the random moment
of electrons, within the resistor constituting a current.
 Ø When measuring over a long period of time, the as many electrons arrive at one end as
of other, if we are taking a random moment; the random voltage across the resistor is
measured at a temperature.

This random noise voltage is expressed in terms of rms value, rather than instantaneous value.

 According to maximum power transfer theorem, the power of noise voltage Vn to a load
Resistor RL = R, then

We know the noise power Pn = V2/(R+RL)                (P=V2/R)

            That is Pn = V2rms/(R+RL)

And W.k.T Vrms = Vm/√2 = Vn/√2

K à Boltzmann’s constant

R à Resistor

T à Temperature

B à Bandwidth B over which noise is being measured.

 Norton’s theorem may be used to find an equivalent current model of a noisy resistor.

If we take the current model of noisy’s resistor then

 
 

 By using G = 1/R the rms noise current In for current model of a noisy resistor is
expressed as

                                                    In2 = 4GKTB

Addition of noise due to several sources in series:

 Let us consider the thermal noise for sources R1,R2,R3 etc in series producing noise
voltage Vn1,Vn2,Vn3 etc then w.k.t the rms voltage of R will be  

Addition of noise due to several sources in parallel:

 Let us consider the thermal noise source is resistors R1,R2,R3 are connected in parallel
then the noise rms voltage will given by  

3. Write notes on Spectral densities

 Ø We know about the power spectral density of a noise wave form which will be a
random one and not able to predetermined. 
 That means the total average Power is equal to the product of power spectral density and
Bandwidth.
 If we are calculating the power spectral density of the noise current due to free electrons
is given by

 
 Where K à Boltzmann’s constant

            Α à average number of collision/second

            T à Temperature in degrees Kelvin.

            G à Conductance of the conducting medium.

 
  

 
  

 If we take the variation in power density then the Power density spectrum is frequency
Independent is almost constant in the frequency range.
 That is the range covers almost all the practical applications in communication systems. 
So for all practical purposes the Si(ω) is frequency Independent and constant.  So it is
represented as

                                                    Si (ω) = 2KTG

 So the contribution of any circuit is determined by the Bandwidth of the circuit.

Thermal noise has a power density spectrum which is constant at all frequencies
hence it is also referred to as white noise it is also referred to as Johnson noise after
the scientist J.B.Johnson who inversed this details.

4. Derive the expression for thermal noise using power spectrum     

    Density.

 For calculating the expression of noise power by using power spectral density we are
taking the voltage model and current model of the Resistor circuit.
 Here the resistance source is represented interms of Thevenin’s voltage source or
Norton’s current source.
 And we know that the noise voltage generated by a resistor is given as

            Vn(t) = in(t).R

 Now since the power density spectrum is a function of the square of voltage or current,
the relationship between the power density spectrum Si(ω) as Sv(ω) with in(t) and Vn(t) is
expressed as

Therefore Sv(ω) = R2Si(ω)

W.k.T Si (ω) = 2KTG            (ω /α à is constant)

            Sv (ω) = 2KTGR2

            Sv (ω) = 2KT (1/R)R2         (G=1/R)

            Sv (ω) = 2KTR

 W.k.T the total power “P” in terms of power spectral density spectrum S(ω) is given as

         à (Power and Psd relation formula by F.T)

And it is changed as is noise power in terms of power spectral density is given as

                    à For infinite Band width------ (1)

 If we are having a finite Bandwidth form (-∆f to ∆f)

Then Pn = Sv (ω).B

               = 2KTR. (2∆f)

             Pn = 4KTR∆f -------- (2)

Therefore noise voltage and power relationship is

            Pn α Vn2

Equation 1, 2, 3 are the noise power voltage using psd.

5. Calculate the thermal noise for a single noise source.

 Ø If we are having a single noise source then 

Due to that single source the output noise voltage Vno(t) is determined.

W.k.T   Vni (t) à input noise voltage,

            Sni (t) à input power spectral density

            Vno (t) à output noise voltage

            Sno (t) à output power spectral density

            H (ω) à transfer function.

  Relationship between input and output psd is

            Sno (ω) = |H (ω) |2 Sni (ω) d ω

 The output noise power P0 may be calculated by integrating output power spectral density
Sno(ω )

             Power is related to mean square value V2rms

            Therefore

Equation (1) and (2) is the single source noise power and voltage using power spectral density

6. Calculate the Thermal noise in RC circuits.

 Let us consider an RC Circuit, and let us obtain the equivalent Circuit of noiseless
Resistance, by considering a Thevenin’s model.

    
    

 So a noise source is connected in seriously to a Resistor. We know the power spectrum

density of an Resistor with input noise voltage is

            Sni (ω) = 2KTR.

 This input noise source is passed through the RC filter.  So if we are finding the transfer
function of RC filter it will be

If we take the conjugate then

 

Then the next step is the calculation of output power spectral density

            Sno (ω) = |H (ω) |2 Sni(ω )

            Sno (ω) = 1/ (1+ ω 2R2C2) x 2KTR ------- (1)

 For calculating output noise power from power spectral density, the next step is     

tan-10 = 0, tan-1 α = Π/2

And noise voltage interms of P0 is

P0 α V02 and V0 = √P0

There fore

If we calculate the thermal noise for multiple noise sources then the power spectrum density due
to several sources are

            Sy (ω) = Sy1 (ω) + Sy2 (ω) +……..+Syn (ω)

 
7. Write notes on White noise.

                   (OR)

     Explain about white noise.

 Noise in an idealized form is known as white noise.

 As we know that white light consists of all colour frequencies, in the same manner, white
noise contains all frequencies in equal amount. 
 The power density spectrum of a white noise is independent of frequency.  This means
that white noise consists of all the frequency components in equal amount.
 If we are taking that is specifying the Gaussian distribution in terms of white noise then it
is called as white Gaussian noise.
 The power spectral density of white noise is expressed as

            (Half the power for +ve frequencies, half the power 

                                          Will be for –ve frequencies)

 The dimensions of N0 are in watts per Hertz. The parameter N0 is usually referenced to
the input stage of the receiver of a communication system. It may be expressed as

                               N0=kTe

 Where k is the Boltzmann constant and Te is the Equivalent noise temperature of the
receiver.
 The equivalent noise temperature of a system is defined as the temperature at which
a noisy resistor has to maintained such that, by connecting the resistor to the input
of a noiseless version of the system, it produces some available noise power at the
output of the system as that produced by all the sources of noise in the actual
system.
 The important feature of the equivalent noise temperature is that it depends only on the
parameters of the system.
 Since the autocorrelation function is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral
density, it follows that for white noise

 
 

 That is auto correlation function of white noise consists of a delta function weighted by
the factor N0/2 and occurring at t=0, as in the figure. If the white noise W (t) is Gaussian
then two samples are statistically independent. In a sense, White Gaussian noise
represents the ultimate in “randomness”.
 White noise has infinite average power and as such, it is not physically realizable.
 The utility of a white noise process is parallel to that of an impulse function analysis of
linear systems. We may state therefore, that as long as the bandwidth of a noise process at
the input of a system is appreciably larger than that of the system itself, then we may
model the noise process as white noise.
 Ideal low pass filtered white noise
  Suppose that a white Gaussian noise w(t) of zero mean and power spectral density N0/2 is
applied to an ideal low pass filter of band width B and pass band magnitude response of
one. The power spectral density of the noise n(t) appearing at the filter output is therefore

                      

The auto correlation function of n(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral
density

The autocorrelation function is plotted.RN (t) has its maximum value of N0B at the origin and it
passes through zero at t = ± k/2B, Where k=1, 2, 3………

    
  
   
 

 
 

 Since the input noise w (t) is Gaussian, it follows that the band-limited noise n (t) at the
filter o/p is also Gaussian. Suppose now that n (t) is sampled at the rate of 2B times per
second. 
 The joint probability density function of a set of noise samples obtained in this way is
equal to the product of the individual probability density functions.

8. Write notes on Noise Equivalent Band Width.

With the help of equivalent Band width, the noise power can be specified at the output of linear
band pass system.

 Let us consider a linear band pass system; the system is excited by an input noise voltage
source Vni (t) producing an o/p Vno (t).Let H (ω) be the transfer function of linear band
pas system. The parameter | H (ω) |2, the square of the transfer function is plotted.

                                                                                                (Linear band pass system)

 In the above figure the negative half of the curve is symmetrical about the vertical axis
and hence the positive half of the plot | H (ω) |2 has beens shown.
 We know that the power spectrum density of noise voltage at the input and power
spectrum density at the output are related as
                                        Sno (ω) = Sni (ω).| H (ω) |2
                          
Sni (ω) à input power spectral density

                        Sno (ω) à output power spectral density

 The mean square value of output noise signal, that is o/p noise power P0 may be
evaluated simply by integrating Sn0(ω) over the band width under consideration, that is

For practical purpose, the input noise power spectrum density is taken as constant with
frequency. Let this constant value be denoted by ‘C’.

            Hence,    Sni (ω) =C

Thus the output noise power is given by

            And therefore                 

Area under the curve | H (ω) |2

 The ideal band pass system having the characteristics. The area under this ideal
rectangular characteristic is given by AxBN.
 Here A=| H (ω) |2

Equating the areas of the actual and ideal systems, we get

From above equation, the expression for equivalent noise bandwidth is given as

That is

              BN=Area under the | H (ω) |2 curve

                    Maximum value of the | H (ω) |2 curve

 
Then, the output noise power may be obtained as

Where C is the constant equal to the power spectrum density of noise voltage at the input of the
system.Hence, equivalent noise band width may be defined as follows:

“Equivalent noise bandwidth may be defined as the Bandwidth of an ideal band pass system
which produces some noise power as the actual system does”.

Likewise we can able to calculate the equivalent Bandwidth of Low pass filter.

Available power:

 The available power of any source may be defined as the maximum power which can be
drawn from the source.

9. Write short notes on signal-to-noise ratio?

The ratio of signal power to the associated noise power is defined as signal to noise ratio. In
other words, signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the
same point in the system.

It is represented as (S/N)

And

S =Power spectrum density of signal voltage

N   Power spectrum density of noise voltage

 In an ideal noiseless system the input S/N ratio and output S/N ratio are identical.  But for
a practical system there will be some noise included in the inside of the circuit.  So there
must be change in input and output S/N noise level.  In fact the comparison of S/N ratio
at the input and the output of any two port network gives the noise indication of that
network.

10. Define Narrow band noise and explain the representation of 

      Narrow Band Noise in terms of In-Phase and Quadrature 

      Components and envelope and phase components.[Nov-03]

 The receiver of a communication system usually includes some provision for

preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a narrow band
filter whose band width is just large enough to pass the modulated component of the
 received signal essentially undistorted but not so large as to admit excessive noise
through the receiver.
  The noise process appearing at the output of such a filter is called as Narrow band noise. 
And this noise is concentrated at mid frequencies such as ±fC.

 
  

 To analyze the effects of narrow band noise on the performance of a communication

system, we need a mathematical representation of it. Depending on the application of
interest, there are two specific representations of narrow band noise.
 The narrow band noise is represented in terms of a pair of components called the In-
phase and Quadrature components.
 The narrow band noise is defined in terms of two other components called the envelope
and phase.

Representation of Narrow Band noise in terms of In-phase and Quadrature components:

 Considering a narrow band noise n(t) of band width 2B centered on frequency fC .And we
may represent n(t) in the canonical(standard)form:

                       n (t) = nI (t) cos (2πfct) – nQ (t)sin(2πfct)

Where nI (t) à In-phase component

            nQ (t) à Quadrature component

Both nI (t) and nQ (t) are low pass signals. Except the mid band frequency fC,these two
components are fully representative of the narrow band noise n(t).Given the narrow band noise n
(t), we may extract its in-phase and Quadrature components by using low pass filters. It is
assumed that the two low pass filters used in this scheme are ideal, each having a band width
equal to B.

 The in-phase and Quadrature components having the following properties:

1. The in-phase component nI (t) and nQ (t) of narrow band noise n (t) have zero mean.

2.  If n (t) is Gaussian then nI (t) and nQ (t) are Gaussian

3.  If n (t) is stationary then nI (t) and nQ(t) are jointly stationary

4.  Both nI (t) and nQ (t) have same power spectral density, which is related to the 

     Power spectral density SN (f) of the narrow band noise n (t).

5.  nI (t) and nQ (t) having same variance as the narrow band noise n (t).

6.  The cross – spectral density of the nI (t) and nQ (t) is purely imaginary.

7.  If narrow band noise n (t) is Gaussian with Zero mean and a power spectrum 

     Density SN (t) is symmetric about the mid frequency fC, then the in-phase  

     Component nQ (t) are statistically impendent.

 For example if we consider a white Gaussian noise of zero mean and power spectral
density N0/2, which is passed through an ideal band pass filter of pass band magnitude
response equal to one, mid band frequency fC, and band width 2B.And to determine the
auto correlation function of n (t) and its in-phase and Quadrature components we are
taking the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectral density. And finally the auto
correlation function of in-phase and Quadrature components are RNI(t)=RNQ
(t)=2N0Bsinc(2Bt)

Representation of Narrow Band noise in terms of Envelope and Phase components:

 We know that the Representation of a narrow band noise n (t) in terms of in-phase and
Quadrature components. We may also represent the noise n (t) in terms of its envelope
and phase components.

            n (t) = r (t) cos [2πfCt+y(t)]

Where

The function r(t) à envelope of n(t), y(t) à phase of n(t)

We may also represent that

            n (t) = nc (t) Coswct – nS (t) Sinwct

                      nc (t) à In phase

                      ns (t) à Quadrature Component.

The envelope r(t) and phase y(t) are both sample functions of low pass random processes. The
time interval between two successive peaks of the envelope r(t) is approximately 1/B,Where 2B
is the band width of the narrow band noise n(t).

 The probability distributions of r(t) and y(t) may be obtained from those of nI(t) and
nQ(t).Let NI and NQ denote the random variables obtained by observing the random
processes represented by the sample functions nI(t) and nQ(t) respectively. We note that
NI and NQ are independent Gaussian random variables of zero mean and  variance s2,and
so we may express their joint probability density function by

 Accordingly the probability of the joint event that NI lies between

      nI and nI+d nI and NQ lies between nQ and nQ+d nQ is given by,

    
    

 
 

By using the coordinate system representation of narrow band noise

In a limiting sense, we may equate the two incremental areas shown shaded in figure (a) and thus
we may write

 Now let R and y denote the random variables obtained by observing the random
processes represented by the envelope r (t) and phase y(t) respectively. Substituting the
equation (3),(4),(5) in equation(2),we find that the probability of the random variables R
and y lying jointly inside the shaded area of the figure(b) is equal to

 That is the joint probability density function of R and y is

 This probability density function is independent of the angle ,which means that the
random variables R,  are statistically independent. We may thus express fR, (r, ) as the
product of fR(r) and fy().In particular, the random variable  representing phase is
uniformly distributed inside the range 0 to 2p,as shown by
 

        This leaves the probability density function of the random variable R as

 Where s2 is the variance of the original narrow band noise n(t).A random variable having
the probability density function of equation(9) is said to be Rayleigh distribution. if we
represent in graphical representation then

                           fV(v) =s fR (r)

 Then we may rewrite the ray Leigh distribution of equation(9)in the normalized form

Unlike Gaussian distribution, ray Leigh distribution is zero for negative values of v.This is
because the envelope r(t) can assume only non negative values.

11. Explain about sine wave plus narrow band noise?       

 If we add the sinusoidal wave A Cos (2pfCt) to the narrow band noise n(t),where A and fC
both constsnts.We assume that the frequency of the sinusoidal wave is the same as the
nominal carrier frequency of the noise. A sample function of the sinusoidal wave plus
noise is then expressed by

                        x (t) = A Cos(2pfCt)+n(t)------(1)

Where A is the carrier amplitude.

 Representing  the narrow band noise n(t) in terms of its in-phase and Quadrature
components, we may write

 
 

We assume that n(t) is Gaussian with zero mean and variance s2.accordingly we may state the
following:

1. Both nI’(t) and nQ(t) are Gaussian and statistically independent.

2. The mean of nI’(t) is A and that nQ(t) is zero.
3. The variance of both nI’(t)and nQ(t) is s2.

 We may therefore express the joint probability density function of the random variables
NI’ and NQ,corresponding to nI’(t) and nQ(t),as follows:

 Let r(t)denote the envelope of x(t) andy(t) denote its phase. from equation(2) we thus find
that

 For the derivation of the ray Leigh distribution, we find that the joint probability density
function of the random variables R and y,corresponding to r(t) and  y(t) for some fixed
time t,is given by

Here R and y are dependent random variables for nonzero values of the amplitude A of the
sinusoidal wave component. To determine the probability density function we have to integrate
the equation (7) over all possible values of y obtaining the marginal density,

 
 

The integral in the right hand side of equation (8) can be identified in terms of the defining
integral for the m modified Bessel function of the first kind of zero order that
is,                               

 Thus,x=Ar/s2,and we may rewrite the equation(8) as,

 
          

This relation is called the Rician distribution.when we simplifying,

 
                                
fV(v) =s fR (r)

Then we may express the Rician distribution of equation (10) in the normalized form

When a is zero, the rician distribution reduces to the ray Leigh distribution.

 
12. Explain the characteristics of superhetrodyne receivers?

      [Nov-04,05][April-04]

 In a broadcasting system, irrespective of whether it is based on AM or FM, the receiver

not only has the task of demodulating the incoming modulated signal, but it is also
required to perform some other system functions.

1.  Carrier – frequency tuning à to select desired signal

2.  Filtering – To separate the desired signal.

3.  Amplification à which is intended to compensate the loss of signal power during
transmission.

 The super heterodyne Receiver is a special type of receiver which is particularly used in
all radio and T.V receivers.
 The receiver consists of a RF section a mixer and local OSC, an intermediate – frequency
(IF) section, Demodulator and power amplifier.  and there is separate frequency ranges
available for AM and FM

                                                AM Radio                                           FM Radio

RF carrier range             0.535 – 1.605MHZ                                      88-108MHZ

Midband frequency of

IF section                       0.455MHz                                                    10.7MHz

IF B.W                                       10KHz                                                         200KHz

Antenna
 

If we take the Block diagram of a AM super heterodyne Receiver,

 

 The incoming amplitude modulated wave is picked by the receiving antenna and
amplified and tuned to the particular incoming carrier frequency by RF section.
 The combination of mixer and Local Oscillator provides a heterodyning function, where
by the incoming signal is converted into predetermine fixed intermediate frequency,
usually lower than the incoming carrier frequency.
 This frequency translation is achieved without disturbing the relation of the sidebands to
the carrier

 Therefore fIF = fLO– fRF

            FLO à Local oscillation frequency,

            FRF à Incoming carrier frequency from RF section.

 Normally the mixer – Local oscillation is called as first detector and Demodulator is the
2nd detector.
  This IF section provides best selectivity in the receiver and this will be detected by an
envelope detector and the message signal is amplified and given to Loud Speaker.
 The basic difference between AM and FM super heterodyne Receiver is in FM detectors
we are using amplitude limiters and frequency discriminator because in FM we are
making the amplitude as constant.  So any change in amplitude will be limited by
amplitude Limiter.  The other functions are same.

13. Write short notes on Signal to noise ratio.

SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio):

 Signal to noise ratio is nothing but signal power to the noise power.
 We know that in a communication system, the message signal travels from the transmitter
to the receiver through a medium called channel.
 Now, noise is present in every communication system, in fact the channel introduces an
additive noise in the message signal and thus the message which is received at the
receiver is distorted.  Since the receivers receives both the message and noise signal.
 And the o/p contains the noise by the reproduction of message signal with noise.
 So we are calculating the signal power and noise power.  And the noise calculation in
common system is carried out in the form of figure of merit (g).
 The figure of merit ‘g’ may be defined as the ratio of o/p signal to noise ratio to input
signal to noise ratio to input signal to noise ratio of the receiver.

If g à is high, noise will be low.

 
 

 For calculating figure of merit we are taking the following assumptions as

i. Channel noise is always Gaussian that is independent on frequency that is constant.

ii. Channel noise is always additive, that is addition of signal x(t) and noise n(t)

iii. The i/p to the Demodulator is a Band pass noise.

14. Explain the noise in DSB-SC receiver using synchronous or 

      Coherent detection?[April-04]

                                              (OR)

     Calculate the figure of merit g for a DSB-SC system?

 We know that the DSB-Sc system uses coherent (or) synchronous detection scheme at the
receiver and figure shows the block diagram of DSB-SC System from noise point of
view.  and then we calculate the figure of merit as

S0ào/p Signal power, N0 à o/p Noise power at detector

Siài/p signal power, Ni à i/p Noise power at detector

 We know that we are detecting our original signal by synchronous detection method,
where as it is multiplied with a local Oscillator frequency which is in same phase with the
DSB-Sc signal i/p carrier frequency.

 In order to calculate the figure of merit in noise analysis we have to calculate the i/p and
o/p signal power, i/p and o/p noise power.

i. Input Signal Power:

 W.k.T the modulated DSB – SC signal is S(t) = x(t) Cos wct

And the signal power is the mean square value of x (t)

Hence

             Si=mean square value of S (t)

                      (Neglecting higher frequency terms) 

ii. Input Noise power Ni:

 The noise at the input of the receiver is a Gaussian noise in nature and this noise is passed
through the Band Pass filter.

 Then the o/p of Band pass filter is converted as Band pass noise and the band pass noise
is given as,

And the input noise power is calculated as,

 
  Neglecting higher order terms and equating the inphase component and Quadrature
component.

iii. output signal power:

 W.k.T the DSB-SC signal at i/p is multiplied with synchronous carrier Coswct.  Thus the
signal at the multiplier output is

            So (t) = e (t) = x (t) Coswct. Coswct

The signal is passed through Low Pass Filter are higher order terms is reduced.

The o/p signal power is calculated by mean square values.

              S0 = mean square value of S0(t)

iv. Output noise power:

 Now we will find the o/p noise power from detector.

 The i/p noise from narrow band filter is narrow band noise is multiplied with locally
generated carrier.

The o/p noise n0(t) is

 
When this signal is passed through Low pass filter, the higher order frequencies are neglected,
then

 O/p noise power N0 will be

  N0 = mean square value of no (t)

15. Explain the noise in SSB-SC receiver using

      Coherent detection?

                                              (OR)

     Calculate the figure of merit g for a SSB-SC system?

Noise in SSB – SC system using coherent detection:

 W.k.T the receiver of an SSB-SC System is similar to that for DSB-Sc system using
coherent Detection.

The only difference between DSB – SC and SSB –Sc system is Bandwidth is reduced halfely
compare to DSB –SC system.

So the evaluation procedure of figure of merit is similar to that of the DSB –SC system.
 

S0ào/p Signal power, N0 à o/p Noise power at detector

Siài/p signal power, Ni à i/p Noise power at detector

i. Input signal power:

 W.k.T the incoming signal to the SSB-SC receiver may be expressed as

            S (t) SSB = x (t) Coswct ± xh (t) Sinwct

And xh (t) à Hilbert transform

 I.e. we know the o/p of SSB system is the single side band and carrier suppressed o/p i.e.
o/p is à Cos(wc –wm) t à this means the upper sideband is suppressed.

(Or)  o/p = Cos (wc+wm) t à this means lower side band is suppressed.

Therefore Cos (wc –wm) t = CoswmCoswct + SinwmSinwctà  1

                  Cos (wc +wm) t = CoswmCoswct - SinwmSinwctà  2

 When we are combining both the equations

S (t)SSB =CoswmCoswct ± SinwmSinwct

 

 (+) represents lower sideband, (-) indicates upper sideband.

i.e.  Sinwmt = Cos (wm – π/2)

       SinwCt = Cos (wCt – π/2)

 π/2 indicates the phase shift.

 So the general expression is

                  S (t) SSB = x (t) CoswCt ± xh (t) SinwCt

Where x (t) = Coswmt, xh (t) = Phase shift of Coswmt and (+) signal corresponds to LSB and (-)
corresponds to USB

The I/p signal power   Si = mean square value of S(t) 

 
I/p noise power Ni:

 The noise power is same as DSB-SC system.  So according to the o/p of Band pass filter,
the noise is represented as,

And the input noise power is calculated as,

 Neglecting higher order terms and equating the inphase component and Quadrature
component.

O/p signal power (S0):

 W.k.T the incoming SSB signal is multiplied by a synchronous local carrier Coswct.

There fore O/p will be

e (t) = S0 (t) =(x (t) Coswct ± xh (t) Sinwct).Coswct

e (t) = S0 (t) =x (t) Cos2wct ± xh (t) Sinwct.Coswct

 O/p noise power No:

  W.k.T the o/p noise power is calculated as same as DSB-SC.

The input band pass noise is multiplied with synchronous carrier signal Coswct.

Therefore the multiplied signal nd (t) = ni (t). Coswct

nd (t) = [nc (t) Coswct – nS (t) Sinwct].Coswct

nd (t) = n0 (t) =nc (t) Cos2wct – nS (t) Sinwct.Coswct

 There fore the figure of merit of SSB-SC is

 From the figure of merit value of DSB-SC and SSB-SC we may note that there is no
improvement because DSB-SC having better SNR but i/p noise power is twice that of
SSB.And SSB – having Less SNR compare to DSB – SC.

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